Gustav Mahler: Difference between revisions
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Born in relatively humble circumstances, Mahler showed his musical gifts at an early age. After graduating from the [[Vienna Conservatory]] in 1878, he held a succession of conducting posts of rising importance in the opera houses of Europe, culminating in his appointment in 1897 as Director of the [[Vienna Hofoper]]. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler experienced opposition and hostility, much of it from the anti-Semitic press (Mahler had converted to Catholicism from Judaism). Nevertheless, his innovative productions and insistence on the highest performance standards ensured his reputation as one of the greatest of opera-directors, particularly as an interpreter of the stage works of [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]. Late in his life he was briefly Director of the [[New York Metropolitan Opera]] and the [[New York Philharmonic Orchestra]]. |
Born in relatively humble circumstances, Mahler showed his musical gifts at an early age. After graduating from the [[Vienna Conservatory]] in 1878, he held a succession of conducting posts of rising importance in the opera houses of Europe, culminating in his appointment in 1897 as Director of the [[Vienna Hofoper]]. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler experienced opposition and hostility, much of it from the anti-Semitic press (Mahler had converted to Catholicism from Judaism). Nevertheless, his innovative productions and insistence on the highest performance standards ensured his reputation as one of the greatest of opera-directors, particularly as an interpreter of the stage works of [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]. Late in his life he was briefly Director of the [[New York Metropolitan Opera]] and the [[New York Philharmonic Orchestra]]. |
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Mahler's compositional output is relatively small—for much of his life composing was a part-time activity, secondary to conducting—and is confined to the genres of [[symphony]] and song. Most of his ten symphonies are very large-scale works, several of which employ soloists and choirs in addition to augmented orchestral forces. These works were often controversial when first performed, and were slow to receive critical and popular approval; an exception was the triumphant |
Mahler's compositional output is relatively small—for much of his life composing was a part-time activity, secondary to conducting—and is confined to the genres of [[symphony]] and song. Most of his ten symphonies are very large-scale works, several of which employ soloists and choirs in addition to augmented orchestral forces. These works were often controversial when first performed, and were slow to receive critical and popular approval; an exception was the triumphant premiere of his [[Symphony No. 8 (Mahler)|Eighth Symphony]] in 1910. Mahler's immediate musical successors were the composers of the [[Second Viennese School]], notably [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Alban Berg]] and [[Anton Webern]]. Later, the Russian [[Dimitri Shostakovich]] and the British [[Benjamin Britten]] were among many composers who admired and were influenced by Mahler, in whose memory the International Gustav Mahler Institute was established in 1955. |
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==Biography== |
==Biography== |
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![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Photo_of_Gustav_Mahler_by_Moritz_N%C3%A4hr_01.jpg/220px-Photo_of_Gustav_Mahler_by_Moritz_N%C3%A4hr_01.jpg)
Gustav Mahler (7 July 1860 – 18 May 1911) was an Austrian late-Romantic composer and also one of the leading conductors of his generation. As a composer Mahler acted as a bridge between the 19th century Austro-German tradition and the modernism of the early 20th century. While in his lifetime his status as a conductor was established beyond question, his own music only received wide acceptance in the latter part of the 20th century. After the music was discovered and championed by a new generation in a more iconoclastic age, Mahler became one of the most frequently performed and recorded of all composers, a position he has sustained into the 21st century.
Born in relatively humble circumstances, Mahler showed his musical gifts at an early age. After graduating from the Vienna Conservatory in 1878, he held a succession of conducting posts of rising importance in the opera houses of Europe, culminating in his appointment in 1897 as Director of the Vienna Hofoper. During his ten years in Vienna, Mahler experienced opposition and hostility, much of it from the anti-Semitic press (Mahler had converted to Catholicism from Judaism). Nevertheless, his innovative productions and insistence on the highest performance standards ensured his reputation as one of the greatest of opera-directors, particularly as an interpreter of the stage works of Wagner and Mozart. Late in his life he was briefly Director of the New York Metropolitan Opera and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra.
Mahler's compositional output is relatively small—for much of his life composing was a part-time activity, secondary to conducting—and is confined to the genres of symphony and song. Most of his ten symphonies are very large-scale works, several of which employ soloists and choirs in addition to augmented orchestral forces. These works were often controversial when first performed, and were slow to receive critical and popular approval; an exception was the triumphant premiere of his Eighth Symphony in 1910. Mahler's immediate musical successors were the composers of the Second Viennese School, notably Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg and Anton Webern. Later, the Russian Dimitri Shostakovich and the British Benjamin Britten were among many composers who admired and were influenced by Mahler, in whose memory the International Gustav Mahler Institute was established in 1955.
