Ceremonial Drum of the Senufo People

The Senufo people whom live along the Ivory Coast in Africa created the ceremonial drum. The drum represents various aspects of tradition and life for certain Senufo communities. The construction of the drum is particularly indicative of the roles of women within Senufo communities and how they seen as "preservers of life" those that hold up the structure and spirituality which govern their world. In fact, of the four Senufo societies, which educate and govern the individual acts of people, the divination governing sandogo society is composed mostly of women. It is worth noting that Senufo culture is matrilineal and certain societal positions such as the artisans, are determined by matrilineal inheritance. While ruled by elder male leaders, one's place in society, as well as their position for the future, is determined by the lineage of the mother. The ceremonial drum owned and housed in the Art Institute of Chicago epitomizes Senufo culture, and it is through drum's embellished designs that viewers are exposed to core beliefs of the Senufo, particularly, in how women are seen as guardians of divinity and supporting foundations of society for the Senufo.

Senufo People

See also: Senufo languages

Senufo
Senoufo
Geographic distribution	northern Ivory Coast, southern Mali, southwestern Burkina Faso, western Ghana
Linguistic classification	Niger–Congo? Atlantic–Congo Senufo
Subdivisions	Suppire–Mamara Karaboro Senari Kpalaga (Palaka) Tagwana–Djimini Nafaanra
Language codes
Glottolog	senu1239
Map of the Senufo language area showing the major groups and some neighbouring languages.

The term Senufo refers to a linguistic group comprising roughly thirty related dialects within the larger Gur language family. Specifically, at least four distinct languages are known to be spoken widely by the Senufo: Palaka(also spelt Kpalaga), Djimini(also spelt Dyimini), and Senari in Côte d'Ivoire and Suppire( also spelt Supyire) in Mali, as well as Karaboro in Burkina Faso. Within each group, numerous subdivisions use their own names for the people and language; the name Senufo is of external origin. Palaka separated from the main Senufo stock well before the 14th century ad; at about that time, with the founding of the town of Kong as a Bambara trade-route station, the rest of the population began migrations to the south, west, and north, resulting in the present divisions.The Senufo speaking people range from 800,000 to one million and live in agricultural based communities predominately located in the Côte d'Ivoire, West Africa, Africa. As agriculturalists, they cultivate a wide variety of crops, including cotton and cash crops for the international market. As musicians, they are world renowned, playing a multitude of instruments from: wind instruments (Aerophones), stringed instruments (Chordaphones) and percussive instruments (Membranophones). Senufo communities utilize a caste system, each division known as a katioula. In this system the farmers known as Fo no, and the artisans at the opposite ends of the spectrum. The term artisan itself encompasses different individual castes within Senufo society including blacksmiths (Kule), carvers (Kpeene), brasscutters (Tyeli), potterers, and leather workers, whose lives revolve around the roles, responsibilities and structures inhabited by the individual class. Training to become an artisan takes about seven or eight years; commencing with an apprenticeship where the trainees create objects unassociated with the religion of the Senufo, then culminating with an initiation process where they obtain the ability to create ritual object.

The Senufo people usually fall within four societies in their culture, Poro, Sandogo, Wambele, and Tyekpa. While all the societies fill particular roles in the governance and education of the Senufo people, the Poro and Sandogo. Spirituality and divination are divided between these two gender imperative societies with men falling under the Poro society and women falling under the Sando or Sandogo society, with the exception of men who are members because of their mother. These societies are also the two which create the majority of commissioned Seunfo art.

Caryatid Figure used during used during tyekpa society funeral cere monies along with Ceremonial Drums

"The main function of Poro is to guarantee a good relationship between the living world and the ancestors. Nerejao is an ancestress who is recognized as the true head of the Poro society. Divination, which is governed by the Sandogo society, is also an important part of Senufo religion. Although Sandogo is usually considered a women's society, men who are called to the profession and inherit through the matrilineal line are permitted to become diviners."

