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Rambo (franchise)

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Rambo
Created byDavid Morrell
Original workFirst Blood (1982)
Print publications
Novel(s)List of novels
ComicsList of comics
Films and television
Film(s)List of films
Animated seriesRambo: The Force of Freedom (1986)
Games
Video game(s)List of video games
Audio
Soundtrack(s)List of soundtracks

Rambo is a franchise based on the David Morrell 1972 novel First Blood, about John Rambo, a troubled Vietnam War veteran and former U.S. Army Special Forces soldier who is skilled in many aspects of survival, weaponry, hand-to-hand combat and guerrilla warfare.

Films

Film Release date Director Screenwriter(s) Story by Producers
First Blood October 22, 1982 (1982-10-22) Ted Kotcheff Michael Kozoll & William Sackheim and Sylvester Stallone Buzz Feitshans
Rambo: First Blood Part II May 22, 1985 (1985-05-22) George P. Cosmatos Sylvester Stallone and James Cameron Kevin Jarre
Rambo III May 25, 1988 (1988-05-25) Peter MacDonald Sylvester Stallone and Sheldon Lettich
Rambo January 25, 2008 (2008-01-25) Sylvester Stallone Art Monterastelli and Sylvester Stallone Avi Lerner, Kevin King Templeton and John Thompson
Rambo V 2019 Adrian Grunberg Sylvester Stallone and Matt Cirulnick Kevin King Templeton and Les Weldon

First Blood (1982)

Upon returning to the United States, Vietnam veteran John Rambo has difficulty adjusting to civilian life and wanders the country as a drifter for almost a decade. In December 1981, Rambo travels to a small town in Washington, in search of a fellow U.S. Army Green Beret buddy. He learns that his friend died from cancer the previous summer due to exposure to Agent Orange.

He attempts to find a diner in town, and maybe a temporary job. The overconfident town sheriff Will Teasle (Brian Dennehy), does not welcome Rambo, judging the military hero negatively because of his long hair and scruffy look. Rambo disobeys the sheriff's order to stay away from town, as he has done nothing wrong to the community and he believes such banishment to be a violation of his freedom of movement, and is promptly charged for vagrancy and subject to harassment from the deputies.

The harassment triggers flashbacks of Rambo's traumatic memories of his torture at the hands of the North Vietnamese when he was a prisoner of war. Rambo fights his way out of the sheriff's department with his bare hands and makes his way into the wilderness. A manhunt ensues, with the sheriff and his deputies all badly wounded. Rambo chooses not to kill any of them, but unintentionally kills a police officer in self-defense by throwing a rock at a helicopter, causing the pilot to lose control and an officer to fall out. The State Police and National Guard are called in.

Colonel Samuel Trautman (Richard Crenna), Rambo’s former commanding officer, arrives. He suggests giving Rambo a chance to escape; if Rambo is allowed to slip away, he'll be given time to calm down and he can be arrested without incident. The authorities reject Trautman's recommendation and continue the manhunt, and Rambo's subsequent rampage culminates in the destruction of the sheriff's office and more of the town's main street. Rambo stands poised to eliminate the sheriff, but Trautman finally confronts Rambo face-to-face, and ultimately convinces his former soldier to surrender to the authorities.

Between the first and second films, Rambo is convicted and remanded to a civilian maximum-security prison where heavy duty labor is the norm. Despite being a convict, the rigid routine and discipline of prison life provides Rambo with some measure of much-needed stability, as it reminds him of his past in the military and its own rigid hierarchy.

Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985)

In the second installment of the series in 1985, Trautman offers Rambo his freedom if Rambo will return to Vietnam to search for American prisoners of war remaining in Vietnamese captivity. Marshall Murdock (Charles Napier), the official in charge of the mission, is portrayed as a corrupt political figure who doesn't want to expose the truth. Rambo is not to engage the enemy and instead is ordered to take photographs of a North Vietnamese camp, the same camp he himself had been held prisoner in, to prove to the American public there are no more POWs (prisoners of war) in Vietnam, although Murdock knows that there are.