Biography
Early life
Family background
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Jihlava_2007.jpg/170px-Jihlava_2007.jpg)
The Mahler family came from eastern Bohemia, of humble circumstances—the composer's grandmother had been a street pedlar.[1] In Bohemia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the family belonged to an unpopular German-speaking Austrian minority and within that, to an unpopular Jewish minority, giving the future composer a permanent sense of exile.[2] The pedlar's son Bernhard Mahler, the composer's father, elevated himself through his own efforts to the ranks of the petite bourgeoisie, becoming a coachman and later an innkeeper.[3] At the age of 30 he bought a modest house in the village of Kalischt (now Kaliště), and in 1857 married Marie Frank, the 19-year-old daughter of a local soap manufacturer. In the following year Marie gave birth to the first of the couple's 14 children, a son Isidor, who died in infancy. Two years later, on 7 July 1860, their second son, Gustav, was born.[4]
Childhood
In December 1860 Bernhard Mahler moved with his wife and infant son to the Moravian town of Iglau (now Jihlava in the Czech Republic),[4] where Bernard built up a successful distillery and tavern business.[5] Iglau was then a thriving commercial town of 20,000 people with an active cultural life.[6] In the years following, twelve more children were born to the family, though only six survived infancy.[4] As he grew up, Gustav was introduced to music through the fashionable tunes of the day, folk songs, dances, and the regular band concerts given by the local military garrison. Many of these elements would later become parts of his musical vocabulary.[3]
When he was four years old, Gustav discovered his grandparents' piano and took to it immediately.[7] He developed his performing skills sufficiently to be considered a local Wunderkind, and gave his first public performance at the municipal theatre when he was 10 years old.[3][5] Although Gustav loved making music, his school reports from the Iglau Gymnasium portray him as absent-minded and unreliable in academic work.[7] In 1871, in the hope of improving the boy's results, his father sent him to the New Town Gymnasium in Prague, but Gustav failed to settle there and soon returned to Iglau.[5] In 1874 he suffered a bitter personal blow when his younger brother Ernst died after a long illness. Mahler sought to express his feelings in music; with the help of a friend, Josef Steiner, he began work on an opera, Herzog Ernst von Schwaben ("Duke Ernest of Swabia") as a memorial to his lost brother. Neither the music nor the libretto of this early work has survived.[7]
Student days
Despite having a reputation as a bully and wife-beater,[2][5] Bernhard Mahler was supportive of his son's ambitions for a music career, and agreed that the boy should try for a place at the Vienna Conservatory.[8] The young Mahler was auditioned by the renowned pianist Julius Epstein, and accepted for the year 1875–76.[5] Mahler made good progress in his piano studies with Epstein, winning prizes at the end of each of his first two years. For his final year, 1877–78, he concentrated on composition under Robert Fuchs and Franz Krenn.[9][10] Few of Mahler's student compositions have survived; most were abandoned when he became dissatisfied with them. He destroyed a symphonic movement prepared for an end-of-term competition, after its scornful rejection by the autocratic director Joseph Hellmesberger on the grounds of copying errors.[11] Mahler gained his first conducting experiences with the Conservatory's student orchestra, in rehearsals and performances.[12]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Richard_Wagner%2C_Paris%2C_1861.jpg/170px-Richard_Wagner%2C_Paris%2C_1861.jpg)
Among Mahler's fellow students at the Conservatory was the future song composer Hugo Wolf with whom he formed a close friendship. As a student, Wolf was unable to submit to the strict disciplines of the Conservatory and was expelled, while Mahler, sometimes rebellious, only avoided the same fate by writing a penitent letter to Hellmesberger.[11] Mahler attended occasional lectures by Anton Bruckner and, while never the latter's formal pupil, was influenced by him. On 16 December 1877 Mahler attended the disastrous première of Bruckner's Third Symphony, at which the composer was shouted down and most of the audience walked out. Mahler and other sympathetic students later prepared a piano version of the symphony, which they presented to Bruckner.[12] Along with many music students of his generation, Mahler fell under the spell of Richard Wagner, though there is no evidence that he attended any of Wagner's operas when they were staged in Vienna.[13]
Mahler left the Conservatory in 1878 with a diploma but without the prestigious silver medal that was given for outstanding achievement.[14] He then enrolled at Vienna University (he had, at Bernhard's insistence, sat and with difficulty passed the "matura", or entrance examination) and followed courses which reflected his developing interests in literature and philosophy.[5] After leaving the University in 1879, Mahler made some money as a piano teacher, continued to compose, and in 1880 finished a dramatic cantata, Das Klagende Lied ("The Song of Lament"). This, his first substantial composition, shows traces of Wagnerian and Brucknerian influences, yet includes many musical features which musicologist Deryck Cooke describes as "pure Mahler".[15] Its first performance was delayed until 1901, when it was presented in a revised, shortened form.[16]
Mahler developed interests in German nationalism and German philosophy, and was introduced by his friend Siegfried Lipiner to the works of Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Gustav Theodor Fechner and Rudolf Hermann Lotze. These thinkers continued to influence Mahler and his music long after his student days were over. Biographer Jonathan Carr says that the composer's head was "not only full of the sound of Bohemian bands, trumpet calls and marches, Bruckner chorales and Schubert sonatas. It was also throbbing with the problems of philosophy and metaphysics he had thrashed out, above all, with Lipiner."[17]
Early conducting career 1880–88
First appointments
In the summer of 1880 Mahler took his first professional conducting job, in a small wooden theatre in the spa town of Bad Hall, south of Linz.[14] The repertory was exclusively operetta; it was, in Carr's words "a dismal little job", which Mahler only accepted after Julius Epstein had told him he would soon work his way up.[17] In the following year he was engaged at the Landestheater in Laibach (now Ljubljana, in Slovenia), where the small but resourceful company was prepared to attempt more ambitious works. Here, Mahler conducted his first full-scale opera, Guiseppe Verdi's Il trovatore, one of more than 50 that he presented during his six months in Laibach.[18] Back in Vienna, Mahler worked part-time as chorus-master at the Vienna Carltheater.[19]
