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Timeline of music in the United States (1850–1879)

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Timeline of music in the United States
Music history of the United States
Colonial erato the Civil WarDuring the Civil WarLate 19th century1900–19401950s1960s1970s1980s

This timeline of music in the United States covers the period from 1850 to 1879. It encompasses the California Gold Rush, the Civil War and Reconstruction, and touches on topics related to the intersections of music and law, commerce and industry, religion, race, ethnicity, politics, gender, education, historiography and academics. Subjects include folk, popular, theatrical and classical music, as well as Anglo-American, African American, Native American, Irish American, Arab American, Catholic, Swedish American, Shaker and Chinese American music.

1850

Early 1850s music trends
  • Henry Wehrmann and his wife become the most prominent engravers in the Southern music publishing industry.[15]
  • Self-consciously old-fashioned concerts, in period dress, presenting the music of the colonial-era United States become popular; they are known as Old Folks Concerts, and are first organized by Robert Kemp.[16]
  • The San Francisco opera tradition begins in 1850 and boasts international stars and a lively set of local performers by the middle of the decade.[17]
  • Popular songs become more "haunting and mawkish, the forerunner of the modern 'hurtin songs".[18]

1851

Lewis Henry Morgan, first ethnologist to perform a study of northeastern Native Americans.

1852

Catherine Hayes, one of the early stars of San Francisco opera

1853

  • Brooks K. Mould releases "Garden City Polka", the first copyrighted music published in Chicago. This is the beginning of that city's publishing industry.[33]
  • Firth, Pond & Company publish The Brass Band Journal, which includes the first band music to use the saxhorn.[3]
  • Frederick Law Olmsted gives one of the earliest depictions of an African American field holler, describing it as "a long, loud musical shout, rising and falling, and breaking into a crescendo... like a bugle call".[34]
  • George F. Root, William Bradbury and Lowell Mason organize the first Normal Musical Institute, a school offering training for music teachers, located in New York.[24][35] Root and Bradbury, with Thomas Hastings and Timothy Mason, collaborate on The Shawm, a popular collection of church music which they advertise as selling more in its first year of release than "any previous similar publication".[36]
  • Louis Antoine Jullien, a French conductor, forms an orchestra in New York, to great acclaim; his prominent use of the quadrille helps to spur the development of sheet music for that dance.[37]
  • Louis Gottschalk begins his concert career in the United States, already a renowned composer from his work in Europe.[38]
  • The first opera performed in Chicago is Lucia de Lammermoor.[39]
  • Virtuoso Norwegian violinist Ole Bull attracts an unprecedented 10,000 people to a concert in Memphis, Tennessee.
  • Phillip Werlein enters the music publishing business in New Orleans. He will go on to become one of the principal publishers of that city in the mid-19th century.[40]
  • Stephen Foster's "My Old Kentucky Home, Good Night" represents a radical shift in his approach to composition, abandoning the use of dialect and imparting a "blatant message (that) undoubtedly affect(s) working-class minstrel show audiences (who) would soon be called on to shed their blood to bring about the end of slavery in the United States".[14]
  • William Henry Fry's Santa Claus: Christmas Symphony is first performed. It is a controversial piece, and is probably the first American composition to use the saxophone. It also uses special effects that will not become common elements in such pieces until the following century, including a toy trumpet, sleigh bells, a whip, and the use of a double bass to make the sound of howling wind and a dying traveler.[41]
Mid 1850s music trends
  • Minstrel shows begin their second decade of popularity growing towards a "more limited, stereotyped portrayal of black characters."[42]
  • Saxhorns come to dominate the music of military bands.[43]

1854

1855

William Joseph Hardee
  • Henry Wadsworth Longfellow publishes a long poem called The Song of Hiawatha, which sparks a surge of interest in Native American culture; this helps to inspire many later attempts at fusing elements of Native American and European-derived musics.[55] Longfellow's work inspires many composers like Charles Crozat Converse's "The Death of Minnehaha".[56]
  • Louis Grunewald, one of the major music publishers of the Civil War era in New Orleans, enters the business for the first time.[57]
  • William Joseph Hardee publishes a two volume manual Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics: For the Exercise and Manoeuvres of Troops When Acting as Light Infantry or Riflemen. It contains the "General Calls" that will signal all the important events in daily military camp life for both the Confederate and Union armies in the coming Civil War.[58]

