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Not to be confused with the new transitional Syrian government and its military capabilities currently seen at Syrian Armed Forces.
Syrian Arab Armed Forces
القوات المسلحة العربية السورية ‎
Flag of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces
Coat of arms of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces
Mottoوطن، شرف، إخلاص
Watan, Sharaf, Ikhlas
("Homeland, Honor, Sincerity")
Founded1946; 79 years ago (1946)
Current form1971; 54 years ago (1971)
Disbanded2024 (de-facto, following the fall of the Assad regime)[1]
Service branchesSyrian Arab Army
Syrian Arab Navy
Syrian Arab Air Force
Syrian Arab Air Defense Force
National Defence Forces[2]
HeadquartersHay'at al-Arkan, Umayyad Square, Damascus
Leadership
Commander-in-chief Marshal Bashar al-Assad[3]
Minister of Defence Gen. Ali Mahmoud Abbas
Chief of the General Staff Gen. Abdul Karim Mahmoud Ibrahim
Personnel
Military age18
ConscriptionYes
Active personnel170,000[4]
Reserve personnel50,000[4] (NDF+LDF)
Expenditure
Budget$1.8 billion (2019)
Percent of GDP4.5% (2020)
Industry
Domestic suppliersSyrian Scientific Studies and Research Center (CERS)[5][6]
Établissement Industriel de la Défense (EID)[7][8]
Syrian Defense Laboratories (SDL)[9]
Foreign suppliers Armenia[10]
 Belarus[10]
 Bulgaria[11]
 China[10]
 Iran[12][10]
 North Korea[10][13]
 Iraq[10]
 Russia[10]
 Venezuela[10]
 Cuba[10]
 Laos[10]
 Pakistan[10]
Related articles
HistoryMilitary history of Syria
RanksMilitary ranks of Syria

The Syrian Arab Armed Forces (SAAF; Arabic: القوات المسلحة العربية السورية, romanized: al-Quwwāt al-Musallaḥah al-ʿArabīyah as-Sūrīyah) were the combined armed forces of Syria from 1963 to 2024.[citation needed] They served during the rule of the Ba'ath Party in Syria.

The SAAF consisted of the Syrian Arab Army, Syrian Arab Air Force, Syrian Arab Navy, Syrian Arab Air Defence Force, and paramilitary forces, such as the National Defence Forces. According to the 2012 Constitution of Syria, the President of Syria was the Commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.[14] The Minister of Defence held the position of Deputy Commander-in-chief of the Army and Armed Forces.[15]

The SAAF utilized conscription; males served in the military at age 18, but they were exempted from service if they did not have a brother who can take care of their parents. After the beginning of the Syrian Civil War, Syrian military enlisted strength dropped by over half from a pre-civil war figure of 325,000 to 150,000 soldiers in the army in December 2014 due to casualties, desertions and draft dodging,[16] reaching between 178,000 and 220,000 soldiers in the army,[17] in addition to 80,000 to 100,000 irregular forces. By 2023, the number of active Syrian soldiers had increased to 170,000,[18] but the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces may have decreased by as much as 50,000.[18][19]

The Syrian Arab Armed Forces collapsed in 2024 with the fall of the Assad regime and flight of Bashar al-Assad.[20] The new de-facto rulers of Syria, Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham, are making preparations to drastically reorganise Syria's military forces and ambitions.[21] On 21 December 2024 it was reported that Murhaf Abu Qasra had been appointed the new defence minister for the interim government.[22]

History

[edit]

The 1963 coup and early history of the Arab Armed Forces

[edit]

In 1963, the Military Committee of the Syrian Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party spent most of its time planning to take power through a conventional military coup. From the very beginning, the Military Committee knew it had to capture al-Kiswah and Qatana—two military camps—seize control of the 70th Armored Brigade at al-Kiswah, the Military Academy in the city of Homs and the Damascus radio station. While the conspirators of the Military Committee were all young, their aim was not out of reach; the sitting regime had been slowly disintegrating and the traditional elite had lost effective political power over the country.[23] A small group of military officers, including Hafez al-Assad, seized control in the March 1963 Syrian coup d'etat. Following the coup, Gen. Amin al-Hafiz discharged many ranking Sunni officers, thereby, Stratfor says, "providing openings for hundreds of Alawites to fill top-tier military positions during the 1963–1965 period on the grounds of being opposed to Arab unity. This measure tipped the balance in favor of Alawite officers who staged a coup in 1966 and, for the first time, placed Damascus in the hands of the Alawites."[24]

The Arab Armed Forces were involved in the 1967 Six-Day War (against Israel). Since 1967, most of the Golan Heights territory of southwestern Syria has been under Israeli occupation. They then fought in the late 1960s War of Attrition (against Israel) and the 1970 Black September invasion of Jordan.

