Jump to content

Agoraphobia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Demophobia)
Not to be confused with Acrophobia.

Agoraphobia
An ancient agora in Delos, Greece—one of the public spaces after which the condition is named
Pronunciation
SpecialtyPsychiatry, clinical psychology
SymptomsAnxiety in situations perceived to be unsafe, panic attacks[1][2]
ComplicationsDepression, substance use disorder[1]
Duration> 6 months[1]
CausesGenetic and environmental factors[1]
Risk factorsFamily history, stressful event[1]
Differential diagnosisSeparation anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder[1]
TreatmentCognitive behavioral therapy[3]
PrognosisResolution in half with treatment[4]
Frequency1.9% of adults[1]

Agoraphobia[1] is a mental and behavioral disorder,[5] specifically an anxiety disorder characterized by symptoms of anxiety in situations where the person perceives their environment to be unsafe with no easy way to escape.[1] These situations can include public transit, shopping centers, crowds and queues, or simply being outside their home on their own.[1] Being in these situations may result in a panic attack.[2] Those affected will go to great lengths to avoid these situations.[1] In severe cases, people may become completely unable to leave their homes.[2]

Agoraphobia is believed to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The condition often runs in families, and stressful or traumatic events such as the death of a parent or being attacked may be a trigger.[1] In the DSM-5, agoraphobia is classified as a phobia along with specific phobias and social phobia.[1][3] Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include separation anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and major depressive disorder.[1] The diagnosis of agoraphobia has been shown to be comorbid with depression, substance abuse, and suicide ideation.[6][7] Without treatment, it is uncommon for agoraphobia to resolve.[1] Treatment is typically with a type of counselling called cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT).[3][8] CBT results in resolution for about half of people.[4] In some instances, those with a diagnosis of agoraphobia have reported taking benzodiazepines and antipsychotics.[6] Agoraphobia affects about 1.7% of adults.[1] Women are affected about twice as often as men. The condition is rare in children, often begins in adolescence or early adulthood, and becomes more common at age 65 or above.[1]

Etymology

[edit]

The term agoraphobia was coined in German in 1871 by pioneering German psychologist Karl Friedrich Otto Westphal (1833–1890), in his article "Die Agoraphobie, eine neuropathische Erscheinung". Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, Berlin, 1871–72; 3: 138–161. It is derived from Greek ἀγορά (agorā́), meaning 'place of assembly' or 'market-place' and -φοβία (-phobía), meaning 'fear'.[9][10]

Signs and symptoms

[edit]

Agoraphobia is a condition where individuals become anxious in unfamiliar environments or where they perceive that they have little control. Triggers for this anxiety may include wide-open spaces, crowds (social anxiety), or traveling (even short distances). Agoraphobia is often, but not always, compounded by a fear of social embarrassment, as a person experiencing agoraphobia fears the onset of a panic attack and appearing distraught in public. Most of the time they avoid these areas and stay in the comfort of a known, controllable space, usually their home.[1]

Agoraphobia is also defined as "a fear, sometimes terrifying, by those who have experienced one or more panic attacks".[11] In these cases, the patient is fearful of a particular place because they have previously experienced a panic attack at the same location. Fearing the onset of another panic attack, the patient is fearful or avoids a location. Some refuse to leave their homes in medical emergencies because the fear of being outside of their comfort areas is too great.[12]

The person with this condition can sometimes go to great lengths to avoid the locations where they have experienced the onset of a panic attack. Agoraphobia, as described in this manner, is a symptom professionals check when making a diagnosis of panic disorder. Other syndromes like obsessive–compulsive disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder can also cause agoraphobia. Any irrational fear that keeps one from going outside can cause the syndrome.[13]

People with agoraphobia may experience temporary separation anxiety disorder when certain individuals of the household depart from the residence temporarily, such as a parent or spouse, or when they are left home alone. These situations can result in an increase in anxiety or a panic attack or feeling the need to separate themselves from family or friends.[14][15]