1856

  • W.C. Peters and Son, a music publishing company, releases a collection of hymns that is the first such collection published in the American Midwest.[59]

1857

Late 1850s music trends

1858

1859

  • "Dixie", a song by Dan Emmett premiers onstage in New York, soon becoming a rallying cry for both sides of the Civil War. The song will eventually become an iconic symbol of the South.[14][69]
  • James Hungerford, in his novel, The Old Plantation, and What I Gathered There in an Autumn Month, becomes one of the first to transcribe a melody from an African American slave song, a "boat song" from Southern Maryland.[70]
  • Patrick Gilmore, an Irish American bandleader, debuts his band in New York; the ensemble's professional and grandiose performances will make it one of the most popular of the Civil War era.[8][71]

1860

Early 1860s music trends
  • Music and theater in the South suffer, both in the lead-up to and initial stages of the Civil War, as few Southerners patronize performances. In particular, opera suffers as many opera managers and performers moved to Europe for the duration.[72]
  • Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music grows in popularity as well, due in no small part to the work of John Knowles Paine.[73]
  • Armand Blackmar and his brother, Henry, open a music publishing business in New Orleans. They will become one of the most prominent Southern publishing houses during the Civil War.[74][75] This year also sees the entry into the publishing business of John Schreiner of Macon, Georgia,[76] the most adventurous publisher of the war era.[66]
  • "The First Gun Is Fired! May God Protect the Right!" by George Frederick Root is inspired by the Battle of Fort Sumter, the first fighting of the American Civil War. The song is published only three days after the attack.[66]
  • With the death of Joch C. Walker, his company becomes known as Evans & Cogswell, the most important lithographer and printer in the Confederacy.[15]
  • San Francisco is home to 145 opera performances, making this year a watershed for opera, both in San Francisco and in the United States. An estimated 217,000 seats were sold in the year, in a city with a population of about 60,000. This level of popularity is unheard of in any North American city at any point in history.[77]
  • "The Palmetto State Song" is published, first of "what was to become the Confederate music collection".[78] It is the first published Confederate sheet music.[79]

1861

Clara Louise Kellogg, a prominent American vocalist.
  • The American Civil War begins. Before it ends, it will have a profound impact on American music, spurring the publishing of patriotic songs on both sides, the migration of African Americans, and their styles and instruments, to new locales and the mixing of the musics of many peoples and regions in diverse military units.[80] The Civil War will also stimulate the production of brass instruments and drums.[81]
  • The Battle of First Manassas is among a number of early Southern victories that are "confidently celebrated in broadsides and sheet music, no matter how insignificant the outcome". Other important victories include the Battle of Wilson's Creek and the Battle of Belmont.[82]
  • Clara Louise Kellogg, a professional soloist, debuts at the New York Academy of Music, soon becoming a company manager and major figure in American opera history.[83]
  • Thomas Baker publishes the first "sheet-music publication of any black spiritual", Song of the Contrabands.[84] Harriet Tubman's "Go Down, Moses" is the first spiritual published with music in the United States.[85][86] It is also the most famous contraband song, or those spirituals which refugee slaves (contrabands) brought to Fortress Monroe, Virginia; for many white northerners, these songs became their first significant contact with spirituals.[87]
  • Harry Macarthy writes "The Bonnie Blue Flag", which becomes a popular Confederate anthem[14] after he performs it for the Texas Rangers and other soldiers at the Academy of Music in New Orleans. The success of the song and his "Personation Concerts", which feature impersonations of dialects and accents, made him the "best-known and best-loved entertainer of the Civil War"[88]
  • A fire destroys Hibernian Hall, the major theater of the city of Charleston, South Carolina; though the Hall is rebuilt, it never regains its former reputation.[89]
  • The most comprehensive collection of hymns in American history, Hymns Ancient and Modern, is first published. By the time its second edition is released in 1875, it will be by far the dominant Anglican hymnal in the country.[90]
  • A secessionist attack on Union troops in Baltimore inspire James Ryder Randall to write "Maryland, My Maryland". The song became perhaps the most enduring of the era and reflects the bitter partisanship of border states like Maryland. It is eventually chosen as the state song of Maryland.[91][92] The song is set to music later that year by members of the Baltimore Glee Club, including the prominent pro-Confederate Cary family, most famously Hetty Cary.[93] During the attack, the military musicians drop their instruments and flee.[94] Four bandsmen die, the first such casualties of the Civil War.[95]
  • Jefferson Davis is inaugurated President of the Confederacy in Montgomery, Alabama. Local bandleader Hermann Arnold, adapts "Dixie" into a military quickstep for the event. The song energizes the crowd, and Davis concludes that "Dixie" should be the national anthem for the Confederacy. Notable alternative versions are soon proffered, including the defiant "war song" version of Albert Pike and one by Henry Troop Stanton, known at the time as the "Poet Laureate of Kentucky".[96] A number of popular songs are published later in the year, celebrating Davis, most famously including "Our First President's Quickstep".[97]
  • The Northern Army, having already occupied Port Royal, South Carolina, sends an educational mission to care for the large African American population; Lucy McKim Garrison is among the northern visitors, and her study is the "first account of (African American spirituals) that attempted to describe some of their characteristic features". Her work will later be used in the influential collection Slave Songs of the United States.[98][99]
  • Congress authorizes the hiring of musicians in varying amounts for infantry, cavalry and artillery units in the U.S. Army.[95]