When Hafez al-Assad came to power in 1971, the army began to modernize and change. In the first 10 years of Assad's rule, the army increased by 162%, and by 264% by 2000. At one point, 70% of the country's GDP went only to the army. At the beginning of the Yom Kippur War of 1973 the Syrian Army launched an attack to seize the Golan Heights that was only narrowly repulsed by two vastly outnumbered Israeli brigades. Since 1973 the cease-fire line has been respected by both sides, with very few incidents until the Syrian civil war.[25][26]

Syria was invited into Lebanon by that country's president in 1976, to intervene on the side of the Lebanese government against PLO guerilla and Lebanese Christian forces. The Arab Deterrent Force originally consisted of a Syrian core, up to 25,000 troops, with participation by some other Arab League states totaling only around 5,000 troops.[27][28][29] In late 1978, after the Arab League had extended the mandate of the Arab Deterrent Force, the Sudanese, the Saudis and the United Arab Emirates announced intentions to withdraw troops from Lebanon, extending their stay into the early months of 1979 at the Lebanese government's request.[30] The Libyan troops were essentially abandoned and had to find their own way home (if at all), and the ADF thereby became a purely Syrian force (which did include the Palestinian Liberation Army (PLA)).[31]

A year after Israel invaded and occupied Southern Lebanon during the 1982 Lebanon War, the Lebanese government failed to extend the ADF's mandate, thereby effectively ending its existence, although not the Syrian or Israeli military presence in Lebanon.[32] Eventually the Syrian presence became known as the Syrian occupation of Lebanon.

Occupation of Lebanon (1982–2005)

[edit]
Main article: Syrian occupation of Lebanon

Syrian forces, still technically known as the Arab Deterrent Force, lingered in Lebanon throughout the Lebanese civil war (1975–90). Eventually the Syrians brought most of the nation under their control as part of a power struggle with Israel, which had occupied areas of southern Lebanon in 1978. In 1985, Israel began to withdraw from Lebanon, as a result of domestic opposition in Israel and international pressure.[33] In the aftermath of this withdrawal, the War of the Camps broke out, with Syria fighting their former Palestinian allies. Following the end of the Lebanese civil war in 1990, the Syrian occupation of Lebanon continued until they themselves were also forced out by widespread public protest and international pressure. About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country.[34] Syrian forces were accused of involvement in the murder of Rafiq al-Hariri, as well as continued meddling in Lebanese affairs, and an international investigation into the Hariri killing and several subsequent bomb attacks has been launched by the UN.

Other engagements

[edit]

Engagements since 1979 included the Muslim Brotherhood insurgency (1979–82), notably including the Hama massacre, the 1982 Lebanon War (against Israel) and the dispatch of the 9th Armored Division to Saudi Arabia in 1990–91, ahead of the Gulf War against Iraq. The 9th Armored Division served as the Arab Joint Forces Command North reserve and saw little action.[35] Syria's force numbered ~20,000 in strength (the sixth-largest contingent) and its involvement was justified domestically as an effort to defend Saudi Arabia. Syria's initial involvement in Operation Desert Shield also rolled into the Allied Operation Desert Storm, as Syrian forces did participate in helping dislodge and drive Iraqi forces out of Kuwait City. Total losses sustained were two dead and one wounded. There were indications the Syrian government had been prepared to double its force to 40,000.[36]

Modernisation

[edit]
Further information: Russia–Syria relations § Arms contracts

In recent years Syria has relied on Russian arms purchases to obtain modern weapons. Purchases included anti-tank and air defense systems. In early September 2008 the Syrian government ordered MiG-29SMT fighters,[37] Pantsir S1E air-defence systems, Iskander tactical missile systems, Yak-130 aircraft, and two Amur-1650 submarines from Russia. Russia's Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov asserted that the sale wouldn't upset the balance of power in the Middle East and were "in line with . . . international law."