Rambo is flown into the country with the purpose of parachuting into the jungle, but a malfunction during his exit from the plane causes him to have to cut away much of his equipment. He then meets his in-country contact, anti-communist Vietnamese female rebel Co Bao (Julia Nickson), who is serving as an intelligence agent. Rambo discovers that there are POWs being held in the camp where he was dropped and that POWs were rotated between camps. Rambo breaks one POW out of the camp and attempts to escape, only to be abandoned at the moment of a pick up by helicopter on a hilltop on the orders of Murdock and both he and the POW are recaptured by the Vietnamese soldiers. Rambo is immobilized in a pit of sewage and leeches, then tortured by Soviet soldiers, who are allied with the Vietnamese and training Vietnamese soldiers. Co enters the base under the guise of a prostitute for hire, where she aids Rambo in escaping. After Rambo expresses his deepest gratitude for his rescue, the two share a kiss, after Co implores him to take her back to America with him. As they prepare to move on, Co is shot down by surprise gunfire.

Enraged, Rambo then acts on his own initiative and starts a one-man war, hunting the Vietnamese and Soviet soldiers searching for him in the jungle and stealing a Soviet-captured helicopter. He flies the helicopter back to the camp, destroying it and killing the remaining Vietnamese and Soviet soldiers in camp. He frees all the POWs out of captivity and is pursued by a Soviet Mi-24 Hind helicopter. After destroying the Hind with an RPG, he returns to the US base in Thailand with all the POWs. Rambo is enraged at how the United States government has ignored the existence of surviving soldiers being held captive, and grabbing an M - 60 machine gun proceeds into the headquarters building and destroys all of the electronic gear within. Rambo then threatens Murdock and tells him to be forthright with the American public regarding the truth of the POWs and to spare no expense in rescuing them all, or else he will return for Murdock. When Trautman says Rambo will be honored once again, he declines, saying the POWs deserve the accolades more. For his actions in Vietnam, Rambo is granted a presidential pardon and decides to remain in Thailand.

Between the second and third films, Rambo takes up residence near a monastery where he engages in frequent meditation to find a sense of inner peace. Although Rambo believes his soldiering days are apparently over, he does not become a complete pacifist, as he often participates in violent stick fighting matches and donates his winnings to the monks to help renovate the monastery.

Rambo III (1988)

Stallone in Rambo III

The film opens with Colonel Samuel Trautman (Richard Crenna) returning to Thailand to once again enlist Rambo's help. After witnessing Rambo's victory in a stick fighting match, Trautman visits the temple Rambo is helping to build and asks Rambo to join him on a mission to Afghanistan. This brings Rambo more into the realm of the CIA's famed Special Activities Division which primarily hires Army Special Forces soldiers. The mission is meant to supply weapons, including FIM-92 Stinger missiles, to Afghan freedom fighters, the Mujahideen, who are fighting the Soviets. Despite having been shown photos of civilians suffering under the Soviet rule, Rambo refuses and Trautman chooses to go on his own.

While in Afghanistan, Trautman's troops are ambushed by Soviet troops while passing through the mountains at night. Trautman is imprisoned in a Soviet base and tortured for information by commanding officer Zaysen (Marc de Jonge) and his henchman Kourov (Randy Raney). Rambo learns of the incident from embassy field officer Robert Griggs (Kurtwood Smith) and immediately flies to Pakistan where he meets up with Mousa (Sasson Gabai), a weapons supplier who agrees to take him to a village deep in the Afghan desert, close to the Soviet base where Trautman is kept. The Mujahideen in the village are already hesitant to help Rambo in the first place, but are convinced not to help him when their village is attacked by Soviet helicopters after one of Mousa's shop assistants informed the Russians of Rambo's presence. Aided only by Mousa and a young boy named Hamid (Doudi Shoua), Rambo makes his way to the Soviet base and starts his attempts to free Trautman. The first attempt is unsuccessful and results in Hamid getting shot in the leg, and Rambo himself getting hit by wooden shrapnel. After escaping from the base, Rambo tends to Hamid's wounds and sends him and Mousa away to safety.