In January 1883 Mahler became conductor at a run-down theatre in Olmütz (now Olomouc in the Czech Republic).[18] He later wrote: "From the moment I crossed the threshold of the Olmütz theatre I felt like one awaiting the wrath of God."[20] Despite poor relations with the orchestra, Mahler brought five new operas to the theatre, including Bizet's Carmen, and won over the press who had initially been hostile to him.[20] While at Olmütz Mahler was given a week's trial at the Royal Theatre in the Prussian town of Kassel. As a result, he was offered the post of Musical and Choral Director, which he accepted from August 1883.[19] The title concealed the reality that Mahler was subordinate to the theatre's Kapellmeister, Wilhelm Treiber, who disliked Mahler and set out to make his life miserable.[21] Despite the unpleasant atmosphere, Mahler had moments of success at Kassel. He directed a performance of his favourite opera, Weber's Der Freischutz,[22] and on 23 June 1884 conducted his own incidental music to Josef Viktor von Scheffel's play Der Trompeter von Säkkingen ("The Trumpeter of Säkkingen"), the first professional public performance of a Mahler work.[n 1] An ardent but ultimately unfulfilled love affair with soprano Johanna Richter led Mahler to write a series of love poems which became the text of his song cycle Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen ("Songs of a Wayfarer").[21]
In January 1984 the distinguished conductor Hans von Bülow gave two concerts in Kassel. Hoping to escape from his job in the theatre, Mahler unsuccessfully sought a post as Bülow's assistant. However, in the following year his efforts to find new employment resulted in a six-year contract with the prestigious Leipzig Opera, to begin in 1886. Unwilling to remain in Kassel for another year, Mahler resigned in July 1885, and through good fortune was offered a standby appointment as an assistant conductor at the Neues Deutsches Theater in Prague.[23]
Prague and Leipzig
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Leipzig_GustavMahler_Wohnhaus.jpg/220px-Leipzig_GustavMahler_Wohnhaus.jpg)
In Prague, the popularity and importance of the Neues Deutsches Theater had been diminished by the new Czech National Theatre and its overt nationalist agenda; Mahler's task was to help arrest this decline by offering high-quality productions of German opera.[24] He had early success presenting works from Mozart and Wagner, composers with whom he would be particularly associated for the rest of his career,[22] but his individualistic and increasingly autocratic conducting style led to friction, and a falling out with his more experienced fellow-conductor, Ludwig Slansky.[24] In April 1886 Mahler left Prague to take up his post at the Neues Stadttheater in Leipzig, where rivalry with his senior colleague Arthur Nikisch began at once, primarily over who should conduct the theatre's new production of Wagner's Ring cycle. In the event, Nikisch's illness in January 1887 meant that Mahler took charge, and scored a resounding public success. However, this did not make him popular with the orchestra who resented his dictatorial manner, although Mahler had the support of the theatre's manager, Max Staegemann.[24]
In Leipzig Mahler befriended Carl von Weber, grandson of the composer, and agreed to prepare a performing version of Carl Maria von Weber's unfinished opera Die drei Pintos ("The Three Pintos"). Mahler transcribed and orchestrated the existing musical sketches, used parts of other Weber works, and added some composition of his own.[25] The première at the Stadttheater in January 1888 was an important occasion at which Tchaikovsky was present,[24] along with the heads of various opera houses. The work was well-received; its success did much to raise Mahler's public profile, and brought him financial rewards.[25] His involvement with the Weber family was complicated by a romantic attachment to Carl von Weber's wife Marion which, though intense on both sides, ultimately came to nothing. At around this time Mahler discovered the German folk-poem collection Des Knaben Wunderhorn, which would dominate much of his compositional output during the following twelve years.[24][n 2]
Mahler's new-found financial security enabled him to resign his Leipzig position in May 1888, after a dispute with the Stadttheater's chief stage manager.[27] Without a post, Mahler returned to Prague to work on a revival of Die drei Pintos and a production of Peter Cornelius's Der Barbier von Bagdad. This short stay ended unhappily, with Mahler's dismissal after an outburst during rehearsals. However, through the efforts of an old Viennese friend, Guido Adler, Mahler's name went forward as a potential director of the Royal Hungarian Opera in Budapest. He was interviewed, made a good impression, and was offered the post from October 1888.[28]
Apprentice composer
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Gustav-Mahler-Kohut.jpg/170px-Gustav-Mahler-Kohut.jpg)
In the years of Mahler's early conducting appointments, composing was a spare time activity. Between his Laibach and Olmütz appointments he worked on settings of verses by Richard Leander and Tirso de Molina, later collected as Volume 1 of Lieder und Gesänge ("Songs and Airs").[29] Mahler's first orchestral song cycle, Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen, composed at Kassel, was based on his own verses, although the first poem, "Wenn mein Schatz Hochzeit macht" ("When my love becomes a bride") closely follows the text of a Wunderhorn poem.[26] The airs for the second and fourth songs of the cycle were incorporated into the First Symphony which Mahler finished in 1888, at the height of his relationship with Marion von Weber. The intensity of Mahler's feelings are reflected in the music, which originally was written as a five- movement symphonic poem with a descriptive programme. One of these movements, the "Blumine", later discarded, was based on a passage from Mahler's earlier work Der Trompeter von Säkkingen.[24][25] After completing the symphony, Mahler immediately composed a 20-minute funeral march, or Todtenfeier, which later became the first movement of his Second Symphony.[30]
There has been frequent speculation about lost or destroyed works from Mahler's early years.[31] The Dutch conductor Willem Mengelberg believed that the First Symphony was too mature to be a first symphonic work, and must have had predecessors. In 1938 Mengelberg revealed the existence of the so-called "Dresden archive", a series of Mahler manuscripts in the possession of the widowed Marion von Weber.[32] The archive was almost certainly destroyed in the bombing of Dresden in 1945;[25] according to Mahler historian Donald Mitchell "the strong possibility remains that some important manuscripts, either early symphonies or parts of early symphonies, were to be found in Dresden."[32]
Budapest and Hamburg, 1888–97
Royal Opera, Budapest
On arriving in Budapest in October 1888 Mahler found the opera house affected by a cultural conflict between old-style Hungarian nationalists favouring a policy of Magyarisation, and liberals who wanted to preserve the country's Austro-German cultural traditions. In the opera house the conservative faction had until recently been dominant, led by the music director Sandor Erkel who had maintained a limited repertory of historical and folklore opera. When Mahler began his duties the progressive faction was in the ascendant, after the appointment of the liberal-minded Ferenc von Beniczky as Intendant.[33] Aware of the delicate situation, Mahler moved cautiously; he delayed his first appearance on the conductor's stand until January 1889, when he conducted Hungarian language performances of Das Rheingold and Die Walküre to great public acclaim.[34] However, his early successes faded when plans to stage the second part of the Ring cycle and other German operas were frustrated by a renascent conservative faction which favoured a more traditional "Hungarian" programme.[34] In search of non-German operas to extend the repertory, Mahler visited Italy where among the works he discovered was Pietro Mascagni's recent sensation Cavalleria rusticana.[33]