Russia aimed to turn the Russian naval base in Tartus into a permanent base. Israel and the US oppose further arms sales to Syria due to fears that the weapons could fall under the control of Iran or Hezbollah fighters in Lebanon.[38]

Syrian civil war 2011–2024

[edit]
A Syrian soldier manning a checkpoint near Damascus.

Because of the violence against the people by the Syrian Army and the detention of a great number of people, some soldiers from different religions and sects (Sunni, Shia, Druze and Christian) defected in protest at orders to kill protesters in April 2011[citation needed]. By 2014, the number of defecting officers had reached approximately 170,000, from different ranks. They formed the Free Syrian Army on 29 July 2011 (interview with Riad Al-Asaad - the founder and leader of the Free Syrian Army), and at the beginning of the conflict they depended on light weapons. The arming of the Free Syrian Army began in mid-2012.

In March 2012 the Syrian government issued new travel restrictions for military-aged males. Under the new restrictions, reported by local Syrian news outlets, all males between 18–42 were banned from traveling outside the country.[39] In a late June 2012 interview given by the FSA's Asharq Al-Awsat he claimed Riad al-Asaad said that about 20–30 Syrian officers defected to Turkey each day.[40]

On 18 July 2012 the Syrian Defense Minister Dawoud Rajha, former defense minister Hasan Turkmani and the president's brother-in-law Gen. Assef Shawkat were killed in a bomb attack in Damascus.[41] Syrian intelligence chief Hisham Bekhityar and Head of the 4th Army Division Maher Al Assad—brother of President Assad—were also injured in the explosion.[42]

Since the start of the conflict in Syria, human rights groups say that the majority of abuses were committed by the Syrian government's forces, and UN investigations concluded that the government's abuses were the greatest in both gravity and scale.[43][44] The branches of the Syrian Armed Forces that committed war crimes include at least the Syrian Arab Army,[45][46] Syrian Arab Air Force[47] and the Syrian Military Intelligence.[48] However the Syrian authorities denied these accusations[49] and claimed that irregular armed groups with foreign support[50][51] are behind the atrocities, including Al Qaeda linked Insurgents.[52]

The numbers in the Syrian armed forces had reduced considerably during the Civil War, although estimates varied.

Syrian Armed Forces size during the Civil War[53]
Year Army personnel Air Force personnel Total: Army + Air Force
2011
220,000
100,000
320,000
2014
110,000
63,000
173,000

Russian sources gave higher estimates. In 2011, 300,000 reserves were reported in addition to regular forces.[citation needed] In 2014, Gazeta.ru reported that the regular army had reduced from 325,000 to 150,000 due to "mortality, desertions and deviations", but that this was supplemented by 60,000 Republican Guards and 50,000 Kurdish militias.[54] In 2015, LifeNews still reported the same figures.[55]

Despite shrinking by nearly half from the 2011 beginning of the civil war by 2014, the Armed Forces became much more flexible and capable, especially in anti-guerilla warfare.[56] Their modus operandi switched from traditional Soviet-modeled conventional military forces into a force of smaller groups fighting in close-quarters guerrilla combat with an increasing role for junior officers.[56]

In September 2018, Statista Charts estimated that the Syrian military had lost 111 warplanes since the beginning of the civil war, including reconnaissance and attack drones. The Syrians lost most of their warplanes during the first four years of the war, with losses significantly decreasing after the Russian intervention into the war.[57]

Fall of the al-Assad regime and insurgency

[edit]
Main article: Western Syria clashes (December 2024–present)

In December 2024, the Syrian Arab Army, alongside the Syrian Arab Republic itself, collapsed as the Assad regime fell. Some of the remaining SAA forces crossed into Iraq, others removed their uniforms before the rebels could arrive in Damascus, the last remaining territory controlled by the SAR.[20] Retired U.S. General Wesley Clark said that a video showing the SAA forces evacuating to Iraq showed the "demoralization and collapse of an army", and that the forces knew they would lose, with the rebels taking Damascus and Assad's whereabouts unknown. He compared it to the fall of Kabul in 2021, where the U.S.-backed Afghan Armed Forces collapsed, and that when faced with certain defeat, armies simply "melt away".[58]