1862

General Dan Butterfield,composer of "Taps", after the bloody Seven Days Battles. of the Civil War
  • "The Battle Hymn of the Republic", with words by Julia Ward Howe, is first published; it, and "Battle Cry of Freedom" by George Frederick Root, become perhaps the most influential pro-Union songs of the Civil War.[14][100]
  • The Confederate government institutes conscription, leading to a number of songs that negatively described the conscripts as having a tendency to desert and act cowardly in battle.[101]
  • Union general Dan Butterfield composes the modern melody known as "Taps", after the Seven Days Battles; this is the only new field music to appear during the Civil War.[102]
  • To reassert Northern ownership of the song, "Dixie", which is wildly popular in both the North and the South and claimed as a patriotic anthem in both areas, is incorporated into this year's reissue of The Drummer's and Fifer's Guide, the unofficial manual for field music in the Union army.[103]
  • George F. Root writes "Just Before the Battle, Mother", the most popular of many Civil War era songs that focus on the love of a soldier for his mother; the song is first published only in the North, but becomes popular in the South too after being published there in 1865.[104] The song, along with "Battle Cry of Freedom", "The Vacant Chair" and "Tramp, Tramp, Tramp (or the Prisoner's Hope)", become among Root's most enduring, and among the most popular of the Civil War.[105]
  • Hood's Minstrels build themselves a log cabin theater to perform in, and become the best-known of the amateur Confederate military bands of the Civil War.[106]
  • John Williamson Palmer writes and publishes anonymously the popular song "Stonewall Jackson's Way", which celebrates General Stonewall Jackson.[107]
  • The song "Maryland, My Maryland", though still a popular rallying cry for Confederate soldiers and sympathizers, endures a backlash that relegates it to a second tier Confederate anthem (compared to the other two major contenders, "Dixie" and "Bonnie Blue Flag") after it becomes apparent that Maryland will not join the Confederacy, both due to a lack of support in much of the state and the ending of the Southern invasion of Maryland with the Battle of Antietam.[108]
  • William Miller and Joseph R. Beacham form Miller & Beacham after purchasing the music publishing firm originally formed by John Cole in Baltimore; the company will published many of the most popular Confederate songs during the Civil War.[78]
  • The Richmond Theater, the most important concert stage in Richmond, Virginia, burns down. Concerts immediately moved to the nearby Franklin Hall.[109]
  • Root & Cady publishes The Silver Lute, the first music book printed in Chicago. It will go on to be used in the Chicago school system.[61]
  • Popular Confederate sheet music and broadsides switch from grandly celebrating the South's early victories to laments that heralded "martial deeds (but also) began to eulogize sacrifice" after a series of setbacks, including the bloody stalemate at Shiloh. Very few victories are celebrated in Southern song after the defeat at the Battle of Fredericksburg.[110]
  • Congress abolishes regimental bands in the U.S. Army to cut costs, replacing them with brigade bands. The pay and rank of bandsmen is reduced as well.[95]
  • Will S. Hays, a popular Kentuckian songwriter, publishes "The Drummer Boy of Shiloh", an important work influenced by Irish and Italian songs.[14]
Mid 1860s music trends
  • American bands begin touring widely across the country, a practice formerly associated mostly with renowned European performers.[8]
  • The Civil War leads to greater female participation in music throughout the nation, in part due to the absence of male performers and managers fighting in the war. Other factors include the precedent-setting wave of English female composers during the same era, the growth in recognition for the composers of parlor songs and dances and the birth of a specialized wave of magazines and other businesses catering to female clientele.[111]
  • Major Confederate music publishing houses arise throughout the South, including that of Armand Blackmar of New Orleans, and later, Columbus, Georgia, Joseph Block of Mobile, Alabama, and John Schreiner's business headquartered in Macon, Georgia. Other music publishing firms in the South are located in Richmond, Virginia, Augusta, Georgia, Savannah, Georgia, Charleston, South Carolina and Columbia, South Carolina.[112]
  • A distinctive Irish-American song tradition takes shape, while the Irish begin to enter the theater business in large numbers.[113]
  • Community professional bands begin flourishing across the country. Wind ensembles are especially popular.[114]