In February 1889 Berhard Mahler died; this was followed in the autumn by the deaths both of Mahler's sister Leopoldine and his mother.[33] Mahler himself suffered poor health, with attacks of haemorrhoids and migraine and a recurrent septic throat.[35] Shortly after these family and health setbacks the première of the First Symphony, in Budapest on 21 November 1889, was a disappointment. August Beer's lengthy newspaper review indicates that enthusiasm after the early movements degenerated into "audible opposition" after the Finale.[36] Mahler was particularly distressed by the negative comments from his Vienna Conservatory contemporary, Viktor von Herzfeld, who had remarked that Mahler, like many conductors before him, had proved that he was not a composer.[33][37][38]
In 1891 Hungary's move to the political right was reflected in the opera house when Beniczky was replaced as Intendant by Géza Zichy, a conservative aristocrat determined to assume artistic control over Mahler's head.[33] Mahler began negotiating with the director of the Hamburg Stadttheater; in May 1891, having agreed to a contract there, he resigned his Budapest post.[39] His final Budapest triumph was a performance of Don Giovanni which won him praise from the composer Johannes Brahms who was present.[40] During his Budapest years Mahler's compositional output had been limited to the Wunderhorn song settings that became Volumes II and III of Lieder und Gesänge, and amendments to the First Symphony.[34]
Hamburg Stadttheater
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Mahlers_Komponierh%C3%A4uschen.jpg/220px-Mahlers_Komponierh%C3%A4uschen.jpg)
Mahler's Hamburg post was as chief conductor, subordinate to the director, Bernhard Pohl (known as Pollini) who retained overall artistic control. Pollini was prepared to give Mahler considerable leeway if the latter could provide commercial as well as artistic success. This Mahler did in his first season, when he conducted Wagner's Tristan und Isolde for the first time and gave acclaimed performances of the same composer's Tannhäuser and Siegfried.[41] Another triumph was the German première of Tchaikovsky's Eugene Onegin, in the presence of the composer, who called Mahler's conducting "astounding".[42] Mahler's demanding rehearsal schedules led to predictable resentment from the singers and orchestra with whom, according to Franklin, the conductor "inspired hatred and respect in almost equal measure."[41] He found support, however, from Hans von Bülow, who was in Hamburg as director of the city's subscription concerts. Bülow, who had snubbed Mahler in Kassel, had come to admire the younger man's conducting style, and on Bülow's death in 1894 Mahler took over the direction of the concerts.[34]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Hans_von_buelow.jpg/170px-Hans_von_buelow.jpg)
In the summer of 1892 Mahler took the Hamburg singers to London to participate in a six-week season of German opera—his only visit to Britain. His conducting of Tristan enthralled the young composer Ralph Vaughan Williams, who "staggered home in a daze and could not sleep for two nights."[43] However, Mahler refused further similar invitations as he was anxious to reserve his summers for composing.[34] In 1893 he acquired a summer retreat at Steinbach, on the banks of Lake Attersee in Upper Austria, and established a pattern that persisted for the rest of his life; summers would henceforth be dedicated to composition, at Steinbach or its successor retreats. Now firmly under the influence of the Des Knaben Wunderhorn folk-poem collection, Mahler produced a stream of Wunderhorn song settings at Steinbach, and composed his Second and Third Symphonies there.[41]
Performances of Mahler works were still comparatively rare. On 27 October 1893, at Hamburg's Ludwig Konzerthaus, Mahler conducted a revised version of his First Symphony; still in its original five-movement form, it was presented as a Tondichtung (tone poem) under the descriptive name "Titan".[41][44] This concert also introduced several recent Wunderhorn settings. Mahler achieved his first relative success as a composer when the Second Symphony was well-received on its premiére in Berlin, on 13 December 1895. Mahler's future conducting assistant Bruno Walter, who was present, said that "one may date [Mahler's] rise to fame as a composer from that day."[45] That same year Mahler's private life was disrupted by the suicide of his younger brother Otto.[46]
At the Stadttheater Mahler introduced numerous new operas: Verdi's Falstaff, Humperdinck's Hänsel und Gretel, and works by Smetana.[34] However, he lost his conducting appointment with the subscription concerts after a controversial interpretation of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.[41] Mahler had made it clear that his ultimate goal was an appointment in Vienna, and from 1895 onward was manoeuvring, with the help of influential friends, to secure the directorship of the Vienna Hofoper.[47] He resolved the problem of the bar that existed against the appointment of a Jew to this post by a pragmatic conversion to Roman Catholicism in February 1897. Two months later Mahler was appointed to the Hofoper, provisionally as a staff conductor with the title of Kapellmeister.[48]
Vienna, 1897–1907
Hofoper director
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Staatsoper_%28ca.1898%29.jpg/220px-Staatsoper_%28ca.1898%29.jpg)
As he waited for the Emperor's confirmation of his directorship, Mahler shared duties as a resident conductor with Joseph Hellmesberger Jr (son of the former Conservatory director) and with Hans Richter, an internationally renowned interpreter of Wagner. Director Wilhelm Jahn had not consulted Richter about Mahler's appointment; Mahler, sensitive to the situation, wrote Richter a complimentary letter expressing unswerving admiration for the older conductor. Subsequently the two were rarely in agreement, but kept their divisions private.[49]
Vienna, the imperial Habsburg capital, had recently elected an anti-Semitic conservative mayor, Karl Lueger, who had once proclaimed: "I myself decide who is a Jew and who isn't."[50] In such a volatile political atmosphere Mahler needed an early demonstration of his German cultural credentials. He made his initial mark in May 1897 with much-praised performances of Wagner's Lohengrin and Mozart's Die Zauberflöte ("The Magic Flute").[51] Shortly after the Zauberflöte triumph, Mahler was forced to take sick leave for several weeks, during which he was nursed by his sister Justine and his long-time companion, the viola player Natalie Bauer-Lechner.[52] Mahler returned to Vienna in early August to prepare for Vienna's first uncut version of the complete Ring cycle. This performance took place on 24–27 August, attracting critical praise and public enthusiasm. Mahler's friend Hugo Wolf told Bauer-Lechner that "for the first time I have heard the Ring as I have always dreamed of hearing it while reading the score."[53]
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Mahler_conducting_caricature.jpg/220px-Mahler_conducting_caricature.jpg)
