Fort Ticonderoga

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Mattisse (talk | contribs) at 01:13, 5 May 2009 (Reverted 3 edits by 75.185.87.62 identified as vandalism to last revision by Magicpiano. (TW)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Template:FixBunching

Fort Ticonderoga
Detail of a 1758 map showing the fort's layout
Fort Ticonderoga is located in New York Adirondack Park
Fort Ticonderoga
LocationTiconderoga, NY
Nearest cityBurlington, VT
Area21,950 acres (87.0 km²)
Built1755–1758
ArchitectMarquis de Lotbinière
Architectural styleVauban-style fortress
NRHP reference No.66000519
Significant dates
Added to NRHPOctober 15, 1966[1]
Designated NHLOctober 9, 1960[2]

Template:FixBunching

Template:FixBunching

Fort Ticonderoga is a large eighteenth-century fort built at a narrows near the south end of Lake Champlain in upstate New York. The site controls a portage between Lake Champlain and Lake George that was strategically important during the 18th-century colonial conflicts between Great Britain and France. At stake were commonly-used trade routes between the English-controlled Hudson River Valley and the French-controlled Saint Lawrence River Valley. The name "Ticonderoga" comes from an Iroquois word tekontaró:ken, meaning "it is at the junction of two waterways".[3]

The French, who called it Fort Carillon, constructed the fort between 1755 and 1758, during the French and Indian War. The fort attained a reputation of impregnability during the 1758 Battle of Carillon when an attack by 16,000 British troops near the fort was repelled by 4,000 French defenders. In 1759, the British returned, and drove a token French garrison from the fort merely by occupying high ground that threatened the fort. During the American Revolutionary War the fort again saw action in May 1775 when it was captured in a surprise attack by the Green Mountain Boys and other state militia commanded by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold. Americans held it until June 1777, when British forces under General John Burgoyne again occupied high ground above the fort and threatened the Continental Army, leading it to withdraw from the fort and its surrounding defenses. The only direct attack on the fort took place during the British occupation of the fort in September 1777, when John Brown led 500 Americans in an attempt to capture the fort from about 100 British defenders.

The fort was abandoned by the British following the failure of the Saratoga campaign, and ceased to be of any notable military value after 1781. It fell into ruins, was stripped of some of its usable stone, metal and woodwork, and became a stop on tourist routes of the area in the 19th century. The fort was restored by its private owners early in the 20th century, and is now operated by a foundation as a tourist attraction, museum, and research center.

Geography and early history

Lake Champlain, which forms part of the border between New York and Vermont, and the Hudson River together formed an important travel route that was used by Indians before the arrival of European colonists. The route was relatively free of obstacles to navigation, with only a few portages. One strategically important place on the route lies at a narrows near the southern end of Lake Champlain, where Ticonderoga Creek, known in Colonial times as the La Chute River, enters the lake, carrying water from Lake George. Although the site provides commanding views of the southern extent of Lake Champlain, Mount Defiance, at Template:Ft to m, and two other hills (Mount Hope and Mount Independence) overlook the area.[4]

Engraving after a 1609 drawing by Champlain of an Indian battle near Ticonderoga

Indians had occupied the area for years before French explorer Samuel Champlain first arrived there in 1609. Champlain recounted that the Algonquins, with whom he was traveling, battled a group of Iroquois nearby.[5] In 1642, French missionary Isaac Jogues was the first white man to traverse the portage at Ticonderoga while escaping a battle between the Iroquois and members of the Huron tribe.[6]

The French, who had colonized the Saint Lawrence River valley to the north, and the English, who had taken over the Dutch settlements that became the Province of New York to the south, began contesting the area as early as 1691, when Pieter Schuyler built a small wooden fort at the Ticonderoga point on the western shore of the lake.[7] These colonial conflicts reached their height in the French and Indian War, which began in 1754.