The next day, Rambo returns to the base once again, just in time to rescue Trautman from being tortured with a flamethrower. After rescuing several other prisoners, Rambo steals a helicopter and escapes from the base. The helicopter crashes and Rambo and Trautman are forced to continue on foot. After a confrontation in a cave, where Rambo and Trautman kill several Russian soldiers including Kourov, they are confronted by an entire army of Russian tanks, headed by Zaysen. Just as they are about to be overwhelmed by the might of the Soviet Army, the Mujahideen warriors, together with Mousa and Hamid, ride onto the battlefield in a cavalry charge, overwhelming the Russians despite their numerical and technological superiority. In the ensuing battle, in which both Trautman and Rambo are wounded, Rambo manages to kill Zaysen by driving a tank into the helicopter in which Zaysen is flying.

At the end of the battle Rambo and Trautman say goodbye to their Mujahideen friends, and leave Afghanistan to go home.

Rambo (2008)

The film opens with news footage of the crisis in Burma. Burma (also known as Myanmar) is under the iron fist rule of Than Shwe and takes harsher stances against the nation's pro-democracy movement. Rebels are thrown into a mine-infested marsh and then gunned down by a Burmese army unit, overseen by Major Pa Tee Tint.

Former U.S. soldier John Rambo still lives in Thailand, now residing in a village near the Burmese border and makes a living capturing snakes and selling them in a nearby village. A missionary, Michael Burnett (Paul Schulze), asks Rambo to take him and his associates down the Salween River to Burma on a humanitarian mission to help the Karen people. Rambo initially refuses but is convinced by another missionary in the group, Sarah Miller (Julie Benz), to take them.

The boat is stopped by pirates who demand Sarah in exchange for passage. After taking advantage of the pirates' complacency, Rambo kills them all. Although his actions save the missionaries, it greatly disturbs them. Upon arrival, Michael says that they will travel by road and will not need Rambo's help for the return trip. The mission goes well until the Burmese army, led by Major Tint, attacks the village, killing most of the villagers and two missionaries, and capturing the rest. When the missionaries fail to come back after ten days, their pastor, Arthur Marsh (Ken Howard), comes to Rambo to ask for his help in guiding hired mercenaries to the village where the missionaries were last seen.

Troubled by Sarah's potential fate, Rambo decides to accompany the soldiers. After seeing the destroyed village filled with mutilated humans and animals, Rambo encourages the team to move on. Hijacking a truck, they create a plan to save the hostages at the P.O.W. camp, doing so within fifteen minutes to avoid alerting the army. Rambo helps Sarah and the others to escape. The Burmese Army (Tatmadaw) unit finds their hostages missing and organizes a massive manhunt. Everyone except for Rambo, Sarah, and "School Boy", the mercenary team's sniper, is captured. Just as the group is to be executed, Rambo hijacks a truck-mounted .50-caliber machine gun and engages the Burmese army. A group of Karen rebels joins the fight to help Rambo and the mercenaries defeat the Burmese unit. Seeing that the battle is lost, Major Tint decides to flee, only to run into Rambo's machete, which Rambo then uses to disembowel the Major.

Encouraged by Sarah's words, Rambo returns to the United States. The last scene shows him walking along a rural highway, past a horse farm and a rusted mailbox with the name "R. Rambo" on it. He makes his way down the gravel driveway as the credits roll.

Upcoming

Rambo V (2019)

In 2009, Stallone announced plans for a fifth film titled Rambo V: The Savage Hunt. The film would have been loosely based on Hunter by James Byron Huggins and would have focused on Rambo leading an elite special forces kill team to hunt and kill a genetically engineered creature.[1] In 2011, Sean Hood was hired to write a new script, separate from The Savage Hunt, titled Rambo: Last Stand that Hood described was "more in line with the small-town thriller of First Blood".[2] In 2012, Hood revealed that Rambo V was on hold while Stallone finishes The Expendables 2. Hood also revealed his uncertainty whether the film will be similar to Unforgiven or will be a passing-of-the-torch.[3] In 2016, Sylvester Stallone revealed that Rambo V was no longer in production.[4] By October of the same year, Milliennium announced plans to reboot the film series, with Ariel Vromen directing. Stallone would have no involvement.[5]

In May 2018 Rambo V was re-announced and scheduled to begin filming later that year in September, with the plot focusing on Rambo combating Mexican drug cartel.[6] Stallone confirmed to be co-writing the script with Matt Cirulnick, but is unlikely to direct.[7] That same month, Stallone confirmed that the film is scheduled for a fall 2019 release.[8] In August 2018, Adrian Grunberg was announced as the director.[9] Principal photography began in October 2018.[10]