On 8 October Mahler was formally appointed to succeed Jahn as the Hofoper's director.[54][n 3] His first production in his new status was Smetana's Czech nationalist opera Dalibor, with a reconstituted finale that left the hero Dalibor alive. This production caused anger among the more extreme Viennese German nationalists, who accused Mahler of "fraternising with the anti-dynastic, inferior Czech nation".[55] During Mahler's tenure a total of 32 new operas were introduced to the Hofoper; a further 50 were new or totally revamped productions.[56] However, a proposal to stage Strauss's controversial Salome in 1905 fell was rejected by the Viennese censors.[57]
Early in 1902 Mahler met Alfred Roller, an artist and designer associated with the Vienna Secession movement. A year later, Mahler appointed him chief stage designer to the Hofoper, where Roller's debut was a new production of Tristan und Isolde.[58][n 4] The collaboration between Mahler and Roller created more than 20 new and celebrated productions of, among other operas, Beethoven's Fidelio, Gluck's Iphigénie en Aulide and Mozart's Le nozze di Figaro ("The Marriage of Figaro").[56][60] In the Figaro production, Mahler offended some purists by adding and composing and a short recitative scene to Act III.[61]
In spite of numerous theatrical triumphs, Mahler's Vienna years were rarely smooth. Apart from the weighty administrative workload attached to his post as director,[62] his battles with singers continued on and off for the whole of his tenure. While Mahler's methods improved standards, his histrionic and dictatorial conducting style was resented by orchestra members and singers alike.[63] In December 1903 Mahler faced a revolt by stagehands, whose list of demands for better conditions he rejected in the belief that extremists were manipulating his staff.[64] The anti-Semitic elements in Viennese society, long opposed to Mahler's appointment, continued to attack him relentlessly, and in 1907 instituted a press campaign designed to drive him out.[65] By that time he was at odds with the opera house's administration over the amount of time he was spending on his own music, and was preparing to leave.[60] Early in 1907 he began discussions with Heinrich Conried, director of the New York Metropolitan Opera, and in June signed a contract, on very favourable terms, for four seasons' conducting in New York.[65] At the end of the summer he submitted his resignation to the Hofoper, and on 15 October 1907 conducted Fidelio, his 648th and final performance there. In ten years, Mahler had brought new life to the opera house and cleared its debts,[66] but had won few friends. It was said that he treated his musicians in the way a lion tamer treated his animals.[67] His departing message to the company, which he pinned to a notice board, was later torn down and scattered over the floor.[68] After conducting the Hofoper orchestra in a farewell concert performance of his Second Symphony on 24 November, Mahler left Vienna for New York in early December.[69][70]
Philharmonic concerts
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Mahler-Auenbruggergasse-2.jpg/220px-Mahler-Auenbruggergasse-2.jpg)
When Richter resigned as head of the Vienna Philharmonic subscription concerts in September 1898,[n 5] the concerts committee unanimously chose Mahler as his successor.[72] The appointment was not universally welcomed; the anti-Semitic press wondered if, as a non-German, Mahler would be capable of defending German music.[73] In fact, attendances rose sharply in Mahler's first season, but members of the orchestra were particularly resentful of his habit of re-scoring acknowledged masterpieces,[51] and of his scheduling of extra rehearsals for works with which they were thoroughly familiar. An attempt by the orchestra to have Richter reinstated for the 1899 season failed, because Richter was not interested. Mahler's position was weakened when, in 1900, he took the orchestra to Paris to play at the Exposition Universelle. The Paris concerts were poorly attended and lost money—Mahler had to borrow the orchestra's fare home from the Rothschilds.[74][75] In April 1901, dogged by a recurrence of ill-health and wearied by more complaints from the orchestra, Mahler relinquished the Philharmonic concerts conductorship.[60] In his three seasons he had performed around 80 different works, which included pieces by relatively unknown composers such as Hermann Goetz, Wilhelm Kienzl and the Italian Lorenzo Perosi.[74]
Mature composer
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Poertschach_von_Gloriette_04.jpg/220px-Poertschach_von_Gloriette_04.jpg)
The demands of his twin appointments in Vienna initially absorbed all Mahler's time and energy, but by 1899 he had resumed composing. The remaining Vienna years were to prove particularly fruitful. While working on the last of his Des Knaben Wunderhorn settings he started his Fourth Symphony, which he completed in 1900.[76] By this time he had exchanged the composing hut at Steinbach for another, at Maiernigg on the shores of the Wörthersee in Carinthia, a spot that he had discovered during his 1897 convalescence from the Hofoper.[52] In this new venue Mahler embarked upon what is generally considered as his "middle" or post-Wunderhorn compositional period.[77] Between 1901 and 1904 he wrote ten settings of poems by Friedrich Rückert, five of which were collected as Rückert Lieder.[n 6] The other five formed the song cycle Kindertotenlieder ("Songs on the deaths of children"). The trilogy of orchestral symphonies, the Fifth, the Sixth and the Seventh were composed at Maiernigg between 1901 and 1905, and the Eighth Symphony written there in 1906, in eight weeks of furious activity.[60][79]
Within this same period Mahler's works began to be performed with increasing frequency. In April 1899 he conducted the Viennese première of his Second Symphony; 17 February 1901 saw the first public performance of his early work Das Klagende Lied, in a revised two-part form. Later that year, in November, Mahler conducted the première of his Fourth Symphony, in Munich, and was at the rostrum for the first complete performance of the Third Symphony, at the Allgemeiner Deutscher Musikverein festival at Krefeld on 9 June 1902. Mahler premières now became increasingly frequent musical events; he conducted the first performances of the Fifth and Sixth Symphonies at Cologne and Essen respectively, in 1904 and 1906. Four of the Rückert Lieder, and Kindertotenlieder, were premièred in Vienna on 29 January 1905.[60][51]
Marriage, family, tragedy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/YoungAlmaMahler.jpg/170px-YoungAlmaMahler.jpg)
During his second season in Vienna Mahler acquired a spacious modern apartment on the Auenbruggerstrasse, and built a summer villa on land he had acquired next to his new composing studio at Maiernigg.[51] In November 1901 he met Alma Schindler, the stepdaughter of painter Carl Moll, at a social gathering that included the theatre director Max Burckhard.[80] Alma was not anxious to meet Mahler, on account of "the scandals about him and every young woman who aspired to sing in opera".[81] The couple engaged in a lively disagreement about a ballet by Alexander von Zemlinsky (Alma was one of Zemlinsky's pupils), but agreed to meet at the Hofoper the following day.[80] This meeting led to a rapid courtship; the couple were married at a private ceremony on 9 March 1902. Alma was by then pregnant with her first child,[82] a daughter Maria Anna, who was born on 3 November 1902. A second daughter, Anna, would be born in 1904.[60]