People with agoraphobia sometimes fear waiting outside for long periods of time; that symptom can be called "macrophobia".[16]

Panic attacks

[edit]

Agoraphobia patients can experience sudden panic attacks when traveling to places where they fear they are out of control, help would be difficult to obtain, or they could be embarrassed. During a panic attack, epinephrine is released in large amounts, triggering the body's natural fight-or-flight response. A panic attack typically has an abrupt onset, building to maximum intensity within 10 to 15 minutes, and rarely lasts longer than 30 minutes.[17] Symptoms of a panic attack include palpitations, rapid heartbeat, sweating, trembling, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, tightness in the throat, and shortness of breath. Many patients report a fear of dying, fear of losing control of emotions, or fear of losing control of behaviors.[17]

Causes

[edit]

Agoraphobia is believed to be due to a combination of genetic and environmental factors. The condition often runs in families, and stressful or traumatic events such as the death of a parent or being attacked may be a trigger.[1]

Research has uncovered a link between agoraphobia and difficulties with spatial orientation.[18][19] Individuals without agoraphobia are able to maintain balance by combining information from their vestibular system, their visual system, and their proprioceptive sense. A disproportionate number of agoraphobics have weak vestibular function and consequently rely more on visual or tactile signals. They may become disoriented when visual cues are sparse (as in wide-open spaces) or overwhelming (as in crowds).[20] Likewise, they may be confused by sloping or irregular surfaces.[20]

In a virtual reality study, agoraphobics showed impaired processing of changing audiovisual data in comparison with subjects without agoraphobia.[21]

Substance-induced

[edit]

Chronic use of tranquilizers and sleeping pills such as benzodiazepines has been linked to onset of agoraphobia.[22] In 10 patients who had developed agoraphobia during benzodiazepine dependence, symptoms abated within the first year of assisted withdrawal.[23] Similarly, alcohol use disorders are associated with panic with or without agoraphobia; this association may be due to the long-term effects of alcohol consumption causing a distortion in brain chemistry.[24]

Tobacco smoking has also been associated with the development and emergence of agoraphobia, often with panic disorder; it is uncertain how tobacco smoking results in anxiety-panic with or without agoraphobia symptoms, but the direct effects of nicotine dependence or the effects of tobacco smoke on breathing have been suggested as possible causes. Self-medication or a combination of factors may also explain the association between tobacco smoking and agoraphobia and panic.[25]

Attachment theory

[edit]
Main article: Attachment theory

Some scholars[26][27] have explained agoraphobia as an attachment deficit, i.e., the temporary loss of the ability to tolerate spatial separations from a secure base.[28] Recent empirical research has also linked attachment and spatial theories of agoraphobia.[29]

Spatial theory

[edit]

In the social sciences, a perceived clinical bias[30] exists in agoraphobia research. Branches of the social sciences, especially geography, have increasingly become interested in what may be thought of as a spatial phenomenon. One such approach links the development of agoraphobia with modernity.[31] Factors considered contributing to agoraphobia within modernity are the ubiquity of cars and urbanization. These have helped develop the expansion of public space and the contraction of private space, thus creating a conflict in the mind of agoraphobic individuals.

Evolutionary psychology

[edit]

An evolutionary psychology view is that the more unusual primary agoraphobia without panic attacks may be due to a different mechanism from agoraphobia with panic attacks. Primary agoraphobia without panic attacks may be a specific phobia explained by it once having been evolutionarily advantageous to avoid exposed, large, open spaces without cover or concealment. Agoraphobia with panic attacks may be an avoidance response secondary to the panic attacks, due to fear of the situations in which the panic attacks occurred.[32][33]

Diagnosis

[edit]