Construction

A 1777 map depicting Lake Champlain and the upper Hudson River

In 1755, following the Battle of Lake George, the Marquis de Vaudreuil, the governor of the French Province of Canada, sent Michel Chartier de Lotbinière to design and construct a fortification at this militarily important site, which the French called Fort Carillon.[8] The name "Carillon" has variously been attributed to the name of a former French officer, Philippe de Carrion du Fresnoy, who established a trading post at the site in the late 17th century,[9] or (more commonly) to the sounds made by the La Chute River, which were said to resemble the chiming bells of a carillon.[10] Construction on the star-shaped fort, which Lotbinière based on the designs of Vauban, began in October 1755, and then proceeded slowly during the warmer-weather months of 1756 and 1757, using troops stationed at nearby Fort St. Frédéric and from Canada.[11][12]

The work in 1755 consisted primarily of beginning construction on the main walls and the Lotbinière redoubt, an outwork to the west of the site that provided additional cover of the La Chute River. In 1756, the four main bastions were built, as was a sawmill on the La Chute. Work slowed in 1757, when many of the troops were employed preparing for, or participating in, the attack on Fort William Henry, and the barracks and demi-lunes were not completed until spring 1758.[13]

Walls and bastions

The fort's primary purpose was to control the south end of Lake Champlain, preventing the British from gaining military access to the lake. Consequently, its most important defenses, the Reine and Germaine bastions, were directed to the northeast and northwest, away from the lake, with demi-lunes further extending the works on the land side. The Joannes and Languedoc bastions overlooked the lake to the south, providing cover for the landing area outside the fort. The walls were seven feet (2.1 meters) high and fourteen feet (4.3 meters) thick, and the whole works was surrounded by a glacis and a dry moat five feet (1.5 meters) deep and 15 feet (4.6 m) wide. When the walls were first erected in 1756, they were made of squared wooden timbers, with earth filling the gap. The French then began to dress the walls with stone from a quarry about one mile (1.6 km) away, although this work was never fully completed.[10] When the main defenses became ready for use, the fort was armed with cannons hauled from Montreal and Fort St. Frédéric.[14][15]

Inside and outside

Inside the fort there were three barracks and four storehouses. One bastion held a bakery capable of producing 60 loaves of bread per day. A powder magazine was hacked out of the bedrock beneath the Joannes bastion. All of the construction within the fort was of stone.[10]

Outside the fort, between the southern wall and the lake shore, was an area protected by a wooden palisade. In addition to the main landing area for the fort, it contained additional storage facilities and other works necessary for maintenance of the fort.[10] When it became apparent in 1756 that the fort had been sited too far to the west of the lake, an additional redoubt was constructed to the east to provide cannon coverage over the narrows of the lake.[16]

Analysis

The fort was largely completed by 1758; the only ongoing work thereafter was dressing the walls with stone. General Montcalm and two of his military engineers surveyed the works in 1758, and found something to criticize in almost every aspect of the fort's construction. Buildings were built too high (and thus easier to bomb); the powder magazine leaked; the masonry was of poor quality.[17] The critics apparently failed to notice the significant strategic weakness of its position—that there were several significant hills whose heights commanded the fort.[18] Lotbinière, who may have been awarded the job of building the fort only because he was related to Vaudreuil, had lost a bid to become Canada's chief engineer to one of those engineers in 1756, all of which may explain the highly negative report; his career suffered for years afterwards.[19]

William Nester, in his exhaustive analysis of the Battle of Carillon, notes additional problems with the fort's construction. The fort was small (about 500 feet (150 m) wide) for a Vauban-style fort, with a barracks capable of holding only 400 soldiers. Storage space inside the fort was similarly limited, requiring the storage of provisions outside the fort's walls in exposed places. Its cistern was also small, and the water quality was supposedly poor.[20][21]

Military history

Restored manuscript map, dated May 29, 1759, for the British plan of attack at the 1759 Battle of Ticonderoga

French and Indian War

Main articles: Battle of Carillon and Battle of Ticonderoga (1759)

In August 1757, the French captured Fort William Henry in an action launched from Fort Carillon.[22] This, and a string of other French victories in 1757, prompted the British to organize a truly large-scale attack on the fort as part of a multi-campaign strategy against French Canada.[23] In June 1758, British General James Abercromby began amassing a large force at Fort William Henry in preparation for the military campaign directed up the Champlain Valley. These forces landed at the north end of Lake George, only four miles from the fort, on July 6.[24] The French general Louis-Joseph de Montcalm, who had only arrived at Carillon in late June, engaged his troops in a flurry of work to improve the fort's outer defenses. They built, over two days, entrenchments around a rise between the fort and Mount Hope, about three-quarters of a mile (one kilometer) northwest of the fort, and then constructed an abatis (felled trees with sharpened branches pointing out) below these entrenchments.[25] Abercromby's failure to advance directly to the fort on July 7 made much of this defensive work possible. (Abercromby's second-in-command, Brigadier General George Howe, had been killed when his column encountered a French reconnaissance troop. Abercromby "felt [Howe's death] most heavily" and may have been unwilling to act immediately.)[26]