Friends of the couple were surprised by the marriage and dubious of its wisdom. Burckhard called Mahler "that rachitic degenerate Jew", unworthy for such a good-looking girl of good family.[83]. On the other hand, Mahler's family considered Alma to be flirtatious, unreliable, and too fond of seeing young men fall for her charms.[84] Alma soon became resentful that, on Mahler's insistence that there could only be one composer in the family, she had given up her music studies, and wrote in her diary: "How hard it is to be so mercilessly deprived of ... things closest to one's heart".[85] Mahler's requirement that their married life be organised around his creative activities imposed strains, and precipitated rebellion on Alma's part; the marriage was nevertheless marked at times by expressions of considerable passion, particularly from Mahler.[n 7]
In the summer of 1907 Mahler, exhausted from the effects of the campaign against him in Vienna, took his family to Maiernigg. Soon after their arrival both daughters fell ill with scarlet fever and diphtheria. Anna recovered, but after a fortnight's struggle Maria died on 12 July.[88] Immediately following this devastating loss, Mahler learned that his heart was defective, a diagnosis subsequently confirmed by a Vienna specialist, who ordered a curtailment of all forms of vigorous exercise. The extent to which Mahler's condition disabled him is unclear; Alma wrote of it as a virtual death sentence, though Mahler himself, in a letter written to her on 30 August 1907, said that he would be able to live a normal life, apart from avoiding over-fatigue.[89] The illness was, however, a further depressing factor; at the end of the summer the villa at Maiernigg was closed, and never revisited.[90]
Last years, 1907–11
New York
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Metropolitan_opera_1905.jpg/220px-Metropolitan_opera_1905.jpg)
Mahler made his New York debut at the Metropolitan on 1 January 1908, when he conducted Wagner's Tristan und Isolde in the cut version still standard in New York, though long since superseded in Vienna.[88] In a busy first season Mahler's performances were widely praised, especially his Fidelio on 20 March 1908, in which he insisted on replicas being made of Roller's Vienna sets.[91] On his return to Austria for the summer of 1908, Mahler established himself in the third and last of his composing studios, in the pine forests close to Toblach (now Dobbiaco) in the Tyrol. Here, using a text by Hans Bethge based on ancient Chinese poems, he composed Das Lied von der Erde.[88] Despite the symphonic nature of the work, Mahler refused to number it, hoping thereby to escape the "curse of the Ninth Symphony" that he believed had affected fellow-composers Beethoven, Schubert and Bruckner.[69] On 19 September 1908 the première of the Seventh Symphony was deemed by Alma Mahler a succès d'estime, a critical rather than a popular success.[92]
For its 1908–09 season the Metropolitan management brought in the Italian conductor Arturo Toscanini to share duties with Mahler, who made only 19 appearances in the entire season. One of these was a much-praised performance of Smetana's The Bartered Bride on 19 February 1909.[93] In the early part of the season Mahler conducted three concerts with the New York Symphony Orchestra.[94] This renewed experience of orchestral conducting inspired him to resign his position with the Metropolitan and accept the conductorship of the re-formed New York Philharmonic Orchestra. He continued to make occasional guest appearances at the Met, his last performance being Tchaikovsky's The Queen of Spades on 5 March 1910.[95]
Back in Europe for the summer of 1909, Mahler worked on his Ninth Symphony and made a conducting tour of the Netherlands.[88] The 1909–10 New York Philharmonic season was long and taxing; Mahler rehearsed and conducted 46 concerts, but his programmes were often too demanding for popular tastes. His own First Symphony, given its American debut on 16 December 1909, was one of the pieces that failed with critics and public, and the season ended with heavy financial losses.[96] The highlight of the Mahler's 1910 summer was the first performance of the Eighth Symphony at Munich on 12 September, the last of his works premièred in his lifetime. The occasion was a triumph—"easily Mahler's biggest lifetime success", according to biographer Robert Carr—[97] but was overshadowed by the composer's discovery, before the event, that Alma had begun an affair with the young architect Walter Gropius. Greatly distressed, Mahler sought advice from Sigmund Freud, and appeared to gain some comfort from his meeting with the psychoanalyst. Alma agreed to remain with Mahler, although the relationship with Gropius continued surreptitiously. In a gesture of love, Mahler dedicated his Eighth Symphony to her.[60][88]
Illness and death
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Grinzinger_Friedhof_-_Gustav_Mahler.jpg/220px-Grinzinger_Friedhof_-_Gustav_Mahler.jpg)
In spite of the emotional distractions, during the summer of 1910 Mahler worked on his Tenth Symphony, completing the Adagio and sketching four more movements.[98][99] He and Alma returned to New York in November 1910, where Mahler threw himself into a busy Philharmonic season of concerts and tours. Around Christmas 1910 he began suffering from a sore throat, which persisted. On 21 February 1911, with a temperature of 104 °F, Mahler insisted on fulfilling an engagement at Carnegie Hall, with a relatively nondescript programme. This was Mahler's last concert.[100] After weeks confined to bed he was diagnosed with bacterial endocarditis, a disease to which sufferers from defective heart valves were particularly prone, and for which the survival rate in pre-antibiotic days was almost zero. Mahler did not give up hope; he talked of resuming the concert season, and took a keen interest when one of Alma's compositions was sung at a public recital by the soprano Frances Alda, on 3 March.[101] On 8 April the Mahler family and a permanent nurse left New York on board SS "Amerika" bound for Europe. They reached Paris ten days later, where Mahler entered a clinic at Neuilly but there was no improvement; on 11 May he was taken by train to the Lŏw sanatorium in Vienna, where he died on 18 May.[102]
Mahler was buried, as he had requested, in the Grinzing Cemetery on 22 May. Alma, on doctors orders, was absent, but among the mourners at a relatively pomp-free funeral were the composer Arnold Schoenberg (whose wreath described Mahler as "the holy Gustav Mahler"), Bruno Walter, the stage designer Alfred Roller, the Secessionist painter Gustav Klimt, and representatives from many of the great European opera houses.[103] Mahler's obituary in The New York Times called him "one of the towering musical figures of his day", but discussed his symphonies mainly in terms of their duration, incidentally exaggerating the length of the Second Symphony to "two hours and forty minutes".[104] The Musical Times of London, while relatively dismissive of his standing as a composer, concluded: "As a conductor he was universally considered one of the greatest of his generation."[105]
Alma Mahler survived her husband by more than 50 years. She married Walter Gropius in 1915, divorced him five years later, and married the writer Franz Werfel in 1929.[106] In 1940 she published a memoir of her years with Mahler, entitled Gustav Mahler: Memories and Letters, which was criticised by later biographers as incomplete, selective and self-serving.[107] She died in 1964. The composer's daughter Anna Mahler became a well-known sculptor; she died in 1988.[108] The International Gustav Mahler Society was founded in 1955 in Vienna, with Bruno Walter as its first president and Alma Mahler as an honorary member. The Society aims to create a complete Critical Edition of Mahler's works, and to commemorate all aspects of the composer's life.[109] The Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester was formed in 1986, on the initiative of the Italian conductor Claudio Abbado.[110]