Characters

List indicator(s)
  • This table shows the characters and the actors who have portrayed them throughout the franchise
  • Italics indicate the actor only appears in flashbacks via archive footage from previous films
  • A dark grey cell indicates the character was not in the film
  • A V indicates the actor or actress lent only his or her voice for his or her film character.
  • An A indicates an appearance through archival footage.
Character Film Animated series
First Blood Rambo:
First Blood Part II
Rambo III Rambo Rambo V Rambo:
The Force of Freedom
1982 1985 1988 2008 2019 1986
John J. Rambo Sylvester Stallone Neil Ross
Sam Trautman Richard Crenna Richard Crenna
(archival footage)
Alan Oppenheimer
Sheriff Will Teasle Brian Dennehy
Deputy Art Galt Jack Starrett
Mitch David Caruso
Marshall Murdock Charles Napier
Co-Bao Julia Nickson Julia Nickson
(archival footage)
Ericson Martin Kove
Lifer Steve Williams
Lieutenant Tay George Kee Cheung
Banks Andy Wood
Lieutenant Colonel Podovsky Steven Berkoff
Colonel Zaysen Marc de Jonge
Robert Griggs Kurtwood Smith
Mousa Ghani Sasson Gabai
Michael Burnett Paul Schulze
Sarah Miller Julie Benz
Lewis Graham McTavish
School Boy Matthew Marsden
Reese Jake La Botz

Additional crew & production details

Film Crew/Detail
Composer(s) Cinematographer Editor(s) Production
Companies
Distributing
Company
Running time
First Blood Jerry Goldsmith Andrew Laszlo Joan E. Chapman Anabasis Investments, N. V. Orion Pictures 1hr 33min
Rambo:
First Blood Part II
Jack Cardiff Mark Goldblatt and Mark Helfrich TriStar Pictures 1hr 36min
Rambo III John Stanier James Symons, Andrew London and O. Nicholas Brown Carolco Pictures 1hr 41min
Rambo Brian Tyler Glen MacPherson Sean Albertson The Weinstein Company
Millennium Films
Nu Image Films
Lionsgate 1hr 32min
Extended Cut:
1hr 39min
Rambo V TBA TBA TBA Lionsgate
Nu Image
Millennium Films
Campbell Grobman Films
TBA [to be determined]

Other media

Home video and television

All four existing films in the Rambo series are available from Lionsgate by virtue of the studio's output deal with StudioCanal (the company that currently holds the underlying rights to the first three films) and Lionsgate itself co-producing the latter film (in partnership with The Weinstein Company). Paramount Pictures (via Trifecta Entertainment and Media) holds the television rights to the first three films, while Debmar-Mercury handles television distribution for the latter film on behalf of parent company Lionsgate.

Novelizations

David Morrell, author of the original First Blood novel, wrote novelizations (book adaptations) for the first two Rambo sequels. Morrell has said that he wrote the novelizations because he wanted to include characterization that he felt wasn't in Rambo: First Blood Part II and Rambo III. Morrell did not write a novelization for the 2008 film, Rambo, as he felt the film's characterization matched that of the original First Blood novel.[citation needed]

Animated series

Rambo: The Force of Freedom was an animated series that ran in 1986 where John Rambo leads a team called the Force of Freedom to fight an evil organization called S.A.V.A.G.E. (short for Specialist-Administrators of Vengeance, Anarchy and Global Extortion). 65 episodes were aired. Rambo and the Forces of Freedom spawned a line of toys.

Comic books

In the late 1980s, Blackthorne Publishing published a few comics starring the character. One, titled Rambo III, adapted the film of the same name. Also, there was a comic simply titled Rambo featuring other adventures of the character. Rambo III was also published in a 3D version by Blackthorne.