1863

1864

  • The ever-diminishing food ration of the Confederate army soldier is cut again, leading to a fresh array of songs popular among soldiers and complaining of the poor food situation.[125]
  • George F. Root publishes "Tramp! Tramp! Tramp! (The Prisoner's Hope)"; the song is about being a prisoner of war, and is popular among Northern soldiers, selling one hundred thousand copies in six months. This year's "All Quiet Along the Potomac Tonight" by John Hill Hewitt and "Tenting on the Old Camp Ground" by Walter Kittredge are also popular hits.[14]
  • General Jeb Stuart is killed at the Battle of Yellow Tavern; Stuart, who was both a "'man's man' admired widely for his courage, and a 'lady's man', the heartthrob of the Confederacy", was a noted banjoist who led his men into battle singing. He was the "most flamboyant figure in the Confederacy".[126]
  • Despite the increasingly desperate military position of the South, the capital city of Richmond, Virginia is home to a large amount of merrymaking and festivities, including regular parties held by Jefferson Davis and his wife, Varina.[127]
  • Sheet music and broadsides popular among Southerners, especially soldiers, reflect the battered Confederate military efforts, celebrating the sacrifices of Southern soldiers, also stressing the "common bond of sacrifice between men in the field and women at home". Songs described women enduring hardships and learning to endure without the comforts that had previously been ordered from the industrious north.[128]

1865

  • En route to his second inauguration, Abraham Lincoln is perceived as cowardly sneaking through the city of Baltimore to avoid a potential assassination plot. The incident inspires a number of popular Confederate songs ridiculing Lincoln, whose behavior and appearance are criticized in much of Confederate popular music.[129]
  • Benjamin Jepson, one of the first primary school music teachers in the country, leads the introduction of music education into the public school system of New Haven, Connecticut.[23]
  • George Bruce and Daniel Emmett publish The Drummers and Fifers Guide, an important pedagogical work of the Civil War.[130]
  • The first African American minstrel troupes are formed, beginning with the Georgia Minstrels, led by W. H. Lee and based originally out of Macon, Georgia;[131] the second, and more historically notable line-up, is led by Charles "Barney" Hicks, and tours the Northeast, inspiring a wave of imitators.[132][133] It will be the most successful black minstrel group.[134]
  • The Oberlin College-Conservatory is one of the earliest and most influential music conservatories.[24]
  • Theodore Thomas forms an orchestra that he led both artistically and financially, in stark contrast to the norm at the time. Under his leadership, the orchestra is soon viewed as perhaps the best in the country.[135] Thomas will go on to play a "major role in bringing symphonic music to the American people".[136]
  • Tony Pastor's Opera House opens, marking the beginning of the development of vaudeville.[14]
  • An article entitled "The Negro Dialect" by William Francis Allen in The Nation is one of the first to use the word spiritual in a musical sense.[137]
Late 1860s music trends
  • In some urban areas, a cappella Norwegian and Swedish American choruses become commonplace, while Lutheran colleges begin sponsoring concert choirs.[64]

1866

  • The Black Crook premiers at Niblo's Garden in New York City, using a melodrama and a French ballet troupe whose venue burnt to the ground while they still rehearsed. The "result was an unprecedented triumph", and the show's mixture of "melodrama, dance, music, extraordinary special effects, and mild eroticism... dazzled far beyond any previous theatrical conception".[14] The show is one of the major events in the early history of the extravaganza. Music was credited to Thomas Baker, author of "Transformation Polka".[138] The venue was the managed by the first female theatrical manager in the country.[139]
  • George B. Loomis begins teaching music. He will be the first superintendent of music in the Indianapolis public school system, and will publish Loomis' Progressive Music Lessons, a commonly used music education book in Indiana and surrounding states. He will also co-found the Indiana Music Teachers Association, one of the first such organizations in the country.[140]