On July 8, 1758, Abercromby ordered a frontal attack against the hastily assembled French works. Abercromby tried to move rapidly against the few French defenders, opting to forgo field cannon and relying instead on the numerical superiority of his 16,000 troops. In the Battle of Carillon, the British were soundly defeated by the 4,000 French defenders.[27] The battle took place far enough away from the fort that its guns were rarely used.[28] The battle gave the fort a reputation of impregnability, which had an impact on future military operations in the area, notably during the American Revolutionary War.[29] Following the French victory, Montcalm, anticipating further British attacks, ordered additional work on the defenses, including the construction of the Germain and Pontleroy redoubts (named for the engineers under whose direction they were constructed) to the northeast of the fort.[30][31] However, the British did not attack again in 1758, so the French withdrew all but a small garrison of men for the winter in November.[32]

The fort was captured the following year by the British under General Jeffrey Amherst in the 1759 Battle of Ticonderoga. In this confrontation 11,000 British troops, using emplaced artillery, drove off a token garrison of 400 Frenchmen. The French, in withdrawing, used explosives to destroy what they could of the fort,[33] and spiked or dumped cannons that they did not take with them. Although the British worked in 1759 and 1760 to repair and improve the fort,[34] the fort saw no more significant action in the war. After the war, the British garrisoned it with a small numbers of troops, and allowed it to fall into disrepair. Colonel Frederick Haldimand, in command of the fort in 1773, wrote that it was in "ruinous condition".[35]

Early Revolutionary War

Main articles: Capture of Fort Ticonderoga and Invasion of Canada (1775)

In 1775, Fort Ticonderoga was still manned by a token force and in disrepair. On May 10, 1775, less than one month after the American Revolutionary War was ignited with the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the British garrison of 48 soldiers was surprised by a small force of Green Mountain Boys, along with militia volunteers from Massachusetts and Connecticut, led by Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold.[36] Allen claims to have said, "Come out you old Rat!" to the fort's commander, Captain William Delaplace.[37] He also later said that he demanded that the British commander surrender the fort "In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!"; however, his surrender demand was made to Lieutenant Jocelyn Feltham and not the fort's commander, who did later appear and surrender his sword.[37] With the capture of the fort, the Patriot forces obtained a large supply of cannons and other armaments, much of which Henry Knox had transported to Boston during the winter of 1775–1776. Ticonderoga's cannons were instrumental in ending the Siege of Boston when they were used to fortify Dorchester Heights.[38] Arnold remained in control of the fort until 1,000 Connecticut troops under the command of Benjamin Hinman arrived in June 1775. Due to a series of political maneuvers and miscommunications, Arnold was never notified that Hinman was to take command. After a delegation from Massachusetts (which had issued Arnold's commission) arrived to clarify the matter, Arnold resigned his commission and departed, leaving the fort in Hinman's hands.[39]

Ethan Allen, demanding that the fort be surrendered

Beginning in July 1775, Ticonderoga was used as a staging area for the invasion of Quebec that began in September. Under the leadership of Generals Philip Schuyler and Richard Montgomery, men and materials for the invasion accumulated there through July and August.[40] On August 28, after receiving word that British forces at Fort Saint-Jean, not far from the New York–Quebec border, were nearing completion of boats to launch onto Lake Champlain, Montgomery launched the invasion, leading 1,200 troops down the lake.[41] Ticonderoga continued to serve as a staging base for the action in Quebec until the battle and siege at Quebec City that resulted in Montgomery's death.[42]

In May 1776, British troops began to arrive at Quebec City, where they broke the Continental Army's siege.[43] The British chased the American forces back to Ticonderoga in June, and, after several months of shipbuilding, moved down Lake Champlain under Guy Carleton in October. The British destroyed a small fleet of American gunboats in the Battle of Valcour Island in mid-October, but snow was already falling, so the British retreated to winter quarters in Quebec. About 1,700 troops from the Continental Army, under the command of Colonel Anthony Wayne, wintered at Ticonderoga.[42][44] The British offensive resumed the next year in the Saratoga campaign under General John Burgoyne.[45]

Saratoga Campaign

Main article: Battle of Ticonderoga (1777)