Most people who present to mental health specialists develop agoraphobia after the onset of panic disorder.[34] Agoraphobia is best understood as an adverse behavioral outcome of repeated panic attacks and subsequent anxiety and preoccupation with these attacks that leads to an avoidance of situations where a panic attack could occur.[35] Early treatment of panic disorder can often prevent agoraphobia.[36] Agoraphobia is typically determined when symptoms are worse than panic disorder, but also do not meet the criteria for other mental disorders such as depression.[37]

Agoraphobia without history of panic disorder

[edit]

Agoraphobia without a history of panic disorder (also called primary agoraphobia) is an anxiety disorder where the individual with the diagnosis does not meet the DSM-5 criteria for panic disorder. Agoraphobia typically develops as a result of having panic disorder. In a small minority of cases, however, agoraphobia can develop by itself without being triggered by the onset of panic attacks. Agoraphobia can be caused by traumatic experiences, such as bullying or abuse. Historically, there has been debate over whether agoraphobia without panic genuinely existed, or whether it was simply a manifestation of other disorders such as panic disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, avoidant personality disorder and social phobia. One researcher said: "out of 41 agoraphobics seen (at a clinic) during a period of 1 year, only 1 fit the diagnosis of agoraphobia without panic attacks, and even this particular classification was questionable...Do not expect to see too many agoraphobics without panic".[38] In spite of this earlier skepticism, current thinking is that agoraphobia without panic disorder is indeed a valid, unique illness which has gone largely unnoticed, since those with the condition are far less likely to seek clinical treatment.[citation needed]

According to the DSM-IV-TR, a widely-used manual for diagnosing mental disorders, the condition is diagnosed when agoraphobia is present without panic disorder where symptoms are not caused by or are unreasonable to an underlying medical problem or pharmacological influence.[39] The DSM-5 decoupled agoraphobia and panic disorder, making them separate disorders that can be diagnosed together.[40]

Treatments

[edit]

Therapy

[edit]

Systematic desensitization can provide lasting relief to the majority of patients with panic disorder and agoraphobia. The disappearance of residual and sub-clinical agoraphobic avoidance, and not simply of panic attacks, should be the aim of exposure therapy.[41] Many patients can deal with exposure easier if they are in the company of a friend on whom they can rely.[42][43] In this approach, it is suggested that people being treated remain in the situation that provokes anxiety until the symptoms anxiety have subsided because if they leave the situation, the phobic response will not decrease and it may even rise.[43]

A related exposure treatment is in vivo exposure, a cognitive behavioral therapy method, that gradually exposes patients to the feared situations or objects.[44] This treatment was largely effective with an effect size from d = 0.78 to d = 1.34, and these effects were shown to increase over time, proving that the treatment had long-term efficacy (up to 12 months after treatment).[44]

Psychological interventions in combination with pharmaceutical treatments were overall more effective than treatments simply involving either CBT or pharmaceuticals. Further research showed there was no significant effect between using group CBT versus individual CBT.[44]

Cognitive restructuring has also proved useful in treating agoraphobia.[45] This treatment involves coaching a participant through a dianoetic discussion, with the intent of replacing irrational, counterproductive beliefs with more factual and beneficial ones.[45]

Relaxation techniques are often useful skills for the agoraphobic to develop, as they can be used to stop or prevent symptoms of anxiety and panic.[46]

Videoconferencing psychotherapy (VCP) is an emerging modality used to treat various disorders in a remote method.[47] Similar to traditional face-to-face interventions, VCP can be used to administer CBT.[48]

Virtual reality computer stimulated therapy has been suggested to help people with psychosis and agoraphobia manage their avoidance of outside environments. In the therapy, the user wears a headset and a virtual character provides psychological advice and guides them as they explore simulated environments (such as a cafe or a busy street).[49]

Medications

[edit]