TV series

On August 21, 2013, it was announced that Entertainment One, along with Avi Lerner and his production company, Nu Image, are to develop and produce a Rambo TV series and that Stallone is in talks to join the project.[11] However Stallone's press representative has denied reports that Stallone will reprise Rambo on the small screen.[12] On December 1, 2015, Deadline reporting that Fox were developing a Rambo TV series titled Rambo: New Blood with Stallone reprising his role as Rambo, while he, Lerner and Jeb Stuart will executive produced the series, Stuart will also be penning the script. The series will explore the complex relationship between Rambo and his son, J.R., an ex-Navy SEAL.[13] Fox chairman and CEO Dana Walden has stated that Stallone is off as the producer of the series.[14]

Video games

Collectible card game

Rambo is a character in Fight Klub, a trading card game published by Decipher, Inc in February 2009.[18]

Soundtracks

Soundtracks with music from the films were also released. The soundtracks for First Blood, Rambo: First Blood Part II, and Rambo are available on iTunes. However, the soundtrack for Rambo III is not available on iTunes. For more on the music of the Rambo series, see the "Music" section below.

Bollywood film remake

In May 2013, Original Entertainment confirmed to have sealed a five-picture deal with Millennium Films to produce Bollywood remakes of Rambo, The Expendables, 16 Blocks, 88 Minutes, and Brooklyn's Finest, with the productions for Rambo and The Expendables expected to start at the end of that year.[19]

In early 2016, Siddharth Anand was announced as the director[20] and the film will be co-produced by Anand, Daljit DJ Parmar, Samir Gupta, Hunt Lowry, Saurabh Gupta and Gulzar Inder Chahal.[21] The film will specifically remake First Blood and will follow the last member of an elite unit in the Indian Armed forces returning home only to discover a different war waiting for him, forcing Rambo to the jungles and mountains of the Himalayas and unleash mayhem and destruction.[21] In May 2017, Tiger Shroff was cast in the role of Rambo with principal photography set for February 2018 for a late 2018 release date.[21]

Music

The original scores for the first three films were composed and conducted by Jerry Goldsmith. The music from the first and second films was performed by the National Philharmonic Orchestra and the music from the third by the Hungarian State Opera Orchestra. Goldsmith's main theme for Rambo was the basis for the end title song "It's a Long Road", performed by Dan Hill, part of the First Blood soundtrack.

The music for the first film is harsher and more dissonant than that for the sequels, as is keeping with the tone of the film. As such, it bears more of a resemblance to Goldsmith's output of the 1960s and 1970s than it does most of his work in the 1980s. The first film's score does use electronics but is primarily orchestral while the sequel scores incorporate heavier use of electronics. The second film's score is the most popular, being that it is the most exciting. The music in the third film is an extension of the style used in the second, but with a few new themes. Both sequels feature new themes for Rambo that are based on elements found in the original "It's a Long Road" theme, which is also heard in its original form in each film as well.

Because Goldsmith died in 2004, film composer Brian Tyler (The Expendables and The Fast and the Furious films) scored the fourth film. He reassured fans at the time of Goldsmith's death that his score would be based on Goldsmith's cues for the first three First Blood / Rambo pictures.

The 2008 film, Rambo, was advertised with Drowning Pool's "Bodies" and features two songs in the film written and performed by Jake La Botz, who portrays the mercenary "Reese" in the film.

The theme music for 1986 animated TV series, Rambo and the Forces of Freedom, came from a trailer for First Blood, whilst additional music was composed by Shuki Levy and Haim Saban.

Box office performance

Film Release date (US) Budget Box office revenue
United States International Worldwide
First Blood[22] October 22, 1982 $15,000,000 $47,212,904 $78,000,000 $125,212,904
Rambo: First Blood Part II[23] May 22, 1985 $25,500,000 $150,415,432 $149,985,000 $300,400,432
Rambo III[24] May 25, 1988 $62,000,000 $53,715,611 $135,300,000 $189,015,611
Rambo[25] January 25, 2008 $50,000,000 $42,754,105 $70,490,185 $113,244,290
Total[26] $152,500,000 $294,098,052 $433,775,185 $727,873,237

Reception

Ratings collected from film review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes.

Film Rotten Tomatoes Metacritic CinemaScore
First Blood 87% (38 reviews)[27] 62 (7 reviews)
Rambo: First Blood Part II 30% (33 reviews)[28]
Rambo III 36% (28 reviews)[29] 36 (15 reviews) B+
Rambo 37% (142 reviews)[30] 46 (26 reviews) A-

See also

  • Hunter, a novel which Rambo V was originally to be loosely based on before changes.
  • The Intruder, an Indonesian film based on Rambo.
  • Son of Rambow, a comedy-drama film that references Rambo.

