Rapeseed: Difference between revisions

Rapeseed
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Plantae
Clade:	Tracheophytes
Clade:	Angiosperms
Clade:	Eudicots
Clade:	Rosids
Order:	Brassicales
Family:	Brassicaceae
Genus:	Brassica
Species:	B. napus
Binomial name
	Brassica napus; L.

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Revision as of 23:08, 2 February 2023

Rapeseed (Brassica napus subsp. napus), also known as rape, or oilseed rape, is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family Brassicaceae (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of erucic acid. The term canola denotes a group of rapeseed cultivars which were bred to have very low levels of erucic acid and are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of vegetable oil and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.^[2]^[3]

Description

Brassica napus grows to 100 cm (39 in) in height with hairless, fleshy, pinnatifid and glaucous lower leaves^[4]^[5]^[6] which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no petioles.^[7] B. napus can be distinguished from B. nigra by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and from B. rapa by its smaller petals which are less than 13 mm (1⁄2 in) across.^[5]

Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about 17 mm (2⁄3 in) across.^[5] They are radial and consist of four petals in a typical cross-form, alternating with four sepals. They have indeterminate racemose flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days. The flowers have two lateral stamens with short filaments, and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower's center upon flowering.^[8]

The rapeseed pods are green and elongated siliquae during development that eventually ripen to brown. They grow on pedicels 1 to 3 cm (3⁄8 to 1+3⁄16 in) long, and can range from 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in) in length.^[7] Each pod has two compartments separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develops.^[9] The seeds are round and have a diameter of 1.5 to 3 mm (1⁄16 to 1⁄8 in). They have a reticulate surface texture,^[7] and are black and hard at maturity.^[9]

Etymology and taxonomy

The term "rape" derives from the Latin word for turnip, rāpa or rāpum, cognate with the Greek word ῥάφη, rhaphe.^[10]

The species Brassica napus belongs to the flowering plant family Brassicaceae. Rapeseed is a subspecies with the autonym B. napus subsp. napus.^[11] It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape.^[12] Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form variety (B. napus var. pabularia) which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable.^[13]^[12] The second subspecies of B. napus is B. napus subsp. rapifera (also subsp. napobrassica; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).^[14]^[15]

B. napus is a digenomic amphidiploid that occurred due to the interspecific hybridization between B. oleracea and B. rapa.^[16] It is a self-compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid Brassica species.^[17]

Ecology

In Northern Ireland, U K B. napus and B. rapa are recorded as escapes in roadside verges and waste ground.^[18]

Uses

Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, animal feed, and biodiesel. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after soybean and palm oil.^[2] It is the world's second-leading source of protein meal after soybean.^[3]

Vegetable oil

Rapeseed oil is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of erucic acid, which is damaging to cardiac muscle of animals, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed.^[19] Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid.^[20] Food-grade oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, known as canola oil or low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil (LEAR oil), has been generally recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration.^[21] Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US^[21] and 2% in the EU,^[22] with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human infants.^[21]^[23]

Animal feed

Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. Rapeseed is an excellent silage crop (fermented and stored in air-tight conditions for later use as a winterfeed). The feed is employed mostly for cattle feeding, but is also used for pigs and poultry.^[3] However, the high levels of erucic acid and glucosinolates in natural rapeseed oil significantly lowers the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed.^[24] Rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed in China.^[25]

Biodiesel

Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as biodiesel, straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel diesel in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,^{[citation needed]} partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower gel point than most other vegetable oils.

Because of the changes to the environment caused by climate change, a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels.^[26]

Other

Rapeseed is also used as a cover crop in the US during the winter as it prevents soil erosion, produces large amounts of biomass, suppresses weeds and can improve soil tilth with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting.^[27]

Rapeseed has a high melliferous potential (produces substances that can be collected by insects) and is a main forage crop for honeybees.^[28] Monofloral rapeseed honey has a whitish or milky yellow color, peppery taste and, due to its fast crystallization time, a soft-solid texture. It crystallizes within 3 to 4 weeks and can ferment over time if stored improperly.^[29] The low fructose-to-glucose ratio in monofloral rapeseed honey causes it to quickly granulate in the honeycomb, forcing beekeepers to extract the honey within 24 hours of it being capped.^[28]

As a biolubricant, rapeseed has possible uses for bio-medical applications (e.g., lubricants for artificial joints) and the use of personal lubricant for sexual purposes.^[30] Biolubricant containing 70% or more canola/rapeseed oil has replaced petroleum-based chainsaw oil in Austria although it is typically more expensive.^[31]

Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing radionuclides that contaminated the soil after the Chernobyl disaster^[32]^[33] as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.^[32]

Rapeseed meal can be incorporated into the soil as a biofumigant.^[34] It suppresses such fungal crop pathogens as Rhizoctonia solani and Pratylenchus penetr.^[34]^: 39

Cultivation

Crops from the genus Brassica, including rapeseed, were among the earliest plants to be widely cultivated by mankind as early as 10,000 years ago. Rapeseed was being cultivated in India as early as 4000 B.C. and it spread to China and Japan 2000 years ago.^[12]

Rapeseed oil is predominantly cultivated in its winter form in most of Europe and Asia due to the requirement of vernalization to start the process of flowering. It is sown in autumn and remains in a leaf rosette on the soil surface during the winter. The plant grows a long vertical stem in the next spring followed by lateral branch development. It generally flowers in late spring with the process of pod development and ripening occurring over a period of 6–8 weeks until midsummer.^[8]

In Europe, winter rapeseed is grown as an annual break crop in three to four-year rotations with cereals such as wheat and barley, and break crops such as peas and beans. This is done to reduce the possibility of pests and diseases being carried over from one crop to another.^[35] Winter rape is less susceptible to crop failure as it is more vigorous than the summer variety and can compensate for damage done by pests.^[36]

Spring rapeseed is cultivated in Canada, northern Europe and Australia as it is not winter-hardy and does not require vernalization. The crop is sown in spring with stem development happening immediately after germination.^[8]

Rapeseed can be cultivated on a wide variety of well-drained soils, prefers a pH between 5.5 and 8.3 and has a moderate tolerance of soil salinity.^[27] It is predominantly a wind-pollinated plant but shows significantly increased grain yields when bee-pollinated,^[37] almost double the final yield^[28] but the effect is cultivar dependent.^[38] It is currently grown with high levels of nitrogen-containing fertilisers, and the manufacture of these generates N₂O. An estimated 3–5% of nitrogen provided as fertilizer for rapeseed is converted to N₂O.^[39]

Rapeseed has a high demand for nutrients. Especially its sulphur demand is the highest among all arable crops. Since the decrease of atmospheric sulphur inputs during the 1980s sulphur fertilization has become a standard measure in oilseed rape production.^[40]^[41] Among the micronutrients rapeseed special attention in rapeseed cultivation has to be given to boron,^[42] manganese^[43] and molybdenum.^[44]

Climate change

The cultivatable range for rapeseed is both expected to decrease due to climate change, and where rapeseed is grown quality of the crop, in both yield and volume of oil is expected to decrease substantially.^[26] Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties of Brassica for cultivation.^[26]

Diseases and pests

The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are canker, light leaf spot (Pyrenopeziza brassicae), alternaria- and sclerotinia- stem rots. Canker causes leaf spotting, and premature ripening and weakening of the stem during the autumn-winter (fall-winter) period. A conazole- or triazole- fungicide treatment is required in late autumn (fall) and in spring against canker while broad-spectrum fungicides are used during the spring-summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control.^[45] Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil-borne diseases such as sclerotinia, verticillium wilt and clubroot.^[35]

Transgenic rapeseed shows great promise for disease resistance.^[46] Transexpression of a class II chitinase from barley (Hordeum vulgare) and a type I ribosome inactivating protein into B. juncea produces a large fungal resistance effect.^[46] Chhikara et al., 2012^[47] finds that this combination of transgenes reduces hyphal growth by 44% and delays disease presentation in Alternaria brassicicola of juncea.^[46]

Pests

Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects, nematodes, slugs as well as wood pigeons.^[48] The brassica pod midge (Dasineura brassicae), cabbage seed weevil (Ceutorhynchus assimilis), cabbage stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus), cabbage stem flea beetle (Psylliodes chrysocephala), rape stem weevil (Ceutorhynchus napi) and pollen beetles are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe.^[49] The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds, bore into the plant's stem and feed on pollen, leaves and flowers. Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large-scale use of prophylactic insecticides in many countries.^[45] Molluscicide pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs.^[48]

Genetics and breeding

In 2014 an SNP array was released for B. napus by Dalton-Morgan et al.,^[50] and another by Clarke et al., in 2016,^[51] both of which have since become widely used in molecular breeding. In a demonstration of the importance of epigenetics, Hauben et al., 2009 found that isogenic lines did not have identical energy use efficiencies in actual growing conditions, due to epigenetic differences.^[52] Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) was applied to B. napus by Geng et al., in 2016, revealing the genetics of the past domestication process, providing data for genome-wide association studies (GWAS), and being used to construct a high-density linkage map.^[52]

History of the cultivars

In 1973, Canadian agricultural scientists launched a marketing campaign to promote canola consumption.^[53] Seed, oil, and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which are low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of the Canola Council of Canada, as "canola".^[54]^[55] Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed, but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 µmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal."^[55]^[56] In the 1980ies decreasing atmospherical sulphur inputs to Norher European soils in connection with a less efficient internal use of sulphur in the metabolism of the new bred low glucosinolate varieties (00-varieties) resulted in an increased appearance of white flowering, a highly spcifice symptom of sulphur deficiency, in rapeseed crops ^[57] which during the official variety assessment procedures was wrongly attributed to a genetic inhomogeneity ("Canadian blood").^[58]