During the summer of 1776, the Americans, under the direction of General Schuyler, and later under General Horatio Gates, added substantial defensive works to the area. Mount Independence, which is almost completely surrounded by water, was fortified with trenches near the water, a horseshoe battery part way up the side, a citadel at the summit, and redoubts armed with cannons surrounding the summit area. These defenses were linked to Ticonderoga with a pontoon bridge that was protected by land batteries on both sides. The works on Mount Hope, the heights above the site of Montcalm's victory, were improved to include a star-shaped fort. Mount Defiance remained unfortified.[46]

Fort Ticonderoga as seen from Lake Champlain

In March 1777, American generals were strategizing about possible British military movements, and considered an attempt on the Hudson River corridor a likely possibility. General Schuyler, heading the forces stationed at Ticonderoga, requested 10,000 troops to guard Ticonderoga and 2,000 to guard the Mohawk River valley against British invasion from the north. George Washington, who had never been to Ticonderoga (his only visit was in 1783),[47] believed that an overland attack from the north was unlikely, due to the alleged impregnability of Ticonderoga.[29] This, combined with continuing incursions up the Hudson River valley by British forces occupying New York City, led Washington to believe that any attack on the Albany area would be from the south, which, as it was part of the supply line to Ticonderoga, would necessitate a withdrawal from the fort. As a result, no significant actions were taken to further fortify Ticonderoga or significantly increase its garrison.[48] The garrison, about 2,000 men under General Arthur St. Clair, was too small to man all of the defenses.[49]

General Gates, who oversaw the northern defenses, was aware that Mount Defiance presented a problem in attempts to defend the fort.[50] John Trumbull had pointed this out as early as 1776, when a shot fired from the fort was able to reach Defiance's summit, and several officers inspecting the hill noted that there were approaches to its summit where gun carriages could be pulled up the sides.[50] As the garrison was too small to properly defend all of the existing works in area, Mount Defiance was left undefended.[51] Anthony Wayne left Ticonderoga in April 1777 to join Washington's army; he reported to Washington that "all was well", and that the fort "can never be carried, without much loss of blood".[52]

"Where a goat can go, a man can go; and where a man can go, he can drag a gun."

British Major General William Phillips, as his men brought cannon to the top of Mt. Defiance in 1777

General Burgoyne led 7,800 British and Hessian forces south from Quebec in June 1777.[53] After occupying nearby Fort Crown Point without opposition on June 30, they prepared to besiege Ticonderoga.[54] Burgoyne realized the tactical advantage of the high ground, and had his troops haul cannons to the top of Mount Defiance. Faced with bombardment from the heights (even before any shots had been fired from those cannons), General St. Clair ordered Ticonderoga abandoned on July 5, 1777. Burgoyne's troops moved in the next day,[55] with advance guards pursuing the retreating Americans.[56] Washington, on hearing of Burgoyne's advance and the retreat from Ticonderoga, stated that the event was "not apprehended, nor within the compass of my reasoning".[57] News of the abandonment of the "Impregnable Bastion" without a fight, caused "the greatest surprise and alarm" throughout the colonies.[58] After public outcry over his actions, General St. Clair was court-martialed in 1778. He was cleared on all charges.[57]

One last attack

Following the British capture of Ticonderoga, it and the surrounding defenses were garrisoned by 700 British and Hessian troops under the command of Brigadier General Henry Watson Powell. Most of these forces were on Mount Independence, with only 100 each at Fort Ticonderoga and a blockhouse they were constructing on top of Mount Defiance.[59] George Washington sent General Benjamin Lincoln into the New Hampshire Grants to "divide and distract the enemy".[60] Aware that Fort Ticonderoga housed American prisoners, Lincoln decided to test the British defenses. On September 13, he sent 500 men to Skenesboro, which the British had abandoned, and 500 each against the defenses on either side of the lake at Ticonderoga. Colonel John Brown led the troops on the west side, with instructions to release the prisoners if possible, and attack the fort if it seemed feasible.[61]

Early on September 18, Brown's troops surprised the British contingent holding prisoners near the Lake George landing, while a detachment of his troops snuck up Mount Defiance, and captured most of the sleeping construction crew. Brown and his men the moved down the portage trail toward the fort, surprising more troops and releasing prisoners along the way.[62] The fort's occupants were unaware of the action until Brown's men and British troops occupying the old French lines skirmished. At this point Brown's men dragged two six-pound guns, captured earlier, up to the lines, and began firing on the fort. The men who had captured Mount Defiance began firing a twelve-pounder from that site.[63]