References

  1. ^ Stephenson, Hunter (September 6, 2009). "More Details on Rambo 5: The Savage Hunt - Creature Feature Based on the Sci-Fi Book Hunter". SlashFilm. Retrieved October 2, 2018.
  2. ^ Williams, Owen (August 19, 2011). "New Screenplay For Rambo 5". Empire. Retrieved October 2, 2018.
  3. ^ Papandrea, Marcey (February 10, 2012). "Sean Hood Finally Gives an Update on the State of Rambo 5". Joblo. Retrieved October 2, 2018.
  4. ^ Setoodeh, Ramin (January 5, 2016). "Sylvester Stallone Is Retiring From Playing Rambo". Variety.
  5. ^ "'Rambo' Reboot in the Works With 'Criminal' Director (Exclusive)". Hollywoodreporter. October 28, 2016. Retrieved 2016-10-30.
  6. ^ Kay, Jeremy (May 5, 2018). "Sylvester Stallone lining up 'Rambo V' (exclusive)". Screen Daily. Retrieved May 8, 2018. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  7. ^ Wiseman, Andrew (May 5, 2018). "Sylvester Stallone In Line To Take on Mexican Cartel in Rambo 5". Deadline. Retrieved May 7, 2018.
  8. ^ Gilyadov, Alex (May 8, 2018). "Rambo 5 Confirmed by Stallone, Coming Fall 2019". IGN. Retrieved May 8, 2018.
  9. ^ Stephens, David (August 18, 2018). "Rambo 5 Reportedly Recruits Get the Gringo Director". Screen Rant. Retrieved October 2, 2018.
  10. ^ Trumbore, Dave (October 2, 2018). "Sylvester Stallone Is a Cowboy for Some Reason as 'Rambo 5' Starts Filming". Collider. Retrieved October 2, 2018.
  11. ^ Vlessing, Etan (August 21, 2013). "Sylvester Stallone In Talks For 'Rambo' TV Series". The Hollywood Reporter.
  12. ^ Knox, David. "Reality Bites as Sly Stallone refuses to play Rambo". TV Tonight.
  13. ^ Andreeva, Nellie (December 1, 2015). "'Rambo: New Blood' Father-Son TV Series In Works At Fox With Sylvester Stallone". Deadline.
  14. ^ Topel, Fred (January 15, 2016). "'X-Men' Spinoff 'Hellfire Club' May Premiere Early 2017; Plus a Minor 'Rambo' Update". /Film.
  15. ^ Rambo Arcade Game - Kotaku.
  16. ^ JC Fletcher. "Rambo: The Video Game to emerge from the jungle at Gamescom". Engadget.
  17. ^ Rob Hearn (September 15, 2015). "Rambo: The Mobile Game - I came here to rescue you from him". Pocket Gamer. Steel Media. Retrieved September 20, 2015.
  18. ^ Fight Klub Cardgame - Need Register Archived 2011-10-01 at the Wayback Machine
  19. ^ McNary, Dave (May 15, 2013). "Original Ent. Plans Bollywood Remakes of 'Rambo,' 'Expendables' (EXCLUSIVE)". Variety. Retrieved May 20, 2017.
  20. ^ Dhar, Debanjan (February 1, 2016). "Director Siddharth Anand To Remake Hollywood Movie 'Rambo' After Remaking 'Knight And Day'". Story Pick. Retrieved May 20, 2017.
  21. ^ a b c Brzeski, Patrick (May 18, 2017). "Cannes: Indian 'Rambo' Remake Finds Its Answer to Stallone (Exclusive)". Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved May 20, 2017.
  22. ^ "First Blood (1982)". Box Office Mojo.
  23. ^ "Rambo II (1985)". Box Office Mojo.
  24. ^ "Rambo III (1988)". Box Office Mojo.
  25. ^ "Rambo (2008)". Box Office Mojo.
  26. ^ "Rambo Moviesat the Box Office". Box Office Mojo.
  27. ^ "Rating for First Blood". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 2011-07-31.
  28. ^ "Rating for Rambo: First Blood Part II". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved 2011-07-31.
  29. ^ "Rating for Rambo III". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved 2011-07-31.
  30. ^ "Rating for Rambo". Rotten Tomatoes. Flixster. Retrieved 2011-07-31.