1867

The Black Crook finale

1868

  • John Thomas Douglass' Virginia's Ball is the first documented opera composed by an African American;[54] it is now lost, but was performed at least once, in New York in this year.[155]
  • "Shí naashá is composed to commemorate the Navajos' release from a four-year stretch of imprisonment at Fort Sumner, New Mexico. It will become "probably the best known Navajo song".[156]

1869

Fisk Jubilee Singers

1870

Early 1870s music trends

1871

1872

  • Preacher Dwight Moody and singer Ira Sankey, having published a wildly popular series of books entitled Gospel Hymns and Sacred Songs, perform in a series of concerts that establish a religious revival in the urban north.[171] Their travels "firmly (establish) the gospel hymn as an effective song genre for use in Sunday Schools and revival meetings".[172]
  • Ned Harrigan and Tony Hart begin a run at the Theatre Comique in New York, marking "their big breakthrough". They will become most famous for the song "The Mulligan Guards", with music by David Braham.[173]
Dwight Moody

1873

  • San Francisco begins passing laws limiting the use of ceremonial Chinese gongs.[27]
  • John Singenberger organizes the American St. Cecilia Society, an important organization in the revival of the Roman Catholic masses and motets of Palestrina. The Society sought "to restore to the liturgy Gregorian chant and polyphony in the style of Palestrina".[177]
  • Patrick Gilmore, a popular bandleader, organizes a band for the Twenty-second Regiment of New York, soon becoming the most influential professional music ensemble in the country.[8]
  • P. T. Barnum adds an African American jubilee choir to his act, calling himself the first to use a "full band" of African Americans in a "menagerie and circus".[178]
  • Barber William T. Benjamin forms the first African American opera company, and the first opera company of any kind in Washington, D.C., based out of a local Roman Catholic church.[179]
Mid 1870s music trends

1874

Scribner's Magazine

1875

1876

1877

Late 1870s music trends
  • The golden age of Chinese theatre in the United States begins.[27]
  • Sebastian Yradiers "La Paloma" popularizes the habanera in the United States.[191]
  • The Dakota Drum Dance is introduced to the Native Americans of the Great Lakes region; this is a set of beliefs that revolve around a legendary woman named Turkey Tailfeather Woman, who is said to have escaped from the American military and received instructions to build and use a large, ceremonial drum while in hiding. The religion based around this drum will spread throughout the region, and the drum itself will become the ancestor of the big drum used in modern powwow ceremonies.[157]
  • Thomas Edison invents the technology to record sound, using a tin-foil cylinder phonograph.[192][193][194] His first recording is "Mary Had a Little Lamb".[195]

1878

1879

References

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  • Cornelius, Steven (2004). Music of the Civil War Era. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-313-32081-0.
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Notes