The anticipated damages of wild animals caused by foraging on 00-oilseed rape crops was caused by a shift of the animals diet towards increased uptake protein and sulphur containing metabolites at the expense of fibers, but not to specific feaatures of the genetically alterated 00-varieties.^[59]

Following the European Parliament's Transport Biofuels Directive in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels, the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe.^[28]

Bayer Cropscience, in collaboration with BGI-Shenzhen, China, KeyGene, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome of B. napus and its constituent genomes present in B. rapa and B. oleracea in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species B. napus is currently being sequenced by the Multinational Brassica Genome Project.^[60]^{[needs update]}

A genetically modified variety of rapeseed was developed in 1998, engineered for glyphosate tolerance, and is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. By 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort.^[61]

GMO cultivars

The Monsanto company genetically engineered new cultivars of rapeseed to be resistant to the effects of its herbicide, Roundup. In 1998, they brought this to the Canadian market. Monsanto sought compensation from farmers found to have crops of this cultivar in their fields without paying a license fee. However, these farmers claimed that the pollen containing the Roundup Ready gene was blown into their fields and crossed with unaltered canola. Other farmers claimed that after spraying Roundup in non-canola fields to kill weeds before planting, Roundup Ready volunteers were left behind, causing extra expense to rid their fields of the weeds.^[62]

In a closely followed legal battle, the Supreme Court of Canada found in favor of Monsanto's patent infringement claim for unlicensed growing of Roundup Ready in its 2004 ruling on Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser, but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection of genetically modified crops. In March 2008, an out-of-court settlement between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm, at a cost of about CAN$660.^[62]

Production

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) reports global production of 36 million metric tons (40 million short tons; 35 million long tons) in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated 58.4 million metric tons (64.4 million short tons; 57.5 million long tons) in the 2010–2011 season.^[63]

Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of biodiesel has been steadily increasing in EU and U.S. to 6 million metric tons (6.6 million short tons; 5.9 million long tons) in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.^[64]

Top rapeseed producers in millions of tonnes (STs LTs)^[65]^[66]
Country	1965	1975	1985	1995	2000	2005	2007	2009	2011	2012	2013	2014	2015	2016	2017	2018	2019	MT\|ST LT}}
Canada	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons)	3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons)	6.4 metric tons (7.1 short tons; 6.3 long tons)	7.2 metric tons (7.9 short tons; 7.1 long tons)	9.4 metric tons (10.4 short tons; 9.3 long tons)	9.6 metric tons (10.6 short tons; 9.4 long tons)	11.8 metric tons (13.0 short tons; 11.6 long tons)	14.2 metric tons (15.7 short tons; 14.0 long tons)	15.4 metric tons (17.0 short tons; 15.2 long tons)	17.9 metric tons (19.7 short tons; 17.6 long tons)	15.5 metric tons (17.1 short tons; 15.3 long tons)	18.4 metric tons (20.3 short tons; 18.1 long tons)	18.4 metric tons (20.3 short tons; 18.1 long tons)	21.3 metric tons (23.5 short tons; 21.0 long tons)	20.3 metric tons (22.4 short tons; 20.0 long tons)	18.6 metric tons (20.5 short tons; 18.3 long tons)	19.5 metric tons (21.5 short tons; 19.2 long tons)
China	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons)	5.6 metric tons (6.2 short tons; 5.5 long tons)	9.8 metric tons (10.8 short tons; 9.6 long tons)	11.3 metric tons (12.5 short tons; 11.1 long tons)	13.0 metric tons (14.3 short tons; 12.8 long tons)	10.5 metric tons (11.6 short tons; 10.3 long tons)	13.5 metric tons (14.9 short tons; 13.3 long tons)	13.4 metric tons (14.8 short tons; 13.2 long tons)	14.0 metric tons (15.4 short tons; 13.8 long tons)	14.4 metric tons (15.9 short tons; 14.2 long tons)	14.8 metric tons (16.3 short tons; 14.6 long tons)	14.9 metric tons (16.4 short tons; 14.7 long tons)	15.3 metric tons (16.9 short tons; 15.1 long tons)	13.3 metric tons (14.7 short tons; 13.1 long tons)	13.3 metric tons (14.7 short tons; 13.1 long tons)	13.5 metric tons (14.9 short tons; 13.3 long tons)	14.0 metric tons (15.4 short tons; 13.8 long tons)
India	1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons)	2.3 metric tons (2.5 short tons; 2.3 long tons)	3.1 metric tons (3.4 short tons; 3.1 long tons)	5.8 metric tons (6.4 short tons; 5.7 long tons)	5.8 metric tons (6.4 short tons; 5.7 long tons)	7.6 metric tons (8.4 short tons; 7.5 long tons)	7.4 metric tons (8.2 short tons; 7.3 long tons)	7.2 metric tons (7.9 short tons; 7.1 long tons)	8.2 metric tons (9.0 short tons; 8.1 long tons)	6.8 metric tons (7.5 short tons; 6.7 long tons)	7.8 metric tons (8.6 short tons; 7.7 long tons)	7.9 metric tons (8.7 short tons; 7.8 long tons)	6.3 metric tons (6.9 short tons; 6.2 long tons)	6.8 metric tons (7.5 short tons; 6.7 long tons)	7.9 metric tons (8.7 short tons; 7.8 long tons)	8.4 metric tons (9.3 short tons; 8.3 long tons)	9.3 metric tons (10.3 short tons; 9.2 long tons)	9.1 metric tons (10.0 short tons; 9.0 long tons)
France	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons)	3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons)	4.5 metric tons (5.0 short tons; 4.4 long tons)	4.7 metric tons (5.2 short tons; 4.6 long tons)	5.6 metric tons (6.2 short tons; 5.5 long tons)	5.4 metric tons (6.0 short tons; 5.3 long tons)	5.5 metric tons (6.1 short tons; 5.4 long tons)	4.4 metric tons (4.9 short tons; 4.3 long tons)	5.5 metric tons (6.1 short tons; 5.4 long tons)	5.3 metric tons (5.8 short tons; 5.2 long tons)	4.7 metric tons (5.2 short tons; 4.6 long tons)	5.3 metric tons (5.8 short tons; 5.2 long tons)	5.0 metric tons (5.5 short tons; 4.9 long tons)	3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons)	3.3 metric tons (3.6 short tons; 3.2 long tons)
Pakistan	<0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons)	<0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons)	<0.03 metric tons (0.033 short tons; 0.030 long tons)	<0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)	2.4 metric tons (2.6 short tons; 2.4 long tons)	2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons)	1.7 metric tons (1.9 short tons; 1.7 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons)	2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons)	3.3 metric tons (3.6 short tons; 3.2 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)
Germany	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)	3.1 metric tons (3.4 short tons; 3.1 long tons)	3.6 metric tons (4.0 short tons; 3.5 long tons)	5.0 metric tons (5.5 short tons; 4.9 long tons)	5.3 metric tons (5.8 short tons; 5.2 long tons)	6.3 metric tons (6.9 short tons; 6.2 long tons)	3.9 metric tons (4.3 short tons; 3.8 long tons)	4.8 metric tons (5.3 short tons; 4.7 long tons)	5.8 metric tons (6.4 short tons; 5.7 long tons)	6.2 metric tons (6.8 short tons; 6.1 long tons)	5.0 metric tons (5.5 short tons; 4.9 long tons)	4.6 metric tons (5.1 short tons; 4.5 long tons)	4.3 metric tons (4.7 short tons; 4.2 long tons)	3.7 metric tons (4.1 short tons; 3.6 long tons)	2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons)	3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons)
Australia	<0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons)	<0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons)	2.4 metric tons (2.6 short tons; 2.4 long tons)	3.4 metric tons (3.7 short tons; 3.3 long tons)	4.1 metric tons (4.5 short tons; 4.0 long tons)	3.8 metric tons (4.2 short tons; 3.7 long tons)	3.5 metric tons (3.9 short tons; 3.4 long tons)	2.9 metric tons (3.2 short tons; 2.9 long tons)	4.3 metric tons (4.7 short tons; 4.2 long tons)	3.9 metric tons (4.3 short tons; 3.8 long tons)	2.4 metric tons (2.6 short tons; 2.4 long tons)	2.3 metric tons (2.5 short tons; 2.3 long tons)
Poland	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons)	2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons; 2.5 long tons)	1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons)	1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons)	2.7 metric tons (3.0 short tons; 2.7 long tons)	3.3 metric tons (3.6 short tons; 3.2 long tons)	2.7 metric tons (3.0 short tons; 2.7 long tons)	2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons)	2.7 metric tons (3.0 short tons; 2.7 long tons)	2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons)	2.3 metric tons (2.5 short tons; 2.3 long tons)	3.0 metric tons (3.3 short tons; 3.0 long tons)
Russia	N/A	N/A	N/A	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons)	2.0 metric tons (2.2 short tons; 2.0 long tons)	2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons)	2.6 metric tons (2.9 short tons; 2.6 long tons)
United Kingdom	<0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons)	0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons)	0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)	1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)	1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)	1.9 metric tons (2.1 short tons; 1.9 long tons)	2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons)	2.0 metric tons (2.2 short tons; 2.0 long tons)	2.8 metric tons (3.1 short tons; 2.8 long tons)	2.6 metric tons (2.9 short tons; 2.6 long tons)	2.1 metric tons (2.3 short tons; 2.1 long tons)	2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons; 2.5 long tons)	2.5 metric tons (2.8 short tons; 2.5 long tons)	1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons)	2.2 metric tons (2.4 short tons; 2.2 long tons)	2.0 metric tons (2.2 short tons; 2.0 long tons)	1.8 metric tons (2.0 short tons; 1.8 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)
United States	<0.007 metric tons (0.0077 short tons; 0.0069 long tons)	<0.06 metric tons (0.066 short tons; 0.059 long tons)	<0.03 metric tons (0.033 short tons; 0.030 long tons)	0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons)	0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons)	1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons)	1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons)
Czech Republic	0.07 metric tons (0.077 short tons; 0.069 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.5 metric tons (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons)	1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)	1.4 metric tons (1.5 short tons; 1.4 long tons)	1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)	1.2 metric tons (1.3 short tons; 1.2 long tons)
Hungary	0.008 metric tons (0.0088 short tons; 0.0079 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)	0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)	0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)
Romania	0.01 metric tons (0.011 short tons; 0.0098 long tons)	0.02 metric tons (0.022 short tons; 0.020 long tons)	0.04 metric tons (0.044 short tons; 0.039 long tons)	0.04 metric tons (0.044 short tons; 0.039 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	1.1 metric tons (1.2 short tons; 1.1 long tons)	0.9 metric tons (0.99 short tons; 0.89 long tons)	1.3 metric tons (1.4 short tons; 1.3 long tons)	1.7 metric tons (1.9 short tons; 1.7 long tons)	1.6 metric tons (1.8 short tons; 1.6 long tons)	0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons)	0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons)
Denmark	0.05 metric tons (0.055 short tons; 0.049 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.8 metric tons (0.88 short tons; 0.79 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)
Lithuania	N/A	N/A	N/A	0.02 metric tons (0.022 short tons; 0.020 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons)	0.3 metric tons (0.33 short tons; 0.30 long tons)	0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	1.0 metric ton (1.1 short tons; 0.98 long tons)
Belarus	N/A	N/A	N/A	0.03 metric tons (0.033 short tons; 0.030 long tons)	0.07 metric tons (0.077 short tons; 0.069 long tons)	0.1 metric tons (0.11 short tons; 0.098 long tons)	0.2 metric tons (0.22 short tons; 0.20 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)	0.4 metric tons (0.44 short tons; 0.39 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.5 metric tons (0.55 short tons; 0.49 long tons)	0.6 metric tons (0.66 short tons; 0.59 long tons)	0.7 metric tons (0.77 short tons; 0.69 long tons)
World Total	5.2 metric tons (5.7 short tons; 5.1 long tons)	8.8 metric tons (9.7 short tons; 8.7 long tons)	19.2 metric tons (21.2 short tons; 18.9 long tons)	34.2 metric tons (37.7 short tons; 33.7 long tons)	39.5 metric tons (43.5 short tons; 38.9 long tons)	46.4 metric tons (51.1 short tons; 45.7 long tons)	50.5 metric tons (55.7 short tons; 49.7 long tons)	61.6 metric tons (67.9 short tons; 60.6 long tons)	62.5 metric tons (68.9 short tons; 61.5 long tons)	64.8 metric tons (71.4 short tons; 63.8 long tons)	72.5 metric tons (79.9 short tons; 71.4 long tons)	73.8 metric tons (81.4 short tons; 72.6 long tons)	71.2 metric tons (78.5 short tons; 70.1 long tons)	68.9 metric tons (75.9 short tons; 67.8 long tons)	76.6 metric tons (84.4 short tons; 75.4 long tons)	75.2 metric tons (82.9 short tons; 74.0 long tons)	70.5 metric tons (77.7 short tons; 69.4 long tons)	72.4 metric tons (79.8 short tons; 71.3 long tons)