On 22 December 2024, Ahmed al-Sharaa said that the new Syrian government would announce the new structure of the Syrian military within days.[59] On 24 December 2024, it was announced that the leaders of the different Syrian rebel forces would disband their forces and merge them under the defence ministry.[21]

On 26 December 2024, the "former forces of deposed leader Bashar al-Assad" killed 14 HTS fighters following the capture of Mohammad Kanjo Hassan. This has led to the Western Syria clashes (December 2024–present) against the new Syrian transitional government/regime.[60]

Structure

[edit]

Demographics and military service

[edit]
Bashar al-Assad (centre) alongside Syrian Defence Minister General Mustafa Tlass (right) and Military Chief of Staff Hasan Turkmani (left), both Ba'athist leaders. Military-Ba'ath party nexus constructed by Hafez al-Assad constituted the backbone of Assad regime's support base.

With its headquarters in Damascus, the Syrian military consisted of air, ground and naval forces. Active personnel were estimated as 295,000 in 2011, with an additional 314,000 reserves. Paramilitary forces were estimated at 108,000 in 2011.[61][62] Estimates of the declining size of the armed forces over time include[16] 141,400 as of June 2019. (50% shrinkage according to sources)[63][64] By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian military increased to 170,000.[18] Also in 2023, the number of active paramilitary and reserve forces in the Syrian military decreased up to 50,000.[18]

In 2011, the majority of the Syrian military were Sunni, but most of the military leadership were Alawites.[24][62] Alawites made up 12% of the pre-war Syrian population, but 70% of the career soldiers in the Syrian Army.[24][65] A similar imbalance was seen in the officer corps, where some 80% of the officers are Alawites. The military's most elite divisions, the Republican Guard and the 4th Armored Division, which were commanded by Bashar al-Assad's brother Maher, were exclusively Alawite. Most of Syria's 300,000 conscripts in 2011 were Sunni.[24][62]

Before the start of the Syrian Civil War, the obligatory military service period was being decreased over time. In 2005, it was reduced from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to a year and a half.[66] Since the Syrian Civil War the Syrian government has implemented a retention system for those in compulsory service (conscript retention into service after the specified period has passed) and enacted new regulations, with citizens who completed mandatory conscription being called up for reserve duty.[16] By 2020, with the Syrian government having regained control over a large portion of Syrian territory, the General Staff of the Army and Armed Forces issued several demobilization decisions from service (retention and reserve) in batches.[67]

Soldiers of the Syrian Armed Forces were divided into two main categories:[68]

  • Volunteers were those who join its ranks voluntarily after they reach eighteen years of age, of all ranks, specializations, and both sexes. They were promoted according to the internal regulations and receive a salary and compensation in return.
  • The assigned were males were called (exclusively) to serve in the army when they reach the age of eighteen and until they reach the age of forty-two, but they were exempted from service as long as they were single to their mothers, or do not have another brother capable of taking care of their parents or have an impediment such as a health condition that prevents them from performing their service.

There were also civilian employees and reserves in the ranks of the armed forces who were called to serve in times of war and emergencies.

Administrative departments

[edit]

Syrian Arab Army

[edit]
Main article: Syrian Arab Army
A Syrian soldier aims a Type 56 assault rifle from his position in a foxhole during Operation Desert Shield. The soldier is wearing a Soviet-made Model ShMS nuclear-biological-chemical warfare mask.

In 1987 Joshua Sinai of the Library of Congress wrote that the Syrian Arab Army (SAA) was the dominant military service, and as such controlled the senior-most posts in the armed forces and had the most manpower, approximately 80% of the combined services. In 1987 Joshua Sinai wrote that the major development in structural organization was the establishment of an additional divisional framework based on the special forces and the organization of ground formations into three corps.[74] In 2010, the International Institute for Strategic Studies estimated army regulars or professionals at 220,000, with an additional 280,000 reserves. That figure was unchanged in the 2011 edition of the Military Balance,[61] but in the 2013 edition, in the midst of the war, the IISS estimated that army strength was 110,000.[75] By the end of 2018, analysts estimated the SAA to have just 100,000 combat-ready troops.[75]

Between 2015 and 2018, the Syrian military under the supervision of Ministry of Defense underwent major structural changes, with the cooperation of Russia and Iran.[5] This reform reflected a broader trend of consolidation within the Army. Part of this included the recruitment and mass integration of reconciled rebels.[76] Since 2018, the Syrian military renewed its fortification and the annual training to prepare for war against Israel, while at the same time trying to increase its strategic independence.[5] The Syrian government invested major sums in rebuilding the Syrian military through force buildup and reorganization measures, including with new personnel appointments.[5][77]