  1. ^ Abel, pg. 249
  2. ^ Keeling, Richard. "California". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Herzog, George (1928). "The Yuman Musical Style". Journal of American Folklore. 41 (160): 183–231. doi:10.2307/534896. JSTOR 534896. and Nettl, Bruno (1954). North American Indian Musical Styles. Philadelphia: American Folklore Society.. pp. 412–419. {{cite book}}: External link in |others= (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |others= at position 1 (help)
  3. ^ a b Hansen, pg. 223
  4. ^ Chase, pg. 144
  5. ^ Crawford, pg. 186
  6. ^ Horn, David. "Impresario". The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. pp. 548–549.
  7. ^ Burk, Meierhoff and Phillips, pg. 207
  8. ^ a b c d Preston, Katherine K.; Susan Key, Judith Tick, Frank J. Cipolla and Raoul F. Camus. "Snapshot: Four Views of Music in the United States". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 554–569.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Clarke, pg. 57
  10. ^ Southern, pg. 106
  11. ^ a b c d Crawford, pg. 193
  12. ^ Bird, pg. 320
  13. ^ Crawford, pg. 210
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Cockrell, Dale and Andrew M. Zinck, "Popular Music of the Parlor and Stage", pgs. 179–201, in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music
  15. ^ a b Abel, pg. 258
  16. ^ Chase, pg. 136
  17. ^ Crawford, pgs. 191–194
  18. ^ Abel, pg. 136
  19. ^ Abel, pg. 133
  20. ^ Crawford, pg. 427
  21. ^ Southern, pg. 103
  22. ^ Levine, Victoria Lindsay. "Northeast". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. Morgan, Henry Louis (1962) [1852]. League of the Ho-dé-no-sau-nee or Iroquois. Secaucus, New Jersey: Citadel Press.. pp. 461–465. {{cite book}}: templatestyles stripmarker in |others= at position 1 (help)
  23. ^ a b c Birge, pg. 65, citing Francis M. Dickey's The Early History of Public School Music in the United States
  24. ^ a b c d e f Colwell, Richard; James W. Pruett and Pamela Bristah. "Education". New Grove Dictionary of Music. pp. 11–21.
  25. ^ Chase, pg. 256
  26. ^ Shanet, Howard. "Eisfeld, Theodor(e)". New Grove Dictionary of American Music. pp. 24–25.
  27. ^ a b c Zheng, Su. "Chinese Music". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 957–966.
  28. ^ Crawford, pg. 235
  29. ^ Blum, Stephen. "Sources, Scholarship and Historiography" in the Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, pgs. 21–37
  30. ^ Southern, pg. 210
  31. ^ Elson, University Musical Encyclopedia, pg. 102
  32. ^ Chase, pg. 204
  33. ^ a b Pruter, Robert; Paul Oliver and The Editors. "Chicago". The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World. Retrieved July 9, 2008. {{cite book}}: |author2= has generic name (help)
  34. ^ Darden, pg. 44
  35. ^ Chase, pg. 143
  36. ^ Chase, pg. 142; Chase cites an advertisement from 1855.
  37. ^ Crawford, pgs. 285–286
  38. ^ Chase, pg. 291
  39. ^ Burk, Meierhoff and Phillips, pg. 163
  40. ^ Abel, pg. 267
  41. ^ Chase, pg. 312
  42. ^ Crawford, pg. 217
  43. ^ Crawford, pg. 274
  44. ^ Rasmussen, Anne K. "Middle Eastern Music". The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music. pp. 1028–1041.
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Further reading

  • Bank, Rosemarie K. (1997). Theatre Culture in America, 1825–1860. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-56387-9.
  • Bernard, Kenneth A. (1966). Lincoln and the Music of the Civil War. Caxton Printers.
  • Bowden, Pamela Victoria (1987). Regional Music Publishing of the Civil War Era: An Analysis and Transcript. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
  • Michigan Civil War Centennial Observance Commission (1965). The Effect of the Civil War on Music in Michigan.
  • Currie, Stephen (1992). Music in the Civil War. F & W Publications. ISBN 1-55870-263-6.
  • Erbsen, Wayne (2001). Rousing Songs & True Tales of the Civil War. Native Ground Books & Music. ISBN 1-883206-33-2.
  • Gale, Robert L. (1993). A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1850s in America. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28524-1.
  • Hungerford, James (1859). The Old Plantation, and What I Gathered There in an Autumn Month. Harper & Brothers.
  • Moon, Krystyn R. (2004). Yellowface: Creating the Chinese in American Popular Music and Performance, 1850s-1920s. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-3506-9.
  • Oblad, MeriLyn (2004). Sentimental Songs: Gendered Notions of Duty in American Civil War Music. Brigham Young University.
  • Olson, Kenneth E. (1981). Music and Musket: Bands and Bandsmen of the American Civil War. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-22112-X.
  • Lord, Francis A.; Arthur Wise (1979). Bands and Drummer Boys of the Civil War. Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-79571-X.
  • Saffle, Michael (1998). Music and Culture in America, 1861–1918. Routledge. ISBN 0-8153-2125-2.
  • Silber, Irwin; Jerry Silverman (1995). Songs of the Civil War. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-28438-7.
  • Thompson, David Bruce (1997). Piano Music in the South During the Civil War Period, 1855–1870. University of South Carolina.
  • Trotter, James M. (1878). Music and Some Highly Musical People. New York: Charles T. Dillingham.
  • Wincenciak, Sue Lockhart (1971). An Investigation of the Persuasive Impact of Popular Music During the Civil War. Kent State University.
  • Wondrich, David (2003). Stomp and Swerve: American Music Gets Hot, 1843–1924. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 1-55652-496-X.
  • Woodbury, Isaac Baker (1850). The Dulcimer. F.J. Huntington.