John Trumbull's depiction of the Surrender of General Burgoyne at Saratoga

The column that was to attack Mount Independence was delayed, and its numerous defenders were alerted to the action at the fort below before the attack on their position began. Their musket fire, as well as grapeshot fired from ships anchored nearby, intimidated the Americans sufficiently that they never launched an assault on the defensive positions on Mount Independence.[63] A stalemate persisted, with regular exchanges of cannon fire, until September 21, when 100 Hessians, returning from the Mohawk Valley to support Burgoyne, arrived on the scene to provide reinforcement to the besieged fort.[64] Brown eventually sent a truce party to the fort to open negotiations; the party was fired on, and three of its five members were killed.[65] Brown, realizing that the weaponry they had was insufficient to take the fort, decided to withdraw. Destroying many bateaux and seizing a ship on Lake George, he set off to annoy British positions on that lake.[65] His action resulted in the freeing of 118 Americans and the capture of 293 British troops, while suffering fewer than ten casualties.[63]

Abandonment

Following Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga, the fort at Ticonderoga became increasingly irrelevant. The British abandoned it and nearby Fort Crown Point in November 1777, destroying both as best they could prior to their withdrawal.[66] The fort was occasionally reoccupied by British raiding parties in the following years, but it no longer held a prominent strategic role in the war. It was finally abandoned by the British for good in 1781, following the surrender at Yorktown.[67] Area residents began stripping the fort of usable building materials, even melting some of the cannons down for their metal in the years following the war.[68]

Tourist attraction

Thomas Cole's Gelyna, View near Ticonderoga

In 1785, the fort's lands became the property of the state of New York. The state donated the property to Columbia and Union Colleges in 1803,[69] who sold it to William Ferris Pell in 1820.[70] Pell first used the property as a summer retreat, but the completion of railroads and canals connecting the area to New York City brought tourists to the area,[71] so he converted his summer house, known as The Pavilion, into a hotel to serve the tourist trade. In 1848, the Hudson River School artist Russell Smith painted Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga, depicting the condition of the fort.[72]

The Pell family, a politically important clan with influence throughout American history (from William C. C. Claiborne, the first Governor of Louisiana, to a Senator from Rhode Island, Claiborne Pell), restored the fort in 1909 and formally opened it to the public. The ceremonies, which commemorated the 300th anniversary of the discovery of Lake Champlain by European explorers, were attended by President William Howard Taft.[73] Stephen Pell, who spearheaded the restoration effort, founded the Fort Ticonderoga Association in 1931, which is now responsible for the fort.[74] Between 1900 and 1950, the historically important lands around the fort, including Mount Defiance, Mount Independence, and much of Mount Hope, were also acquired by the foundation.[75] The fort was rearmed with fourteen 24-pound cannons provided by the British government. These cannons had been cast in England for use during the Revolution, but the war ended before they were shipped over.[76]

A view of the restored Fort Ticonderoga

The fort is now a tourist attraction, early American military museum, and research center. The fort opens around May 10, the anniversary of the 1775 capture, every year, closing in late October.[77] It has been on a watchlist of National Historic Landmarks since 1998, due to the poor condition of some of the walls and the 19th-century pavilion constructed by William Ferris Pell.[2] The pavilion is, as of early 2009, undergoing restoration. In 2008, the powder magazine destroyed by the French in 1759 was recreated, based in part on the original 1755 plans.[78] Also in 2008, the withdrawal of a major backer's financial support forced the museum, facing significant budget deficits, to consider selling one of its major art works, Thomas Cole's Gelyna, View near Ticonderoga. However, fundraising activities succeeded in making this unnecessary.[79]