By 2019, the Army's formations included three army corps (the 1st, 2nd and 3rd), one assault corps (5th), eight armored divisions, five mechanized divisions, two semi-autonomous reserve divisions, three armored/airborne special forces divisions and seven border guard regiments.[78][75] Evolution of the command structure, training and military system continued.[79]

Reports since the beginning of the war clarified the organisation of the army. In addition to the 14th Special Forces Division, the 15th Special Forces Division was identified by Human Rights Watch in 2011.[80] New Special Forces units formed during the war included 25th Special Mission Forces Division.[81] In addition, new regular army units such as 2nd Armored Division, 6th Armored Division and 8th Armored Division, were created by 2015.[78] Units reporting to the Chief of Staff are 4th Armored Division, the Republican Guard and 25th Special Mission Forces Division. The 4th Armored Division became one of the Syrian government's most trusted security forces.[82]

By 2023, the number of active soldiers in the Syrian Arab Army had increased to 130,000.[4] In April 2024, Major General Suhayl al-Hasan was named as commander of the Special Operations Forces (SOF) of the Syrian Army.[83] In July 2024, the first phase of training began to build and form new SOF units in the SAA.[84] The main aim was to create specialized military units comparable to the Special Operations Forces (SSO) in Russia.[85]

Air Force

[edit]
Main article: Syrian Arab Air Force

The Syrian Arab Air Force was the aviation branch of the Syrian Armed Forces. It was established in 1948 and saw combat in 1948, 1967, 1973 and in 1982 against Israel. It has seen combat against militant groups on Syrian soil from 2011 to 2012, during the Syrian civil war. Previously there were at least 15 Syrian air force bases throughout the country. In 2011, Russian sources reported 40,000 personnel in the Air Force,[citation needed] while Reuters reported 100,000.[62] In 2022 the Air Force was reportedly estimated at 15,000 strong.[86] Following the fall of Assad's regime, Israel executed several air strikes that have eliminated most of Syria's air force, according to foreign reports.[87]

[edit]
Main article: Syrian Arab Navy

In 1950 the Syrian Navy was established following the procurement of a few naval craft from France. The initial personnel consisted of soldiers who had been sent to French academies of naval training.[88] In 1985 the Navy consisted of approximately 4,000 regular and 2,500 reserve officers and men. The navy was under the army's Latakia regional command. The fleet was based in the ports of Latakia, Baniyas, Minat al Bayda and Tartus. Among the 41 vessel fleet were two frigates, 22 missile attack craft (including ten advanced Osa II missile boats), three old submarines, two submarine chasers, four mine warfare vessels, eight gunboats, six patrol craft, four missile corvettes (on order), three landing craft (on order), one torpedo recovery vessel and, as part of its coastal defense system, Sepal shore-based, anti-ship missiles with a range of 300 km. In 2011, the Navy was estimated have 5,000 personnel.[62] In 2022 it was estimated at 4,000.[89] After the downfall of the Assad regime, Israel launched a series of air and navy strike, targetting and eliminating the Syrian navy while at port.[87]

Air Force

[edit]
Main article: Syrian Air Defense Force

In 1986, according to the Library of Congress Country Studies, the Air Defence Command, within the Army Command but also composed of Air Force personnel, numbered approximately 60,000.[74] In 1987 units included 20 air defense brigades (with approximately 95 SAM batteries) and two air defense regiments. The Air Defence Command had command access to interceptor aircraft and radar facilities. Air defenses included SA-5 long-range SAM batteries around Damascus and Aleppo, with additional SA-6 and SA-8 mobile SAM units deployed along Syria's side of the Lebanese border and in eastern Lebanon.

At some later point in time, the Air Defence Command was upgraded into a separate Syrian Air Defense Force.[90] In 2022, it was reported as 21,000 strong.[91] Following the downfall of Assad's regime, Israel launched several air strikes eliminating Syria's air defence system, which it considers one of the most powerful air defense systems in the Middle East.[87][92]

Paramilitary forces

[edit]
See also: List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War § Syrian government and allies

References

[edit]
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