Explanatory notes

^ Brassica napus was originally described and published in Species Plantarum 2:666. 1753.^[1]

References

Citations

^ GRIN 2010a.
^ ^a ^b USDA 2002, p. 26.
^ ^a ^b ^c Heuzé et al. 2020.
^ Martin 1965.
^ ^a ^b ^c Parnell, Curtis & Webb 2012.
^ Webb, Parnell & Doogue 1996.
^ ^a ^b ^c Callihan et al. 2000, p. 6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Snowdon, Lühs & Friedt 2006, p. 56.
^ ^a ^b Alford 2008, pp. 1–2.
^ OED 2016.
^ GRIN 2012a.
^ ^a ^b ^c Snowdon, Lühs & Friedt 2006, p. 54.
^ GRIN 2010b.
^ GRIN 2012b.
^ NCBI 2013.
^ Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 6.
^ Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 7.
^ Beesley & Wilde 1997, p. 104.
^ O'Brien 2008, p. 37.
^ Sahasrabudhe 1977, p. 323.
^ ^a ^b ^c USFDA 2010.
^ "Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels of erucic acid and hydrocyanic acid in certain foodstuffs". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 21 April 2021.
^ EC 1980.
^ Potts, Rakow & Males 1999.
^ Bonjean et al. 2016, p. 6.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jaime, Rafael; Alcántara, Julio M.; Manzaneda, Antonio J.; Rey, Pedro J. (2018). "Climate change decreases suitable areas for rapeseed cultivation in Europe but provides new opportunities for white mustard as an alternative oilseed for biofuel production". PLOS ONE. 13 (11): e0207124. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1307124J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207124. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6218090. PMID 30395645.
^ ^a ^b AgMRC 2018.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bertazzini & Forlani 2016, p. 2.
^ Lixandru 2017.
^ Salimon, Salih & Yousif 2010, p. 522.
^ Garrett 1998.
^ ^a ^b Smith 2004.
^ Walker 2010.
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^ ^a ^b Alford 2008, p. 3.
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^ Chambó et al. 2014, p. 2087.
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^ Lewis 2007.
^ [Schnug, E.(1986) Schwefelversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 4, 86-89]
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^ [Schnug, E. und Evans, E. (1992) Symptomatologie von Manganmangel an Raps. Raps 10, 43-45]
^ [Schnug, E. und Haneklaus, S. (1990) Molybdänversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 8, 188-191]
^ ^a ^b Alford 2008, p. 7.
^ ^a ^b ^c Singh, Govind; Mehta, Naresh; Meena, Prabhu (2016). Alternaria Diseases of Crucifers: Biology, Ecology and Disease Management (1 ed.). Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd. pp. xxxvii + 299. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0021-8. ISBN 978-981-10-0019-5. LCCN 2015958091. S2CID 27153886. 978-981-10-0021-8.
^ Chhikara, S.; Chaudhury, D.; Dhankher, O.; Jaiwal, P. (2012). "Combined expression of a barley class II chitinase and type I ribosome inactivating protein in transgenic Brassica juncea provides protection against Alternaria brassicae". Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture. 108: 83–89. doi:10.1007/s11240-011-0015-7. S2CID 255112076.
^ ^a ^b Alford 2008, p. 6.
^ Alford 2008, p. 9.
^ Hulse-Kemp et al. 2015, p. 1188.
^ Rasheed et al. 2017, p. 1050.
^ ^a ^b Rasheed et al. 2017, p. 1054.
^ Thiyam-Holländer, Eskin & Matthäus 2013, p. 4.
^ Mag 1983, p. 380.
^ ^a ^b Roché 2015, p. 5.
^ CFIA 2017.
^ [Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (Brassica Napus L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79-95, 2005.]
^ [ Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2016): Glucosinolates – The Agricultural Story. In S. Kopriva (Ed.), Glucosinolates. pp. 281–302, 2016 Elsevier Ltd., ISBN 978-0-08-100327-5.
^ [Häberli, R., Wahli, T., Haneklaus, S. and Schnug, E. (1995) Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer (Capreola capreola) population in Switzerland. Proc. 9th Int. Rapeseed Congress 4, 1415-1417, Cambridge, UK]
^ "www.brassica.info". Multinational Brassica Genome Project. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |website= (help)
^ Beckie et al. 2011, p. 43.
^ ^a ^b Hartley 2008.
^ "Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade" (PDF). Foreign Agricultural Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.
^ Canola, Growing Great 2016, The Canola Council of Canada, 2007, page 3, 10
^ FAOSTAT. UN Food & Agriculture Organisation.
^ FAOSTAT. UN Food & Agriculture Organisation.

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External links

Media related to Brassica napus at Wikimedia Commons
Media related to Rapeseed oil at Wikimedia Commons

[2] Brassica napus was originally described and published in Species Plantarum 2:666. 1753.^[1]

[FOOTNOTEGRIN2010a-1] GRIN 2010a.

[FOOTNOTEUSDA200226-3] USDA 2002, p. 26.

[FOOTNOTEHeuzéTranSauvantLessire2020-4] Heuzé et al. 2020.

[FOOTNOTEMartin1965-5] Martin 1965.

[FOOTNOTEParnellCurtisWebb2012-6] Parnell, Curtis & Webb 2012.

[FOOTNOTEWebbParnellDoogue1996-7] Webb, Parnell & Doogue 1996.