Antidepressant medications most commonly used to treat anxiety disorders are mainly selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. benzodiazepines, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, and tricyclic antidepressants are also sometimes prescribed for treatment of agoraphobia.[50] Antidepressants are important because some have anxiolytic effects. Antidepressants should be used in conjunction with exposure as a form of self-help or with cognitive behaviour therapy.[43] A combination of medication and cognitive behaviour therapy is sometimes the most effective treatment for agoraphobia.[43]

Alternative medicine

[edit]

Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) has been studied as a possible treatment for agoraphobia, with poor results.[51] As such, EMDR is only recommended in cases where cognitive-behavioral approaches have proven ineffective or in cases where agoraphobia has developed following trauma.[52]

Many people with anxiety disorders benefit from joining a self-help or support group (telephone conference-call support groups or online support groups being of particular help for completely housebound individuals). Sharing problems and achievements with others, as well as sharing various self-help tools, are common activities in these groups. In particular, stress management techniques and various kinds of meditation practices and visualization techniques can help people with anxiety disorders calm themselves and may enhance the effects of therapy, as can service to others, which can distract from the self-absorption that tends to go with anxiety problems. Also, preliminary evidence suggests aerobic exercise may have a calming effect. Since caffeine, certain illicit drugs, and even some over-the-counter cold medications can aggravate the symptoms of anxiety disorders, they should be avoided.[53]

Epidemiology

[edit]

Agoraphobia occurs about twice as commonly among women as it does in men. It can develop at any age but is much more common in adolescence and early adulthood and occurs more often in people of above average intelligence.[54]

Panic disorder with or without agoraphobia affects roughly 5.1% of Americans,[44] and about 1/3 of this population with panic disorder have co-morbid agoraphobia. It is uncommon to have agoraphobia without panic attacks, with only 0.17% of people with agoraphobia not presenting panic disorders as well.[44]

Society and culture

[edit]