Within Senufo culture, the female form is placed above all others in terms of beauty and aesthetics and caryatid figures are seen with various cultural connotations. This is tied into the worship of the spirit "Ancient Mother" or the spirit "mother", Maleeo, who is revered as a guiding entity by all Poro society initiates and members. The goddess Maleeo is a partner of the god Kolocolo, who is seen as the identifying deity of the Sandogo, who granted the people marriage and this particular type of lineage to allow communication from humanity and the spirit world. Caryatid figures are seen as representations of the role of women as spiritual mediators and the Sandogo utilize them in ceremonies as symbols of this bilateral celestial discourse. Likewise, in the case of the Poro, there are writings about caryatid figures being used in ceremonies where they are brought out to commemorate the advance in the age-grade cycle, as well as being utilized to raise funds by initiates of the society. The figure to the right would likely have been used in a tyekpa funeral ceremony as dance sculpture, held upon the head of the dancers while the ceremony takes place.

Provenance

The Art Institute of Chicago, the current owners of the Senufo Ceremonial Drum.

The drum is thought to have been made within a Senufo community, in the Ivory Coast, sometime between the years of 1930 and 1950. The style is similar to that of the Kulebele artisans, known in particular for traveling to the commissioning patron in order to complete their work in person. The drums iconography and bas-relief motfis indicate the drum as having been most likely manufactured in eastern Kulebele settlements of the Mbengue region, where similar caryatid designs have been located by researchers. The aesthetic of the drum has been appreciated within collections and exhibitions, since its acquisition by Charles Ratton in 1957. Charles Ratton, a famous art dealer in his own right, recognized the importance aesthetic elements, which lay within the untapped realm of African art, and pushed for its display across the art world. The first record of exhibition of the object is at Cannes, France, Palais Miramar, Arts d'Afrique et d'Oceanie, from July 6 till Sept. 29, 1957. In 1963, the ceremonial drum began a tour of the American museums, which were just opening up to appreciating African art as more than just an exotic fascination; New York, Museum of Primitive Art, Senufo Sculpture from West Africa (Feb. 20–Mar. 5, 1963); traveled to Art Institute of Chicago (July 12–Aug. 11, 1963), Baltimore Museum of Art, (Sept. 17-Oct. 27, 1963) cat. no. 117 (not ill.) In 1965 the object was sold to |Harry A. Franklin, relocating to Beverly Hills, California from the museum shelves. However, it was not long before it was again displayed publicly in Berkeley, Calif., Lowie Museum, African Arts, 1967. It made its final appearance under the ownership of Harry A. Franklin, at the Smithsonian Institution exhibit, "Sounding Forms: African Musical Instruments", from Apr. 26–June 18, 1989 It was then sold at Sotheby’s, New York to the Art Institute of Chicago where it has been displayed for various exhibits such as; "Senufo Woman and Art: A Caryatid Drum" (Apr. 27–Oct. 27, 1991), and "For Hearth and Altar: African Ceramics" (Dec. 3, 2005–Feb. 20, 2006). Currently, the object is on exhibition being shown in Cleveland and St. Louis for the exhibit, "Senufo: Dynamics of Art and Identity in West Africa", but it will return after March 6^th.

Construction

Drum Construction

Example of a Senufo Punge Drum

The construction of the drum is unique; in the manner of its construction, the use of symbols, and even the colors used to decorate it. The drum itself has two main stylistic regional influences, the first being Western Sudanic, and the second being from the Guinea Coast. The drum is carved from a single piece of wood, made into a large vase shape and carved in bas-relief. The drum is supported by seated female who appears similar to Greek caryatid figures that would take the place of columns supporting entablatures upon their heads. As for the design of the caryatid figure, one can observe scarification marks on her face and abdomen; along with bracelets and carefully styled hair indicating high community status. The woman figure is further depicted as seated on four-legged stool reflecting a position of honor within the community, while the calm expression denotes the acknowledgement of the responsibility that she has within the community. This observation is derived from the fact that women are seen as the "preservers of life" within Senufo communities. They are seen as those that hold up the structure and spirituality, which govern their world. The drum contains on its surface many images which each denote their own individual meaning. There are snakes associated with divination; a male warrior with raised arms; a water snake attacking a tortoise which represents knowledge of medicine and sorcery, and how important winning is in hoeing contests; a male figure seated on a horse, holding a lance; a bird considered noble by the Senufo and a lizard/ crocodile carved in low-relief, considered to be one of the first creatures to inhabit the earth. These scenes and bas-relief designs demonstrate the universe of visual motifs that exist as part of Senufo visual and symbolic language. The theme of these motifs is regarding the role of knowledge and power within a world with competing spiritual and temporal forces.