[FOOTNOTECallihanBrennanMillerBrown20006-8] Callihan et al. 2000, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTESnowdonLühsFriedt200656-9] Snowdon, Lühs & Friedt 2006, p. 56.

[FOOTNOTEAlford20081–2-10] Alford 2008, pp. 1–2.

[FOOTNOTEOED2016-11] OED 2016.

[FOOTNOTEGRIN2012a-12] GRIN 2012a.

[FOOTNOTESnowdonLühsFriedt200654-13] Snowdon, Lühs & Friedt 2006, p. 54.

[FOOTNOTEGRIN2010b-14] GRIN 2010b.

[FOOTNOTEGRIN2012b-15] GRIN 2012b.

[FOOTNOTENCBI2013-16] NCBI 2013.

[FOOTNOTEDowneyRimmer19936-17] Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTEDowneyRimmer19937-18] Downey & Rimmer 1993, p. 7.

[FOOTNOTEBeesleyWilde1997104-19] Beesley & Wilde 1997, p. 104.

[FOOTNOTEO'Brien200837-20] O'Brien 2008, p. 37.

[FOOTNOTESahasrabudhe1977323-21] Sahasrabudhe 1977, p. 323.

[FOOTNOTEUSFDA2010-22] USFDA 2010.

[23] "Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels of erucic acid and hydrocyanic acid in certain foodstuffs". eur-lex.europa.eu. Retrieved 21 April 2021.

[FOOTNOTEEC1980-24] EC 1980.

[FOOTNOTEPottsRakowMales1999-25] Potts, Rakow & Males 1999.

[FOOTNOTEBonjeanDequidtSangLimagrain20166-26] Bonjean et al. 2016, p. 6.

[:0-27] Jaime, Rafael; Alcántara, Julio M.; Manzaneda, Antonio J.; Rey, Pedro J. (2018). "Climate change decreases suitable areas for rapeseed cultivation in Europe but provides new opportunities for white mustard as an alternative oilseed for biofuel production". PLOS ONE. 13 (11): e0207124. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1307124J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207124. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6218090. PMID 30395645.

[FOOTNOTEAgMRC2018-28] AgMRC 2018.

[FOOTNOTEBertazziniForlani20162-29] Bertazzini & Forlani 2016, p. 2.

[FOOTNOTELixandru2017-30] Lixandru 2017.

[FOOTNOTESalimonSalihYousif2010522-31] Salimon, Salih & Yousif 2010, p. 522.

[FOOTNOTEGarrett1998-32] Garrett 1998.

[FOOTNOTESmith2004-33] Smith 2004.

[FOOTNOTEWalker2010-34] Walker 2010.

[Recent-Advances-35] Reddy, Parvatha (2013). Recent Advances in Crop Protection. Springer Science+Business Media. pp. xix+268. doi:10.1007/978-81-322-0723-8. LCCN 2012948035. 978-81-322-0722-1. 978-81-322-0723-8.

[FOOTNOTEAlford20083-36] Alford 2008, p. 3.

[FOOTNOTEAlford20084-37] Alford 2008, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEChambóDe_OliveiraGarciaDuarte-Júnior20142087-38] Chambó et al. 2014, p. 2087.

[FOOTNOTELindströmHerbertssonRundlöfSmith2015759-39] Lindström et al. 2015, p. 759.

[FOOTNOTELewis2007-40] Lewis 2007.

[41] [Schnug, E.(1986) Schwefelversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 4, 86-89]

[42] [Haneklaus, S., Messick, D. L. und Schnug, E. (1994) Schwefel und Raps. RAPS 12, 28-29]

[43] [Schnug, E. (1987) Spurennährstoffversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 5, 18-20]

[44] [Schnug, E. und Evans, E. (1992) Symptomatologie von Manganmangel an Raps. Raps 10, 43-45]

[45] [Schnug, E. und Haneklaus, S. (1990) Molybdänversorgung im intensiven Rapsanbau. Raps 8, 188-191]

[FOOTNOTEAlford20087-46] Alford 2008, p. 7.

[Alt-Diseases-47] Singh, Govind; Mehta, Naresh; Meena, Prabhu (2016). Alternaria Diseases of Crucifers: Biology, Ecology and Disease Management (1 ed.). Singapore: Springer Science+Business Media Singapore Pte Ltd. pp. xxxvii + 299. doi:10.1007/978-981-10-0021-8. ISBN 978-981-10-0019-5. LCCN 2015958091. S2CID 27153886. 978-981-10-0021-8.

[Combined-Expression-48] Chhikara, S.; Chaudhury, D.; Dhankher, O.; Jaiwal, P. (2012). "Combined expression of a barley class II chitinase and type I ribosome inactivating protein in transgenic Brassica juncea provides protection against Alternaria brassicae". Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture. 108: 83–89. doi:10.1007/s11240-011-0015-7. S2CID 255112076.

[FOOTNOTEAlford20086-49] Alford 2008, p. 6.

[FOOTNOTEAlford20089-50] Alford 2008, p. 9.

[FOOTNOTEHulse-KempLemmPlieskeAshrafi20151188-51] Hulse-Kemp et al. 2015, p. 1188.

[FOOTNOTERasheedHaoXiaKhan20171050-52] Rasheed et al. 2017, p. 1050.

[FOOTNOTERasheedHaoXiaKhan20171054-53] Rasheed et al. 2017, p. 1054.

[FOOTNOTEThiyam-HolländerEskinMatthäus20134-54] Thiyam-Holländer, Eskin & Matthäus 2013, p. 4.

[FOOTNOTEMag1983380-55] Mag 1983, p. 380.

[FOOTNOTERoché20155-56] Roché 2015, p. 5.

[FOOTNOTECFIA2017-57] CFIA 2017.

[58] [Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (Brassica Napus L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79-95, 2005.]

[59] [ Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2016): Glucosinolates – The Agricultural Story. In S. Kopriva (Ed.), Glucosinolates. pp. 281–302, 2016 Elsevier Ltd., ISBN 978-0-08-100327-5.

[60] [Häberli, R., Wahli, T., Haneklaus, S. and Schnug, E. (1995) Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer (Capreola capreola) population in Switzerland. Proc. 9th Int. Rapeseed Congress 4, 1415-1417, Cambridge, UK]

[61] "www.brassica.info". Multinational Brassica Genome Project. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |website= (help)

[FOOTNOTEBeckieHarkerLégèreMorrison201143-62] Beckie et al. 2011, p. 43.

[FOOTNOTEHartley2008-63] Hartley 2008.

[64] "Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade" (PDF). Foreign Agricultural Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2012.

[65] Canola, Growing Great 2016, The Canola Council of Canada, 2007, page 3, 10

[autogenerated1-66] FAOSTAT. UN Food & Agriculture Organisation.

[67] FAOSTAT. UN Food & Agriculture Organisation.