Notable cases

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s American Psychiatric Association (2013), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, pp. 217–221, 938, ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8
  2. ^ a b c "Agoraphobia". PubMed Health. Retrieved 11 August 2016.
  3. ^ a b c Wyatt RJ, Chew RH (2008). Wyatt's Practical Psychiatric Practice: Forms and Protocols for Clinical Use. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 90–91. ISBN 978-1-58562-687-8. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016.
  4. ^ a b Craske MG, Stein MB (24 June 2016). "Anxiety". Lancet. 388 (10063): 3048–3059. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30381-6. PMID 27349358. S2CID 208789585.
  5. ^ Drs; Sartorius N, Henderson A, Strotzka H, Lipowski Z, Yu-cun S, You-xin X, et al. "The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines" (PDF). who.int World Health Organization. Microsoft Word. bluebook.doc. pp. 110, 112–3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 October 2004. Retrieved 23 June 2021 – via Microsoft Bing.
  6. ^ a b Shin J, Park DH, Ryu SH, Ha JH, Kim SM, Jeon HJ (24 July 2020). "Clinical implications of agoraphobia in patients with panic disorder". Medicine. 99 (30): e21414. doi:10.1097/MD.0000000000021414. ISSN 0025-7974. PMC 7387026. PMID 32791758.
  7. ^ Teismann T, Lukaschek K, Hiller TS, Breitbart J, Brettschneider C, Schumacher U, et al. (24 September 2018). "Suicidal ideation in primary care patients suffering from panic disorder with or without agoraphobia". BMC Psychiatry. 18 (1): 305. doi:10.1186/s12888-018-1894-5. ISSN 1471-244X. PMC 6154913. PMID 30249220.
  8. ^ Pompoli A, Furukawa TA, Imai H, Tajika A, Efthimiou O, Salanti G (13 April 2016). "Psychological therapies for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia in adults: a network meta-analysis". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (4): CD011004. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD011004.pub2. PMC 7104662. PMID 27071857.
  9. ^ "Collins dictionary". Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  10. ^ Elster CH (2009). Verbal Advantage: Ten Easy Steps to a Powerful Vocabulary. Diversified Publishing. p. PT717. ISBN 978-0-307-56097-1. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016.
  11. ^ "Agoraphobia – Dictionary of Psychotherapy". Archived from the original on 3 April 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2016.
  12. ^ "Agoraphobia". betterhealth.vic.gov.au. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2017.
  13. ^ "Agoraphobia Symptoms". Psych Central.com. 17 May 2016.
  14. ^ "Agoraphobia – Symptoms and causes". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  15. ^ "What Are Anxiety Disorders?". psychiatry.org. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  16. ^ Adamec C (2010). The Encyclopedia of Phobias, Fears, and Anxieties, Third Edition. Infobase Publishing. p. 328. ISBN 978-1-4381-2098-0.
  17. ^ a b David Satcher, et al. (1999). "Chapter 4.2". Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General. Archived from the original on 27 April 2006. Retrieved 7 March 2006.
  18. ^ Yardley L, Britton J, Lear S, Bird J, Luxon LM (May 1995). "Relationship between balance system function and agoraphobic avoidance". Behav Res Ther. 33 (4): 435–9. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(94)00060-W. PMID 7755529.
  19. ^ Jacob RG, Furman JM, Durrant JD, Turner SM (1996). "Panic, agoraphobia, and vestibular dysfunction". Am J Psychiatry. 153 (4): 503–512. doi:10.1176/ajp.153.4.503. PMID 8599398.
  20. ^ a b Jacob RG, Furman JM, Durrant JD, Turner SM (1997). "Surface dependence: a balance control strategy in panic disorder with agoraphobia". Psychosom Med. 59 (3): 323–30. doi:10.1097/00006842-199705000-00016. PMID 9178344. S2CID 9789982.
  21. ^ Viaud-Delmon I, Warusfel O, Seguelas A, Rio E, Jouvent R (October 2006). "High sensitivity to multisensory conflicts in agoraphobia exhibited by virtual reality" (PDF). Eur. Psychiatry. 21 (7): 501–8. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2004.10.004. PMID 17055951. S2CID 6932961.
  22. ^ Hammersley D, Beeley L (1996). "The effects of medication on counselling". In Palmer S, Dainow S, Milner P (eds.). Counselling: The BACP Counselling Reader. Vol. 1. Sage. pp. 211–4. ISBN 978-0-8039-7477-7.
  23. ^ Ashton H (June 1987). "Benzodiazepine withdrawal: outcome in 50 patients". Br J Addict. 82 (6): 665–71. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1987.tb01529.x. PMID 2886145.
  24. ^ Cosci F, Schruers KR, Abrams K, Griez EJ (June 2007). "Alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review of the evidence of a direct relationship". J Clin Psychiatry. 68 (6): 874–80. doi:10.4088/JCP.v68n0608. PMID 17592911.