Music
For a complete listing of Mahler's works, see List of compositions by Gustav Mahler
Three creative periods
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Mahler_song_cycle.jpg/220px-Mahler_song_cycle.jpg)
For convenience, Deryck Cooke and other analysts have divided Mahler's composing life into three distinct phases: a long "first period", extending from Das Klagende Lied in 1880 to the end of the Wunderhorn phase in 1901; a "middle period" of more concentrated composition ending with Mahler's departure for New York in 1907; and a brief "late period" of elegiac works before his death in 1911.[111]
The main works of the first period are the first four symphonies, the Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen song cycle and various song collections in which the Des Knaben Wunderhorn songs predominate.[112] In this period songs and symphonies are closely related and the symphonic works are programmatic. Mahler initially gave the first three symphonies full descriptive programmes, all of which he later repudiated.[113] He devised, but did not publish, titles for each of the movements for the Fourth Symphony; from these titles the German music critic Paul Bekker conjectured a programme in which Death appears in the Scherzo "in the friendly, legendary guise of the fiddler tempting his flock to follow him out of this world".[114]
The middle period comprises a triptych of purely instrumental symphonies (the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh), the Rückert and Kindertotenlieder songs, two final Wunderhorn settings and, in some reckonings, Mahler's last great affirmative statement, the choral Eighth Symphony.[115] Cooke believes that the Eighth stands on its own, between the middle and final periods.[116] Mahler had by now abandoned all explicit programmes and descriptive titles; he wanted to write "absolute" music that spoke for itself.[117] Cooke refers to "a new granite-like hardness of orchestration" in the middle-period symphonies, [115] while the songs have lost most of their folksiness and cease to fertilise the symphonies as explicitly as before.[118]
The works of the brief final period—Das Lied von der Erde, the Ninth and (incomplete) Tenth Symphonies—are expressions of personal experience, as Mahler faced death.[119] Each of the pieces ends quietly, signifying that aspiration has now given way to resignation.[120] Cooke considers these works to be a loving (rather than a bitter) farewell to life.[121] The composer Alban Berg called the Ninth "the most marvellous thing that Mahler ever wrote";[119] none of these final works were performed in Mahler's lifetime.[122]
Antecedents and influences
Mahler was a "late Romantic", part of an ideal that placed Austro-German classical music on a higher plane than other types, through its supposed possession of particular spiritual and philosophical significance.[123] He was one of the last major composers of a line which includes, among others, Beethoven, Schubert, Liszt, Wagner, Bruckner and Brahms.[124][125] From these antecedents Mahler drew many of the features that were to characterise his music. Thus, from Beethoven's Ninth Symphony came the idea of using soloists and a choir within the symphonic genre. From Beethoven, Liszt and (from a different musical tradition) Hector Berlioz came the concept of writing music with an inherent narrative or "programme", and of breaking away from the traditional four-movement symphony format. The examples of Wagner and Bruckner encouraged Mahler to extend the scale of his symphonic works well beyond the previously accepted standards, to embrace an entire world of feeling.[123][124]
Early critics maintained that Mahler's adoption of many different styles to suit different expressions of feeling meant that he lacked a style of his own; Cooke on the other hand asserts that Mahler "redeemed any borrowings by imprinting his [own] personality on practically every note" to produce music of "outstanding originality."[126] Music critic Harold Schonberg sees the essence of Mahler's music in the theme of struggle, in the tradition of Beethoven. However, according to Schonberg, Beethoven's struggles were those of "an indomitable and triumphant hero", whereas Mahler's are those of "a psychic weakling, a complaining adolescent who ... enjoyed his misery, wanting the whole world to see how he was suffering."[127] Yet, Schonberg concedes, most of the symphonies contain sections in which Mahler the "deep thinker" is transcended by the splendour of Mahler the musician.[120]
Genre
Except for his juvenilia, little of which has survived, Mahler composed only in the media of song and symphony, with a close and complex interrelationship between the two.[n 8] Donald Mitchell writes that this interaction is the backcloth against which all Mahler's music can be considered.[128] The initial connection between song and symphony occurs with the song-cycle Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen and the First Symphony. Although this early evidence of cross-fertilisation is important, it is during Mahler's extended Wunderhorn phase, in which his Second, Third and Fourth Symphonies were written, that the song and symphony genres are consistently intermingled. Themes from the Wunderhorn song "Das himmlische Leben", composed in 1892, became a key element in the Third Symphony completed in 1896; the song itself forms the finale to the Fourth (1900) and its melody is central to the whole composition.[129] For the Second Symphony, written between 1888 and 1894, Mahler worked simultaneously on the Wunderhorn song "Des Antonius von Padua Fischpredigt" and on the Scherzo based on it which became the symphony's third movement.[130] Another Wunderhorn setting from 1892, "Urlicht", is used as the Second Symphony's fourth (penultimate) movement.[131]
In Mahler's middle and late periods, the song-symphony relationship is less direct.[118] However, Sadie notes specific relationships between the middle period songs and their contemporaneous symphonies—the second Kindertotenlieder song and the Adagietto from the Fifth Symphony, the last Kindertotenlieder song and the Sixth Symphony finale.[132][133] Mahler's last work employing vocal and orchestral forces, Das Lied von der Erde, is a symphony in all but name—Mitchell categorises it as a "song and symphony", rejecting the "song-symphony" label which he describes as "pernicious and misleading".[118]
Style
Mahler believed that music should be all-embracing, hence his 1907 remark to Sibelius: "The symphony must be like the world. It must embrace everything."[134] True to this belief, Mahler drew material from many sources into his songs and symphonic works: bird calls and cow-bells to evoke nature and the countryside, bugle fanfares, street melodies and country dances to summon the lost world of his childhood. Life's struggles are represented in contrasting moods: the yearning for fulfilment by soaring melodies and chromatic harmony, suffering and despair by discord, distortion and grotesquerie. Amid all this is Mahler's particular hallmark—the constant intrusion of banality and absurdity into moments of deep seriousness, typified in the second movement of the Fifth Symphony when a trivial popular tune suddenly cuts into a solemn funeral march. The trite melody soon changes its character, and in due course re-emerges as one of the majestic Brucknerian chorales which Mahler uses to signify hope and the resolution of conflict.[135] Mahler himself recognised the idiosyncracies in his work, calling the Scherzo in the Third Symphony "the most farcical and at the same time the most tragic piece that ever existed ... It is as though all nature is making faces and sticking out its tongue."[136]