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[1]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-{{Short description|Species of plant}}
+{{Short description|Oilseed, Brassica, food, feed, industry}}
 {{Redirect|Brassica napus|another cultivar of the same species grown for its root|Rutabaga}}
 {{Hatnote|Similar ''Brassica'' plants used in cooking as leafy greens, and also called ''rape'' may include [[rapini]] and [[choy sum]].}}{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 }}
-'''Rapeseed''' (''Brassica napus ''subsp.'' napus''), also known as '''rape''', or '''oilseed rape''', is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family [[Brassicaceae]] (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of [[erucic acid]]. The term ''[[canola]]'' denotes a group of rapeseed [[cultivar]]s which were bred to have very low levels of [[erucic acid]] and are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of [[vegetable oil]] and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.{{Sfn|USDA|2002|p=26}}{{Sfn|Heuzé|Tran|Sauvant|Lessire|2020}}
+'''Rapeseed''' (''Brassica napus'' subsp. ''napus''), also known as '''rape''', or '''oilseed rape''', is a bright-yellow flowering member of the family [[Brassicaceae]] (mustard or cabbage family), cultivated mainly for its oil-rich seed, which naturally contains appreciable amounts of [[erucic acid]]. The term ''[[canola]]'' denotes a group of rapeseed [[cultivar]]s which were bred to have very low levels of [[erucic acid]] and are especially prized for use as human and animal food. Rapeseed is the third-largest source of [[vegetable oil]] and the second-largest source of protein meal in the world.{{Sfn|USDA|2002|p=26}}{{Sfn|Heuzé|Tran|Sauvant|Lessire|2020}}
 [[File:RapeseedFields.jpg|frameless|right|alt=Fields]]
-==Description==
+== Description ==
 [[File:(MHNT) Brassica napus - Habit.jpg|frameless|right|alt=[[Growth habit]]]]
 [[File:Brassica napus 2.jpg|frameless|right|alt=[[Blossom]]s]]
@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 [[File:Семечко рапса.jpg|thumb|Under a microscope]]
 [[File:The yellow cloud.jpg|thumb|"The yellow cloud" by [[Hanno Karlhuber]]|alt="The yellow cloud" by [[Hanno Karlhuber]], depicting a flowering field]]
-''Brassica napus'' grows to {{convert|100|cm|abbr=on}} in height with hairless, fleshy, [[pinnatifid]] and [[glaucous]] lower leaves{{Sfn|Martin|1965}}{{Sfn|Parnell|Curtis|Webb|2012}}{{Sfn|Webb|Parnell|Doogue|1996}} which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no [[Petiole (botany)|petioles]].{{Sfn|Callihan|Brennan|Miller|Brown|2000|p=6}} ''Brassica napus'' can be distinguished from ''[[Brassica nigra]]'' by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and from ''[[Brassica rapa]]'' by its smaller petals which are less than {{Convert|13|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=2}} across.{{Sfn |Parnell |Curtis |Webb |2012}}
+''Brassica napus'' grows to {{convert|100|cm|abbr=on}} in height with hairless, fleshy, [[pinnatifid]] and [[glaucous]] lower leaves{{Sfn|Martin|1965}}{{Sfn|Parnell|Curtis|Webb|2012}}{{Sfn|Webb|Parnell|Doogue|1996}} which are stalked whereas the upper leaves have no [[Petiole (botany)|petioles]].{{Sfn|Callihan|Brennan|Miller|Brown|2000|p=6}} ''B. napus'' can be distinguished from ''[[Brassica nigra|B. nigra]]'' by the upper leaves which do not clasp the stem, and from ''[[Brassica rapa|B. rapa]]'' by its smaller petals which are less than {{Convert|13|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=2}} across.{{Sfn |Parnell |Curtis |Webb |2012}}
 Rapeseed flowers are bright yellow and about {{Convert|17|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=3}} across.{{Sfn|Parnell|Curtis|Webb|2012}} They are radial and consist of four [[petals]] in a typical cross-form, alternating with four [[sepals]]. They have indeterminate [[racemose]] flowering starting at the lowest bud and growing upward in the following days. The flowers have two lateral [[stamens]] with short filaments, and four median stamens with longer filaments whose anthers split away from the flower's center upon flowering.{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=56}}
@@ Line 25: / Line 25: @@
 The rapeseed pods are green and elongated [[Silique|siliquae]] during development that eventually ripen to brown. They grow on [[pedicels]] {{Convert|1 to 3|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=16}} long, and can range from {{Convert|5 to 10|cm|in|abbr=on|frac=2}} in length.{{Sfn|Callihan|Brennan|Miller|Brown|2000|p=6}} Each pod has two [[Locule|compartments]] separated by an inner central wall within which a row of seeds develops.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|pp=1–2}} The seeds are round and have a diameter of {{convert|1.5 to 3|mm|in|sp=us|abbr=on|frac=64}}. They have a reticulate surface texture,{{Sfn|Callihan|Brennan|Miller|Brown|2000|p=6}} and are black and hard at maturity.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|pp=1–2}}
-==Etymology and taxonomy==
+== Etymology and taxonomy ==
 The term "rape" derives from the Latin word for [[turnip]], {{lang|la|rāpa}} or {{wikt-lang|la|rāpum}}, cognate with the Greek word {{lang|grc|ῥάφη}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|rhaphe}}.{{Sfn|OED|2016}}
-The [[species]] ''Brassica napus'' belongs to the flowering plant family [[Brassicaceae]]. Rapeseed is a [[subspecies]] with the [[Autonym (botany)|autonym]] ''B. napus ''subsp.'' napus''.{{Sfn|GRIN|2012a}} It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape.{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=54}} Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form [[Variety (botany)|variety]] (''B. napus ''var.'' pabularia'') which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable.{{Sfn|GRIN|2010b}}{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=54}} The second subspecies of ''B. napus'' is [[rutabaga|''B. napus ''subsp.'' rapifera'']] (also subsp. ''napobrassica''; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).{{Sfn|GRIN|2012b}}{{Sfn|NCBI|2013}}
+The [[species]] ''Brassica napus'' belongs to the flowering plant family [[Brassicaceae]]. Rapeseed is a [[subspecies]] with the [[Autonym (botany)|autonym]] ''B. napus'' subsp. ''napus''.{{Sfn|GRIN|2012a}} It encompasses winter and spring oilseed, vegetable and fodder rape.{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=54}} Siberian kale is a distinct leaf rape form [[Variety (botany)|variety]] (''B. napus'' var. ''pabularia'') which used to be common as a winter-annual vegetable.{{Sfn|GRIN|2010b}}{{Sfn|Snowdon|Lühs|Friedt|2006|p=54}} The second subspecies of ''B. napus'' is [[rutabaga|''B. napus ''subsp.'' rapifera'']] (also subsp. ''napobrassica''; the rutabaga, swede, or yellow turnip).{{Sfn|GRIN|2012b}}{{Sfn|NCBI|2013}}
-''Brassica napus'' is a digenomic [[amphidiploid]] that occurred due to the [[interspecific hybridization]] between ''[[Brassica oleracea]]'' and ''[[Brassica rapa]]''.{{Sfn|Downey|Rimmer|1993|p=6}} It is a self-compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid ''brassica'' species.{{Sfn|Downey|Rimmer|1993|p=7}}
+''B. napus'' is a digenomic [[amphidiploid]] that occurred due to the [[interspecific hybridization]] between ''[[Brassica oleracea|B. oleracea]]'' and ''[[Brassica rapa|B. rapa]]''.{{Sfn|Downey|Rimmer|1993|p=6}} It is a self-compatible pollinating species like the other amphidiploid ''Brassica'' species.{{Sfn|Downey|Rimmer|1993|p=7}}
-==Ecology==
+== Ecology ==
 In Northern Ireland, U K ''B. napus'' and ''B. rapa'' are recorded as escapes in roadside verges and waste ground.{{Sfn|Beesley|Wilde|1997|p=104}}
-==Uses==
+== Uses ==
 [[File:Rapeseed, roasted.jpg|thumb|Roasted canola|alt=Roasted [[canola]] seeds]]
 Rapeseed is grown for the production of edible vegetable oils, animal feed, and [[biodiesel]]. Rapeseed was the third-leading source of vegetable oil in the world in 2000, after [[soybean]] and [[palm oil]].{{Sfn|USDA|2002|p=26}} It is the world's second-leading source of [[protein]] meal after soybean.{{Sfn|Heuzé|Tran|Sauvant|Lessire|2020}}
-===Vegetable oil===
+=== Vegetable oil ===
 {{main|Rapeseed oil}}
 [[Rapeseed oil]] is one of the oldest known vegetable oils, but historically was used in limited quantities due to high levels of erucic acid, which is damaging to [[cardiac muscle]] of animals, and glucosinolates, which made it less nutritious in animal feed.{{Sfn|O'Brien|2008|p=37}} Rapeseed oil can contain up to 54% erucic acid.{{Sfn|Sahasrabudhe|1977|p=323}} Food-grade oil derived from rapeseed cultivars, known as canola oil or low-erucic-acid rapeseed oil (LEAR oil), has been [[generally recognized as safe]] by the [[United States Food and Drug Administration]].{{Sfn|USFDA|2010}} Canola oil is limited by government regulation to a maximum of 2% erucic acid by weight in the US{{Sfn|USFDA|2010}} and 2% in the EU,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels of erucic acid and hydrocyanic acid in certain foodstuffs|url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2019/1870/corrigendum/2019-11-19/oj|access-date=2021-04-21|website=eur-lex.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref> with special regulations for infant food. These low levels of erucic acid are not believed to cause harm in human [[infants]].{{Sfn|USFDA|2010}}{{Sfn|EC|1980}}
-===Animal feed===
+=== Animal feed ===
 Processing of rapeseed for oil production produces rapeseed meal as a byproduct. The byproduct is a high-protein animal feed, competitive with soybean. Rapeseed is an excellent [[silage]] crop (fermented and stored in air-tight conditions for later use as a winterfeed). The feed is employed mostly for [[cattle]] feeding, but is also used for [[pig]]s and [[poultry]].{{Sfn |Heuzé |Tran |Sauvant |Lessire |2020}} However, the high levels of erucic acid and [[glucosinolates]] in natural rapeseed oil significantly lowers the nutritional value of rapeseed press cakes for animal feed.{{Sfn|Potts|Rakow|Males|1999}} Rapeseed meal is mostly used as a soil fertilizer rather than for animal feed in China.{{Sfn|Bonjean|Dequidt|Sang|Limagrain|2016|p=6}}
-===Biodiesel===
+=== Biodiesel ===
 Rapeseed oil is used as diesel fuel, either as [[biodiesel]], straight in heated fuel systems, or blended with petroleum distillates for powering motor vehicles. Biodiesel may be used in pure form in newer engines without engine damage and is frequently combined with fossil-fuel [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] in ratios varying from 2% to 20% biodiesel. Owing to the costs of growing, crushing, and refining rapeseed biodiesel, rapeseed-derived biodiesel from new oil costs more to produce than standard diesel fuel, so diesel fuels are commonly made from the used oil. Rapeseed oil is the preferred oil stock for biodiesel production in most of Europe, accounting for about 80% of the feedstock,{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} partly because rapeseed produces more oil per unit of land area compared to other oil sources, such as soybeans, but primarily because canola oil has a significantly lower [[Gel point (petroleum)|gel point]] than most other vegetable oils.
 Because of the changes to the environment caused by climate change, a 2018 study predicted that rapeseed would become an unreliable source of oil for biofuels.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Jaime |first1=Rafael |last2=Alcántara |first2=Julio M. |last3=Manzaneda |first3=Antonio J. |last4=Rey |first4=Pedro J. |date=2018 |title=Climate change decreases suitable areas for rapeseed cultivation in Europe but provides new opportunities for white mustard as an alternative oilseed for biofuel production |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=11 |pages=e0207124 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0207124 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6218090 |pmid=30395645|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1307124J |doi-access=free }}</ref>
-===Other===
+=== Other ===
 Rapeseed is also used as a [[cover crop]] in the US during the winter as it prevents [[soil erosion]], produces large amounts of [[biomass]], suppresses weeds and can improve soil [[tilth]] with its root system. Some cultivars of rapeseed are also used as annual forage and are ready for grazing livestock 80 to 90 days after planting.{{Sfn|AgMRC|2018}}
@@ Line 61: / Line 61: @@
 Rapeseed has been researched as a means of containing [[radionuclide]]s that contaminated the soil after the [[Chernobyl disaster]]{{Sfn|Smith|2004}}{{Sfn|Walker|2010}} as it has a rate of uptake up to three times more than other grains, and only about 3 to 6% of the radionuclides go into the oilseeds.{{Sfn|Smith|2004}}
+Rapeseed meal can be incorporated into the [[soil]] as a [[biofumigant]].<ref name = "Recent-Advances" /> It suppresses such [[fungal crop pathogen]]s as ''[[Rhizoctonia solani]]'' and ''[[Pratylenchus penetr]]''.<ref name = "Recent-Advances" >
-==Cultivation==
+ {{ Cite book |
+       language=en|
+           year=2013|
+      publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|
+           last=Reddy|
+          pages=xix+268|
+          first=Parvatha|
+          title=Recent Advances in Crop Protection|
+             id=978-81-322-0722-1. 978-81-322-0723-8|
+            doi=10.1007/978-81-322-0723-8|
+           lccn=2012948035}}
+</ref>{{ RP |page=39}}
+== Cultivation ==
 [[File:Champ de colza Côte-d'Or Bourgogne avril 2014.jpg|frameless|right|alt=Blooming field]]
@@ Line 81: / Line 95: @@
 The cultivatable range for rapeseed is both expected to decrease due to climate change, and where rapeseed is grown quality of the crop, in both yield and volume of oil is expected to decrease substantially.<ref name=":0" /> Some researchers recommend finding alternative varieties of ''Brassica'' for cultivation.<ref name=":0" />
-==Diseases and pests==
+== Diseases and pests ==
 The main diseases of the winter rapeseed crop are [[canker]], light leaf spot (''[[Pyrenopeziza brassicae]]''), ''[[alternaria stem rot|alternaria-]]'' and ''[[sclerotinia stem rot|sclerotinia-]]'' stem rots. Canker causes [[leaf spot]]ting, and premature [[ripening]] and weakening of the stem during the autumn-winter (fall-winter) period. A [[conazole fungicide|conazole-]] or [[triazole fungicide|triazole-]] fungicide treatment is required in late autumn (fall) and in spring against canker while broad-spectrum fungicides are used during the spring-summer period for alternaria and sclerotinia control.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=7}} Oilseed rape cannot be planted in close rotation with itself due to soil-borne diseases such as sclerotinia, [[verticillium wilt]] and [[clubroot]].{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=3}}
@@ Line 124: / Line 138: @@
 </ref>
-===Pests===
+=== Pests ===
 Rapeseed is attacked by a wide variety of insects, {{Visible anchor|Nematode pests|text=[[nematode pests of crops|nematodes]]}}, {{Visible anchor|Slug pests|text=[[slug pests of crops|slugs]]}} as well as [[Common wood pigeon|wood pigeons]].{{Sfn |Alford |2008 |p=6}} The brassica pod midge (''[[Dasineura brassicae]]''), cabbage seed weevil (''[[Ceutorhynchus]] [[Ceutorhynchus assimilis|assimilis]]''), cabbage stem weevil (''[[Ceutorhynchus pallidactylus]]''), cabbage stem flea beetle (''[[Psylliodes chrysocephala]]''), rape stem weevil (''[[Ceutorhynchus]] [[Ceutorhynchus napi|napi]]'') and [[pollen beetles]] are the primary insect pests that prey on the oilseed rape crop in Europe.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=9}} The insect pests can feed on developing pods to lay eggs inside and eat the developing seeds, bore into the plant's stem and feed on pollen, leaves and flowers. Synthetic [[pyrethroid]] insecticides are the main attack vector against insect pests though there is a large-scale use of [[prophylactic]] insecticides in many countries.{{Sfn|Alford|2008|p=7}} [[Molluscicide]] pellets are used either before or after sowing of the rapeseed crop to protect against slugs.{{Sfn |Alford |2008 |p=6}}
 {{anchor|Genetics|Breeding}}
+== Genetics and breeding ==
-==Genetics and breeding==
 In 2014 an [[SNP array]] was released for ''B. napus'' by Dalton-Morgan ''et al.'',{{sfn | Hulse-Kemp | Lemm | Plieske | Ashrafi | 2015 | p=1188}} and another by Clarke ''et al.'', in 2016,{{sfn | Rasheed | Hao | Xia | Khan | 2017 | p=1050}} both of which have since become widely used in [[molecular breeding]]. In a demonstration of the importance of [[epigenetics]], Hauben ''et al.'', 2009 found that [[isogenic line]]s did ''not'' have identical energy use efficiencies in actual growing conditions, due to epigenetic differences.{{sfn | Rasheed | Hao | Xia | Khan | 2017 | p=1054}} [[Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing]] ([[SLAF-seq]]) was applied to ''B. napus'' by Geng ''et al.'', in 2016, revealing the genetics of the past domestication process, providing data for [[genome-wide association studies]] (GWAS), and being used to construct a [[high-density linkage map]].{{sfn | Rasheed | Hao | Xia | Khan | 2017 | p=1054}}
-===History of the cultivars===
+=== History of the cultivars ===
-In 1973, Canadian [[Agricultural science|agricultural scientists]] launched a marketing campaign to promote [[canola]] consumption.{{Sfn|Thiyam-Holländer|Eskin|Matthäus|2013|p=4}} Seed, oil, and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which are low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of the Canola Council of Canada, as "canola".{{Sfn|Mag|1983|p=380}}{{Sfn|Roché|2015|p=5}} Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed, but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 µmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal."{{Sfn|Roché|2015|p=5}}{{Sfn|CFIA|2017}}
+In 1973, Canadian [[Agricultural science|agricultural scientists]] launched a marketing campaign to promote [[canola]] consumption.{{Sfn|Thiyam-Holländer|Eskin|Matthäus|2013|p=4}} Seed, oil, and protein meal derived from rapeseed cultivars which are low in erucic acid and low in glucosinolates was originally registered as a trademark, in 1978, of the [[Canola Council of Canada]], as "canola".{{Sfn|Mag|1983|p=380}}{{Sfn|Roché|2015|p=5}} Canola is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed, but is still officially defined in Canada as rapeseed oil that "must contain less than 2% erucic acid and less than 30 µmol of glucosinolates per gram of air-dried oil-free meal."{{Sfn|Roché|2015|p=5}}{{Sfn|CFIA|2017}}