  25. ^ Cosci F, Knuts IJ, Abrams K, Griez EJ, Schruers KR (May 2010). "Cigarette smoking and panic: a critical review of the literature". J Clin Psychiatry. 71 (5): 606–15. doi:10.4088/JCP.08r04523blu. PMID 19961810.
  26. ^ G. Liotti, (1996). Insecure attachment and agoraphobia, in: C. Murray-Parkes, J. Stevenson-Hinde, & P. Marris (Eds.). Attachment Across the Life Cycle.
  27. ^ J. Bowlby, (1998). Attachment and Loss (Vol. 2: Separation).
  28. ^ Jacobson K (2004). "Agoraphobia and Hypochondria as Disorders of Dwelling". International Studies in Philosophy. 36 (2): 31–44. doi:10.5840/intstudphil2004362165.
  29. ^ Holmes J (2008). "Space and the secure base in agoraphobia: a qualitative survey". Area. 40 (3): 357–382. Bibcode:2008Area...40..375H. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4762.2008.00820.x.
  30. ^ J. Davidson, (2003). Phobic Geographies
  31. ^ Holmes J (2006). "Building Bridges and Breaking Boundaries: Modernity and Agoraphobia". Opticon 1826. 1: 1. doi:10.5334/opt.010606 (inactive 1 November 2024). Archived from the original on 3 March 2016.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  32. ^ Bracha HS (2006). "Human brain evolution and the "Neuroevolutionary Time-depth Principle:" Implications for the Reclassification of fear-circuitry-related traits in DSM-V and for studying resilience to warzone-related posttraumatic stress disorder" (PDF). Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry. 30 (5): 827–853. doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.008. PMC 7130737. PMID 16563589.
  33. ^ Raffaello S, Alessandra SM, Alessandra S (2011). "[Primary agoraphobia specific symptoms: from natural information to mental representations]" (PDF). Italian Journal of Psychopathology (in Italian). 17 (3): 265–276. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012.
  34. ^ American Psychiatric Association, 1998
  35. ^ Barlow DH (1988). Anxiety and its disorders: The nature and treatment of anxiety and panic. Guilford Press.
  36. ^ pmhdev. "Agoraphobia – National Library of Medicine". Archived from the original on 30 March 2014. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
  37. ^ Kenny T, Lawson E. "Agoraphobia". Patient.info. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 8 December 2014.
  38. ^ Barlow, D. H. & Waddell, M. T. (1985) Agoraphobia. Ch 1 in Barlow, D. H. (Ed) Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual. New York: Guilford.
  39. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2000). "Diagnostic criteria for 300.22 Agoraphobia Without History of Panic Disorder". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th, text revision (DSM-IV-TR) ed.). ISBN 0-89042-025-4. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
  40. ^ Administration SA (June 2016). "Table 3.10, Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia Criteria Changes from DSM-IV to DSM-5". ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
  41. ^ Fava GA, Rafanelli C, Grandi S, Conti S, Ruini C, Mangelli L, et al. (2001). "Long-term outcome of panic disorder with agoraphobia treated by exposure". Psychological Medicine. 31 (5): 891–898. doi:10.1017/S0033291701003592. PMID 11459386. S2CID 5652068.
  42. ^ "Agoraphobia – Diagnosis & Treatment". Mayo Clinic. 18 November 2017. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  43. ^ a b c d Gelder MG, Mayou R, Geddes J (2005). Psychiatr. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-852863-0.
  44. ^ a b c d e Sanchez-Meca, Rosa-Alcazar, Marin-Martinez, Gomez-Conesa (11 September 2008). "Psychological treatment of panic disorder with or without agoraphobia: A meta-analysis". Clinical Psychology Review. 30 (1): 37–50. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.08.011. PMID 19775792.
  45. ^ a b Emmelkamp PM, Mersch PP (March 1982). "Cognition and exposure in vivo in the treatment of agoraphobia: Short-term and delayed effects". Cognitive Therapy and Research. 6 (1): 77–90. doi:10.1007/BF01185728. ISSN 0147-5916.
  46. ^ "Agoraphobia – Diagnosis and treatment – Mayo Clinic". mayoclinic.org. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
  47. ^ Fernández-Álvarez J, Fernández-Álvarez H (2021). "Videoconferencing Psychotherapy During the Pandemic: Exceptional Times With Enduring Effects?". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 589536. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589536. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 7933024. PMID 33679513.