Example of in base relief carving on a door by the Kulebele

The drum itself is classified as a Membranophone meaning that the sound is produced by creating a vibration in the membrane, or drum head.The membrane or drumhead is made from an unknown hide, affixed by seven wooden pegs, to a wooden drum indicative of the Kulebele wood carvers; a Senufo group known for traveling to work on location for their patrons. The drum is a rare find, and until the 1993 there was only one other recorded and observed case of a drum with such a closely related style, and similar female caryatid figure. As of now, there are at least two other drums which share likeness to the one located at the Art Institute; the first being located in the National Museum in Abidjan, Ivory Coast ; the second, located, whose existence is only evident by a 1981 photograph taken in a Kasembele village neighboring the Mbengue Kulebele sculptors.

Makers of the Drum: The Kulebele carvers

The Kulebele Carvers form part of one of the oldest trade commercial networks of the Côte d'Ivoire with recorded migration the area as early as the eighteenth century. The Kulebele are well known throughout West Africa for their unique and detailed work on masks, statues, and artifacts for religious activities. The Kulebele carver who worked on this drum likely worked during the 1930s and 1940s, however it is possible that construction began as early as the 1920s. A distinctive characteristic of the Senufo Kulebele style is the use of bas-relief motifs utilizing animal iconography. The base-relief motifs and iconography evident found on the caryatid drum can be found in other Kulebele works, including the doors (to the right) made by western Kulebele workshops. However, Kulebele work does not only reside in Senufo culture. Since the 1940s the Kulebele have diversified their production, in order to sell their work to the changing tourist markets. This expansion has led away from the Senufo work, towards working Asante combs, Baule figures, and Dan masks.

Uses

The drum in Senufo communities has many uses from ritual agricultural events, commemorating competitions, to being played to honor women of status at their funerals. The symbols and construction of the drum show the importance of divination within Senufo Society and of the role of women. The drum itself is a visual demonstration of how women and divination are intertwined tying to its construction as well as its use. While the majority of Membranophone drums are associated with males for agricultural competition based purposes and some ceremonial occasions, caryatid drums such as this one, are notable for their playing by women for funerary commencement within the Sandogo and the Poro Societies.

Agricultural Purpose

The members of a ton villa (a farming centered group consisting of young men and women) utilize music within agricultural competitions as a means of managing work productivity. The music itself creates a competitive atmosphere where each member attempts to out do the other. In hoeing competitions for example:

"The competitors raise their hoes above their shoulders and bend low to cut deep into the soil. The quality of their work is as important as their speed. Women of the ton vala provide an important part of the music as they sing and play sichaala and sichaa-gun-go gourd rattles. Whether they join a djegele ensemble in the field, or sing as an independent group, they encourage the spirit of competition through songs of praise for each man's efforts. As the young farmers hoe their way through the fields, the musicians follow."

Ceremonial and Divination Purposes

Senufo culture is matrilineal, with certain positions such as the artisans being determined by matrilineal inheritance. Of the four Senufo societies, which educate and govern the individual acts of people, the divination governing sandogo society is, notwithstanding those few men who inherit the position, mostly women. While ruled by elder male leaders, ones place in society, as well as their position for the future, is determined by the lineage of the mother For the sandogo divination society, the drum would have been of great utilitarian importance. In particular, would have been used to summon spirits, played at ceremonial occasions such as funerals or memorials, and also at initiation ceremonies for young men in the tribe as they passed into adulthood.

The drums design, of the load bearing woman representing social and moral responsibility, has its roots in ceremony. In fact, the funerary associations of the drum can be seen to be drawn from one of the most important Senufo ceremonial events, a Kuumo or "great funeral". The ceremony draws hundreds of visitors who come to commemorate the lives of community elders who recently passed within a few years, as well as the spirits of the community's ancestral dead. The event is accentuated by performances of dances, masquerades, and instrumental groups. One of these instrumental group performances is particularly interesting for its live action caryatid figure imitation by Poro society drum bearers. The demonstration itself is a Poro society ritual practice, whereby young, unmarried Senufo females actually bear the considerably heavy drums of the players, holding the instrument in the same pose as that of the caryatid figure.

Further reading

• African Folklore: An Encyclopedia, edited by Philip M. Peek, Kwesi Yankah
• Further Considerations of Caste in West Africa: The Senufo
• The Music of a Senufo-Fodonon Funerary Vigil