-In the 1980ies decreasing atmospherical sulphur inputs to Norher European soils in connection with a less efficient internal use of sulphur in the metabolism of the new bred low glucosinolate varieties (00-varieties) resulted in an increased appearance of white flowering, a highly spcifice symptom of sulphur deficiency, in rapeseed crops <ref>[Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (Brassica Napus L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79-95, 2005.]</ref> which during the official variety assessment procedures was wrongly attributed to a genetic inhomogeneity ("Canadian blood").<ref>[ Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2016): ''Glucosinolates – The Agricultural Story.'' In ''S. Kopriva (Ed.), Glucosinolates.'' pp. 281–302, 2016 Elsevier Ltd., ISBN 978-0-08-100327-5</ref>
+In the 1980ies decreasing atmospherical sulphur inputs to Norher European soils in connection with a less efficient internal use of sulphur in the metabolism of the new bred low glucosinolate varieties (00-varieties) resulted in an increased appearance of white flowering, a highly spcifice symptom of sulphur deficiency, in rapeseed crops <ref>[Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2005) Sulphur deficiency symptoms in oilseed rape (''Brassica Napus'' L.) – The aesthetics of starvation. Phyton 45(3), 79-95, 2005.]</ref> which during the official variety assessment procedures was wrongly attributed to a genetic inhomogeneity ("Canadian blood").<ref>[ Schnug, E. and Haneklaus, S. (2016): ''Glucosinolates – The Agricultural Story.'' In ''S. Kopriva (Ed.), Glucosinolates.'' pp. 281–302, 2016 [[Elsevier Ltd.]], {{ISBN|978-0-08-100327-5}}.</ref>
 The anticipated damages of wild animals caused by foraging on 00-oilseed rape crops was caused by a shift of the animals diet towards increased uptake protein and sulphur containing metabolites at the expense of fibers, but not to specific feaatures of the genetically alterated 00-varieties.<ref>[Häberli, R., Wahli, T., Haneklaus, S. and Schnug, E. (1995) Field studies on clinical and pathological changes caused by double low oilseed rape in a wild roe deer (Capreola capreola) population in Switzerland. Proc. 9th Int. Rapeseed Congress 4, 1415-1417, Cambridge, UK]</ref>
@@ Line 140: / Line 153: @@
 Following the European Parliament's [[Transport Biofuels Directive 2003|Transport Biofuels Directive]] in 2003 promoting the use of biofuels, the cultivation of winter rapeseed increased dramatically in Europe.{{Sfn|Bertazzini|Forlani|2016|p=2}}
-[[Bayer Cropscience]], in collaboration with [[BGI-Shenzhen]], China, KeyGene, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome of ''B. napus'' and its constituent genomes present in ''B. rapa'' and ''B. oleracea'' in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species ''B. napus'' is currently being sequenced by the Multinational ''Brassica'' Genome Project.<ref>{{cite web
+[[Bayer Cropscience]], in collaboration with [[BGI-Shenzhen]], China, KeyGene, the Netherlands, and the University of Queensland, Australia, announced it had sequenced the entire genome of ''B. napus'' and its constituent genomes present in ''B. rapa'' and ''B. oleracea'' in 2009. The "A" genome component of the amphidiploid rapeseed species ''B. napus'' is currently being sequenced by the [[Multinational Brassica Genome Project|Multinational ''Brassica'' Genome Project]].<ref>{{cite web
- | title=The www.brassica.info website for the Multinational ''Brassica'' Genome Project
+ | title=www.brassica.info
+ | website=[[Multinational Brassica Genome Project|Multinational ''Brassica'' Genome Project]]
  | url=http://www.brassica.info
 }}</ref>{{Update after|2010|11|16}}
@@ Line 147: / Line 161: @@
 A [[genetically modified]] variety of rapeseed was developed in 1998, engineered for [[glyphosate]] tolerance, and is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola. By 2009, 90% of the rapeseed crops planted in Canada were of this sort.{{Sfn|Beckie |Harker |Légère |Morrison |2011|p=43}}
-====GMO cultivars====
+==== GMO cultivars ====
 {{Main|Roundup Ready Canola}}
@@ Line 154: / Line 168: @@
 In a closely followed legal battle, the [[Supreme Court of Canada]] found in favor of Monsanto's [[patent infringement]] claim for unlicensed growing of ''Roundup Ready'' in its 2004 ruling on ''[[Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser]]'', but also ruled that Schmeiser was not required to pay any damages. The case garnered international controversy, as a court-sanctioned legitimization for the global patent protection of [[genetically modified crops]]. In March 2008, an [[out-of-court settlement]] between Monsanto and Schmeiser agreed that Monsanto would clean up the entire GMO-canola crop on Schmeiser's farm, at a cost of about CAN$660.{{Sfn|Hartley|2008}}
-==Production==
+== Production ==
-The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] reports global production of {{Convert|36|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated {{Convert|58.4|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in the 2010–2011 season.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2011/March/oilseeds.pdf |title=Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade |access-date=17 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208134100/http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2011/March/oilseeds.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2012 | publisher=[[Foreign Agricultural Service]]}}</ref>
+The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO) reports global production of {{Convert|36|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in the 2003–2004 season, and an estimated {{Convert|58.4|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in the 2010–2011 season.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2011/March/oilseeds.pdf |title=Oilseeds: World Markets and Trade |access-date=17 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208134100/http://www.fas.usda.gov/oilseeds/circular/2011/March/oilseeds.pdf |archive-date=8 February 2012 | publisher=[[Foreign Agricultural Service]]}}</ref>
 Worldwide production of rapeseed (including canola) has increased sixfold between 1975 and 2007. The production of canola and rapeseed since 1975 has opened up the edible oil market for rapeseed oil. Since 2002, production of [[biodiesel]] has been steadily increasing in EU and U.S. to {{Convert|6|e6MT|e6ST e6LT|abbr=off}} in 2006. Rapeseed oil is positioned to supply a good portion of the vegetable oils needed to produce that fuel. World production was thus expected to trend further upward between 2005 and 2015 as biodiesel content requirements in Europe go into effect.<ref>Canola, Growing Great 2016, The Canola Council of Canada, 2007, page 3, 10</ref>
@@ Line 315: / Line 329: @@
 |}
-==See also==
+== See also ==
 * [[Triangle of U]]
@@ Line 321: / Line 335: @@
 {{Reflist|group=note}}
-==References==
+== References ==
 === Citations ===
 {{Reflist|20em}}
@@ Line 339: / Line 353: @@
 * {{cite journal |last1=EC | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31980L0891:EN:HTML | title=Commission Directive 80/891/EEC of 25 July 1980 relating to the Community method of analysis for determining the erucic acid content in oils and fats intended to be used as such for human consumption and foodstuffs containing added oils or fats |journal=Official Journal of the European Communities |volume=254 |year=1980 |author-link=European Commission }}
 * {{cite web |last1=Garrett |first1=Skip |url=http://www.fs.fed.us/eng/pubs/html/98511316/98511316.html |title=Vegetable Oil For Lubricating Chain Saws |publisher=[[United States Forest Service]] |date=November 1998 |access-date=22 April 2012 }}
-* {{cite web |last1=GRIN |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?7661 |title=Taxon: ''Brassica napus'' L.  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], [[Agricultural Research Service|ARS]], National Genetic Resources Program |date=2010a |access-date=25 November 2013|author-link=Germplasm Resources Information Network }}
+* {{cite web |author=Germplasm Resources Information Network|author-link=Germplasm Resources Information Network|url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?7661 |title=Taxon: ''Brassica napus'' L.  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=USDA ARS [[National Genetic Resources Program]]|date=2010a |access-date=25 November 2013}}
-* {{cite web |last1=GRIN |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?7664 |title=Taxon: '' Brassica napus'' L. subsp. ''napus'' var. ''pabularia'' (DC.) Alef.  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], [[Agricultural Research Service|ARS]], National Genetic Resources Program |date=2010b |access-date=18 April 2020 }}
+* {{cite web |author=Germplasm Resources Information Network|author-link=Germplasm Resources Information Network|url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?7664 |title=Taxon: '' Brassica napus'' L. subsp. ''napus'' var. ''pabularia'' (DC.) Alef.  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=USDA ARS [[National Genetic Resources Program]]|date=2010b |access-date=18 April 2020 }}
-* {{cite web |last1=GRIN |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?311781 |title=Taxon: ''Brassica napus'' L. subsp. ''napus''  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], [[Agricultural Research Service|ARS]], National Genetic Resources Program |date=2012a |access-date=18 April 2020 }}
+* {{cite web |author=Germplasm Resources Information Network|author-link=Germplasm Resources Information Network|url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?311781 |title=Taxon: ''Brassica napus'' L. subsp. ''napus''  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=USDA ARS [[National Genetic Resources Program]]|date=2012a |access-date=18 April 2020 }}
-* {{cite web |last1=GRIN |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?319659 |title=Taxon: ''Brassica napus'' L. subsp. ''rapifera'' Metzg.  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]], [[Agricultural Research Service|ARS]], National Genetic Resources Program |date=2012b |access-date=18 April 2020 }}
+* {{cite web |author=Germplasm Resources Information Network|author-link=Germplasm Resources Information Network|url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?319659 |title=Taxon: ''Brassica napus'' L. subsp. ''rapifera'' Metzg.  |work=Taxonomy for Plants |publisher=USDA ARS [[National Genetic Resources Program]]|date=2012b |access-date=18 April 2020 }}
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 * {{cite web|first=Marlo Jr.|last=Lewis|url=http://www.openmarket.org/2007/11/12/biofuel-mandates-cause-global-warming-scientists-say/ |title=Biofuel mandates cause global warming, scientists say |publisher=Openmarket.org |date=12 November 2007 |access-date=22 April 2012 }}
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+* {{Cite journal|last1=Lindström|first1=Sandra A. M.|last2=Herbertsson|first2=Lina|last3=Rundlöf|first3=Maj|last4=Smith|first4=Henrik G.|last5=Bommarco|first5=Riccardo|date=9 December 2015|title=Large-scale pollination experiment demonstrates the importance of insect pollination in winter oilseed rape|journal=[[Oecologia]]|language=en|volume=180|issue=3|pages=759–769|doi=10.1007/s00442-015-3517-x |pmid=26650584 |s2cid=17513467|issn=0029-8549 }}
 * {{cite web |last1=Lixandru |first1=Marius |title=Properties and Benefits of Rapeseed Honey |url=https://www.natureword.com/properties-and-benefits-of-rapeseed-honey/ |website=natureword.com |access-date=20 March 2019 |date=27 March 2017}}
-* {{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=William K. |title=The Concise British Flora in Colour |date=1965 |publisher=Ebury Press & Michael Joseph}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=William K. |title=The Concise British Flora in Colour |date=1965 |publisher=[[Ebury Press]] & Michael Joseph}}
-* {{cite journal |last1=Mag |first1=T. K. |title=Canola oil processing in Canada |journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society |date=1983 |volume=60 |issue=2Part2 |pages=380–384 |doi=10.1007/BF02543522 |s2cid=97800211 }}
+* {{cite journal |last1=Mag |first1=T. K. |title=Canola oil processing in Canada |journal=[[Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society]]|date=1983 |volume=60 |issue=2Part2 |pages=380–384 |doi=10.1007/BF02543522 |s2cid=97800211 }}
-* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=3709 |title=Brassica napus subsp. rapifera |work=NCBI taxonomy database |date=2013 |access-date=18 April 2020|author-link=National Center for Biotechnology Information }}
+* {{cite web |last1=NCBI |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=3709 |title=''Brassica napus'' subsp. ''rapifera''|work=[[NCBI taxonomy database]] |date=2013 |access-date=18 April 2020|author-link=National Center for Biotechnology Information }}
 * {{cite web |last1=OED |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/rape | title=rape (n.2) | publisher=Douglas Harper | work=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] | date=2016 | access-date=18 July 2016 }}
 * {{cite book | last = O'Brien | first = Richard D. | title = Fats and Oils Formulating and Processing for Applications | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3wpHj3mvra8C | isbn = 9781420061666 | publisher = [[CRC Press]]| edition=3 | year = 2008 |access-date=18 April 2020 }}
@@ Line 357: / Line 371: @@
 * {{cite web |last1=Potts |first1=Derek A. |last2=Rakow |first2=Gerhard W. |last3=Males |first3=Daryl R. |title=Canola Quality ''Brassica juncea'', A New Oilseed Crop for the Canadian Prairies |url=https://www.gcirc.org/fileadmin/documents/Proceedings/IRC1999Canberravol1/70.htm |publisher=[[Global Council for Innovation in Rapeseed and Canola]] |access-date=18 April 2020 |date=1999 }}
 * {{cite journal | last1=Rasheed | first1=Awais | last2=Hao | first2=Yuanfeng | last3=Xia | first3=Xianchun | last4=Khan | first4=Awais | last5=Xu | first5=Yunbi | last6=Varshney | first6=Rajeev K. | last7=He | first7=Zhonghu | title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives | journal=[[Molecular Plant]] | publisher=[[Chinese Academy of Sciences|Chin Acad Sci]]+[[Chinese Society for Plant Biology|Chin Soc Plant Bio]]+[[Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences|Shanghai Inst Bio Sci]] ([[Elsevier]]) | volume=10 | issue=8 | year=2017 | issn=1674-2052 | doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008 | pages=1047–1064 | s2cid=33780984 | pmid=28669791| doi-access=free }}
-* {{cite thesis |last1=Roché |first1=Kenneth J. |type=PhD |title=Canola: A Modern Crop for a Modern Era |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=planthealthdoc |publisher=Doctor of Plant Health Program (DPH), University of Nebraska-Lincoln |access-date=18 April 2020 |date=27 November 2015 }} {{open access}}
+* {{cite thesis |last1=Roché |first1=Kenneth J. |type=PhD |title=Canola: A Modern Crop for a Modern Era |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=planthealthdoc |publisher=Doctor of Plant Health Program (DPH), [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln]]|access-date=18 April 2020 |date=27 November 2015 }} {{open access}}
-* {{Cite journal | last1 = Sahasrabudhe | first1 = M. R. | title = Crismer values and erucic acid contents of rapeseed oils | doi = 10.1007/BF02672436 | journal = Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society | volume = 54 | issue = 8 | pages = 323–324 | year = 1977 | s2cid = 84400266 }}
+* {{Cite journal | last1 = Sahasrabudhe | first1 = M. R. | title = Crismer values and erucic acid contents of rapeseed oils | doi = 10.1007/BF02672436 | journal =[[Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society]]| volume = 54 | issue = 8 | pages = 323–324 | year = 1977 | s2cid = 84400266 }}
-* {{Cite journal|last1=Salimon|first1=Jumat|last2=Salih|first2=Nadia|last3=Yousif|first3=Emad|date=2010|title=Biolubricants: Raw materials, chemical modifications and environmental benefits|journal=European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology |language=en |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=519–530 |doi=10.1002/ejlt.200900205 |issn=1438-9312 }}
+* {{Cite journal|last1=Salimon|first1=Jumat|last2=Salih|first2=Nadia|last3=Yousif|first3=Emad|date=2010|title=Biolubricants: Raw materials, chemical modifications and environmental benefits|journal=[[European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology]]|language=en |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=519–530 |doi=10.1002/ejlt.200900205 |issn=1438-9312 }}
 * {{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Marilyn |url=https://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/ecological-reservation-belarus-fosters-new-approaches-soil-remediation |title=Ecological reservation in Belarus fosters new approaches to soil remediation |publisher=[[IAEA]] |date=29 January 2004 |access-date=20 October 2012 }}
-* {{cite book |last1=Snowdon |first1=Rod |last2=Lühs |first2=Wilfried |last3=Friedt |first3=Wolfgang |title=Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants - Oilseeds |date=2006 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783540343875 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKWulH2TFh4C |access-date=21 March 2019}}
+* {{cite book |last1=Snowdon |first1=Rod |last2=Lühs |first2=Wilfried |last3=Friedt |first3=Wolfgang |title=Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants - Oilseeds |date=2006 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]]|isbn=9783540343875 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wKWulH2TFh4C |access-date=21 March 2019}}
-* {{cite book|last1=Thiyam-Holländer|first1=Usha|last2=Eskin|first2=Michael|last3=Matthäus|first3=Bertrand|title=Canola and Rapeseed: Production, Processing, Food Quality, and Nutrition|date=2013|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton, FL |isbn=9781466513884 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlLOBQAAQBAJ |access-date=25 November 2015 }}
+* {{cite book|last1=Thiyam-Holländer|first1=Usha|last2=Eskin|first2=Michael|last3=Matthäus|first3=Bertrand|title=Canola and Rapeseed: Production, Processing, Food Quality, and Nutrition|date=2013|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|location=Boca Raton, FL |isbn=9781466513884 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlLOBQAAQBAJ |access-date=25 November 2015 }}
 * {{cite book |last1=USDA |title=Agricultural Statistics 2002 |date=2002 |publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |isbn=0160511135 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quea_n09ajwC |access-date=20 March 2019 }}
 * {{cite web |last1=USFDA |publisher=Food and Drug Administration |url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1555 |title=CFR – Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 |date=1 April 2010 |access-date=19 April 2020 |author-link=Food and Drug Administration }}
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+* {{cite book |last1=Webb |first1=David A. |last2=Parnell |first2=John |last3=Doogue |first3=D. |title=An Irish Flora |date=1996 |publisher=[[Dundalgan Press]]|isbn=9780852211311 }}
 {{refend}}