Memorials

The name Ticonderoga has been given to five different U.S. Navy vessels and entire classes of cruisers and aircraft carriers.[80][81] The fort was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960.[2] Included in the landmarked area are the fort itself, as well as Mount Independence and Mount Defiance.[82] It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966.[2] The Ticonderoga pencil, manufactured by the Dixon Ticonderoga Corporation, is named for the fort.[83]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ National Register Information System
  2. ^ a b c d NHL summary webpage
  3. ^ Afable, p. 193
  4. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 2
  5. ^ Lonergan (1959), pp. 5–8
  6. ^ Lonergan (1959), pp. 9–10
  7. ^ Lonergan (1959), pp. 15,18
  8. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 17
  9. ^ Ketchum, p. 29
  10. ^ a b c d Nester, p. 110
  11. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 22
  12. ^ Stoetzel, p. 297
  13. ^ Lonergan (1959), pp. 19–25
  14. ^ Kaufmann, pp. 75–76
  15. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 19
  16. ^ Chartrand, p. 36
  17. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 25
  18. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 26
  19. ^ Thorpe
  20. ^ Nester, p. 111
  21. ^ Ketchum, p. 28
  22. ^ Anderson (2005), pp. 109–115
  23. ^ Anderson (2005), p. 126
  24. ^ Anderson (2005), p. 132
  25. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 242
  26. ^ Anderson (2005), p. 135
  27. ^ Anderson (2005), pp. 135–138
  28. ^ Chartrand and Nester, both detailed treatments of the battle, describe only one brief time period during the battle when the cannons on the southwest bastion were fired at an attempted British maneuver on the river.
  29. ^ a b Furneaux, p. 51
  30. ^ ASHPS Annual Report 1913, p. 619
  31. ^ Stoetzel, p. 453
  32. ^ Atherton, p. 419
  33. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 56
  34. ^ Kaufmann, pp. 90–91
  35. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 59
  36. ^ Martin, pp. 70–72
  37. ^ a b Martin, p. 71
  38. ^ Martin, p. 73
  39. ^ Martin, pp. 80–97
  40. ^ Smith, Vol 1, pp. 252–270
  41. ^ Smith (1907), Vol 1, p. 320
  42. ^ a b These events are recounted in detail in Smith (1907), Vol 2.
  43. ^ Smith (1907), Vol 2, p. 316
  44. ^ Hamilton, p. 165
  45. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 101
  46. ^ Lonergan (1959), pp. 97–99
  47. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 123
  48. ^ Furneaux, p. 52
  49. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 99
  50. ^ a b Furneaux, pp. 54–55
  51. ^ Furneaux, p. 55
  52. ^ Furneaux, p. 58
  53. ^ Furneaux, p. 47
  54. ^ Furneaux, pp. 49, 57
  55. ^ Furneaux, pp. 65–67
  56. ^ Furneaux, p. 74
  57. ^ a b Furneaux, p. 88
  58. ^ Dr. James Thacher, quoted in Furneaux, p. 88
  59. ^ Hamilton, pp. 215–216
  60. ^ Hamilton, p. 216
  61. ^ Hamilton, p. 217
  62. ^ Hamilton, p. 218
  63. ^ a b c Hamilton, p. 219
  64. ^ Hamilton, p. 220
  65. ^ a b Hamilton, p. 222
  66. ^ Crego, p. 70
  67. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 122
  68. ^ Pell, p. 91
  69. ^ Hamilton, p. 226
  70. ^ Crego, p. 76
  71. ^ Crego, p. 73
  72. ^ Crego, p. 75
  73. ^ Lonergan (1959), p. 124
  74. ^ Hamilton, p. 230
  75. ^ Lonergan (1959), pp. 125–127
  76. ^ Pell, pp. 108–109
  77. ^ Fort Hours
  78. ^ Foster
  79. ^ Albany Times Union, 2008-12-18
  80. ^ Bauer, pp. 36, 65, 67, 118, 119, 217, 218
  81. ^ US Office of Naval Records, p. 106
  82. ^ Ashton
  83. ^ Dixon Ticonderoga Corporation

References

Fort history sources

  • Chartrand, Rene (2008). The Forts of New France in Northeast America 1600–1763. New York: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 9781846032554. OCLC 191891156.
  • Crego, Carl R. (2004). Fort Ticonderoga. Charleston, South Carolina: Arcadia Publishing. ISBN 9780738535029. OCLC 56032864.
  • Kaufmann, J. E. (2004). Fortress America: The Forts that Defended America, 1600 to the Present. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Da Capo Press. ISBN 9780306812941. OCLC 56912995. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Hamilton, Edward (1964). Fort Ticonderoga, Key to a Continent. Boston: Little, Brown. OCLC 965281.
  • Lonergan, Carroll Vincent (1959). Ticonderoga, Historic Portgage. Ticonderoga, New York: Fort Mount Hope Society Press. OCLC 2000876.
  • Pell, Stephen (1966). Fort Ticonderoga:A Short History. Ticonderoga, New York: Fort Ticonderoga Museum. OCLC 848305.

Battle history sources

Other sources

External links

Media related to Fort Ticonderoga at Wikimedia Commons


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fort_Ticonderoga&oldid=287964824"