  48. ^ Bouchard S, Allard M, Robillard G, Dumoulin S, Guitard T, Loranger C, et al. (21 August 2020). "Videoconferencing Psychotherapy for Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia: Outcome and Treatment Processes From a Non-randomized Non-inferiority Trial". Frontiers in Psychology. 11: 2164. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02164. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 7472915. PMID 32973638.
  49. ^ "Virtual reality could help people with psychosis and agoraphobia". NIHR Evidence. 20 July 2023. doi:10.3310/nihrevidence_59108. S2CID 260053713.
  50. ^ Lydiard RB, Ballenger JC (16 June 1987). "Antidepressants in panic disorder and agoraphobia". Journal of Affective Disorders. 13 (2): 153–168. doi:10.1016/0165-0327(87)90020-6. PMID 2960710.
  51. ^ Goldstein, Alan J., de Beurs, Edwin, Chambless, Dianne L., Wilson, Kimberly A. (2000). "EMDR for Panic Disorder With Agoraphobia : Comparison With Waiting List and Credible Attention-Placebo Control Conditions". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 68 (6): 947–957. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.527.315. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.68.6.947. PMID 11142547.
  52. ^ Agoraphobia Resource Center. "Agoraphobia treatments—Eye movement desensitization and reprogramming". Archived from the original on 5 April 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2008.
  53. ^ National Institute of Mental Health. "How to get help for anxiety disorders". Archived from the original on 4 July 2008. Retrieved 18 April 2008.
  54. ^ Magee WJ, Eaton WW, Wittchen HU, McGonagle KA, Kessler RC (February 1996). "Agoraphobia, simple phobia, and social phobia in the National Comorbidity Survey". Arch Gen Psychiatry. 53 (2): 159–68. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1996.01830020077009. PMID 8629891.
  55. ^ Peter Biskind (10 October 2006). "Reconstructing Woody". Vanity Fair. No. December. Archived from the original on 17 October 2012.
  56. ^ Saul H (2003). Phobias : fighting the fear. New York: Arcade. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-55970-693-3. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
  57. ^ Murray J (15 August 1991). "Campbell Breaks Free Again". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  58. ^ "CNN.com – Transcripts". CNN. 27 May 2004. Archived from the original on 20 July 2009. Retrieved 7 August 2009.
  59. ^ Julia Moskin (28 February 2007). "From Phobia To Fame: A Southern Cook's Memoir". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 February 2017.
  60. ^ Erik Gregerson (2011). "Horace L. Gold". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 6 January 2023.
  61. ^ Biography for Daryl Hannah at IMDb. Retrieved 28 November 2007.
  62. ^ Ellis-Petersen H (26 May 2017). "Miranda Hart: 'I used to think fame would justify my whole existence". The Guardian. Retrieved 14 September 2023.
  63. ^ "Psychological Autopsy can help understand controversial deaths". truTV.com. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2017.
  64. ^ Olivia Hussey—People Magazine—March 16, 1992 Archived 18 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  65. ^ Biography for Olivia Hussey at IMDb
  66. ^ Churchwell S (10 February 2017). "Shirley Jackson: A Rather Haunted Life by Ruth Franklin review – beyond spooky". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
  67. ^ [1] essay by Jonathan Lethem Archived 29 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  68. ^ Mike Conklin. (10 December 2004). "Where is Elfriede Jelinek?". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 17 June 2013. Retrieved 8 May 2013.
  69. ^ Hatfield A (19 July 2022). "Mike Patton discusses agoraphobia diagnosis, canceling Faith No More shows in new interview". Brooklyn Vegan. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
  70. ^ Stanisław Fita, ed., Wspomnienia o Bolesławie Prusie (Reminiscences about Bolesław Prus), Warsaw, Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy (State Publishing Institute), 1962, p. 113.
  71. ^ Whatever Happened to the Gender Benders?, Channel 4 documentary, United Kingdom.
  72. ^ V J (21 November 2014). "Famous People With Agoraphobia". Morningside Recovery. Retrieved 26 July 2023.
  73. ^ "Ben Weasel featured on Carson Daly". punknews.org. 14 October 2010.
  74. ^ McNair J (3 September 2007). "Brian Wilson: Here Comes the Sun". The Independent. Archived from the original on 20 January 2009.

Sources

[edit]
  • Balaram K, Marwaha R. Agoraphobia. [Updated 2023 Feb 13]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024 January ([2])

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikiquote has quotations related to Anxiety.
Look up anxiety in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agoraphobia&oldid=1264676398"