v t e Cantonese cuisine
Main dishes	Bao yu Bird's nest soup Buddha's delight Cantonese seafood soup Chinese steamed eggs Congee Crispy fried chicken Dragon tiger phoenix Egg foo young Eight treasure duck Hot pot Lemon chicken Pork knuckles and ginger stew Seafood birdsnest Shark fin soup Snake bite chicken Soy sauce chicken Steam minced pork Subgum Suckling pig Sweet and sour pork White boiled shrimp White cut chicken Wonton noodles Yangzhou fried rice
Dim sum and yum cha	Almond tofu Beef tripe Cha siu bao Chicken feet Coconut bar Har gow Jian dui Jiaozi Lo mai gai Nian gao Ox-tongue pastry Rice noodle roll Shumai Spring roll Steamed meatball Swiss wing Taro cake Taro dumpling Tendon Tofu skin roll Turnip cake Water chestnut cake Yau gok Youtiao Zhaliang
Siu laap	Char siu Chinese sausage Lou mei Orange cuttlefish Roast goose Siu mei Siu yuk White cut chicken
Desserts and pastry	Almond biscuit Biscuit roll Deuk Deuk Tong Douhua Ginger milk curd Lo mai chi Malay sponge cake Mooncake Red bean cake Red bean soup Sausage bun Tang bu shuai Tong sui White sugar sponge cake
Condiments and spices	Fermented bean curd Five-spice powder XO sauce
Ingredients	Beef ball Black bean paste Chenpi Conpoy Fermented black beans Fish ball Fishcake Frog legs Garland chrysanthemum Kai-lan Mantis shrimp Ong choy Pig blood curd Pig's ear Rapeseed Saang mein Sea cucumbers Shahe fen Shrimp roe noodles Spare ribs Suan cai Tofu skin Wonton Yi mein Youmian Zha cai
Others	Chinese herb tea Dried shredded squid Lou fo tong
Cantonese restaurant Beijing cuisine Shanghai cuisine Hong Kong cuisine Macanese cuisine Chinese cuisine History of Chinese cuisine

v t e Brassica
Species	Brassica carinata Brassica elongata Brassica fruticulosa Brassica hilarionis Brassica juncea Brassica napus Brassica oleracea Brassica rapa Brassica tournefortii
Cultivars	Bomdong Canola Chinese cabbage Bok choy Napa cabbage Choy sum Collard greens Kohlrabi Mustard plant Nanohana Rapeseed Rapini Rutabaga Spring greens Tatsoi Turnip
Triangle of U Brassica Brassicaceae Brassicaceae (Cruciferous vegetables): Brassica Cruciferous Biochemistry genera (list)

v t e Bioenergy
Biofuels	Alcohol Algae Babassu oil Bagasse Biobutanol Biodiesel Biogas Biogasoline Bioliquids Biomass Cooking oil vegetable oil Ethanol cellulosic mixtures Methanol Stover corn Straw Water hyacinth Wood gas
Energy from foodstock	Camelina sativa Cassava Coconut oil Grape Hemp Maize Oat Palm oil Potato Rapeseed Rice Sorghum bicolor Soybean Sugar beet Sugarcane Sunflower Wheat Yam
Non-food energy crops	Arundo Big bluestem Camelina Chinese tallow Duckweed Jatropha curcas Miscanthus × giganteus Pongamia pinnata Salicornia Switchgrass Wood
Technology	Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage Biomass heating systems Biorefinery Fischer–Tropsch process Industrial biotechnology Pellet fuel mill stove Sabatier reaction Thermal depolymerization
Concepts	Agflation Cellulosic ethanol commercialization Energy content of biofuel Energy crop Energy forestry Energy return on investment Food vs. fuel Issues relating to biofuels Sustainable biofuel