The range of musical moods, Cooke maintains, comes from Mahler's "amazing orchestration" which, the writer claims, defies analysis—"it speaks for itself".[137] Franklin lists specific features which are basic to Mahler's style: extremes of volume, the use of off-stage ensembles, unconventional arrangement of orchestral forces, and frequent recourse to popular music and dance forms such as the ländler and the waltz.[123] The Czech composer-journalist Max Brod has identified Jewish tunes and rhythms in Mahler's music, perhaps unsurprising given Mahler's origins. Czech musicologist Vladimír Karbusický maintains that the composer's Jewish roots had lasting effects on his creative output; he pinpoints the central part of the third movement of the First Symphony as the most characteristically "Yiddish" music in Mahler's work.[138]
A technical device much used by Mahler is that of "progressive tonality", wherby conflict in music is resolved in a different key from that in which it was originally stated.[137] This idea appears in Wagner's works, and is also used by Mahler's Danish contemporary Carl Nielsen. Mahler first employed the device in an early song, "Erinnerung" (c.1880), and thereafter used it freely in his symphonies. For example, the predominant key of the First Symphony is D major; at the beginning of the Finale, the "conflict" movement, the key switches to F minor, and only after a lengthy battle gets back to D, near the end. The Second Symphony begins in C minor and ends in E flat.[137] The movements of the Fifth Symphony progress successively from C minor to A minor, then D major, F major and finally to D major.[117] The Sixth Symphony, unusually, begins and ends in the same key, A minor, signifying that in this case the conflict is unresolved.[139]
Reception
Early responses, 1889–1911
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/11/Mahlercartoon_1907.jpg/170px-Mahlercartoon_1907.jpg)
A long-time Mahler friend, Guido Adler, calculated that up to the time of the composer's death in 1911, more than 260 performances of the symphonic works had taken place since 1889, in Europe, Russia and America, with the Fourth Symphony given most frequently (61 performances).[140] In his lifetime, Mahler had become a significant enough musical figure for his works and their performances to attract wide public interest, though not always approval. For years after its première in 1889 critics and public struggled to understand his First Symphony, which in 1898 was described after a Dresden performance as "the dullest [symphonic] work the new epoch has produced."[141] The Second Symphony was received more positively, "the most masterly work of its kind since Mendelssohn",[142] but such unqualified praise was rare, particularly after Mahler's accession to the Vienna Hofoper directorship. His many enemies in the city used the anti-Semitic and conservative press to denigrate almost every performance of a Mahler work;[143] thus the Third Symphony, triumphantly premièred in Krefeld in 1902, was treated in Vienna with critical scorn: "Anyone who has committed such a deed deserves a couple of years in prison." [144]
A mix of enthusiasm, consternation and critical contempt became the normal response to new Mahler symphonic works, although the songs were better received.[145] After failing to find public acceptance and understanding of his Fourth and Fifth Symphonies, Mahler was convinced that his Sixth would finally succeed.[146] However, reactions were again disappointing, dominated by satirical comments on Mahler's unconventional percussion effects–a wooden mallet, birch rods and a huge square bass drum.[147] Viennese critic Heinrich Reinhardt dismissed the symphony as "Brass, lots of brass, incredibly much brass! Even more brass, nothing but brass!"[148] The one unalloyed performance triumph within Mahler's lifetime was the première of the Eighth Symphony in Munich, on 12 September 1910, advertised by its promoters as the "Symphony of a Thousand".[n 9] At its conclusion applause and celebrations lasted for half an hour.[97]
Relative neglect, 1911–50
Performances of Mahler's works became less frequent after his death. In the Netherlands the advocacy of Willem Mengelberg ensured that Mahler remained popular there, and Mengelberg's engagement with the New York Philharmonic from 1922 brought Mahler regularly to American audiences..[150] However, much American critical reaction in the 1920s was negative, despite a spirited effort by the young composer Aaron Copland to present Mahler as a progressive, thirty years ahead of his time and infinitely more inventive than Richard Strauss.[151] Earlier, in 1916, Leopold Stokowski had given American premières to the Eighth Symphony and Das Lied von der Erde in Philadelphia. The Eighth was a sensationally successful performance that was immediately taken to New York where it scored a further triumph.[149]
Before Mahler's music was banned as "degenerate" during the Nazi era, the symphonies and songs were played in the concert halls of Germany and Austria, often conducted by Bruno Walter and Mahler's younger assistant Otto Klemperer.[150] In Britain the Hallé Orchestra brought Das Lied and the Ninth Symphony to Manchester in 1931; Sir Henry Wood staged the Eighth in London in 1930, and again in 1938 when the young Benjamin Britten found the performance "execrable" but was nevertheless impressed.[152] In the main, during this period British critics treated Mahler with condescension and faint praise. Thus Dyneley Hussey, writing in 1934, thought the "children's songs" were delightful, but that the symphonies should be let go.[153] Composer-conductor Julius Harrison described Mahler's symphonies as "interesting at times, but laboriously put together" and as lacking creative spark.[154] Bernard Shaw thought that the musical audiences of the 1930s would find Mahler (and Bruckner) "expensively second-rate".[155]
Modern revival
According to American composer David Schiff, his compatriot Leonard Bernstein used to imply that he had single-handedly rescued Mahler from oblivion in 1960, after fifty years of neglect. Schiff points out that such neglect was only relative, and far less than the disregard of Bach in the years after his death. Although Bernstein gave the Mahler revival further impetus, it was well under way before 1960, sustained by conductors such as Stokowski, Dimitri Mitropoulos and John Barbirolli, and by long-time Mahler advocate Aaron Copland.[156]
Musicologist Deryck Cooke argues that Mahler's popularity escalated when a new, postwar generation of music-lovers arose, untainted by "the dated polemics of anti-romanticism" which had affected Mahler's reputation in the inter-war years. In this new and more liberal age, enthusiasm for Mahler expanded even into places—Spain, France, Italy—which had long been resistant to him.[157] Robert Carr's simpler explanation for the 1950s Mahler revival is that "it was the long-playing record [in the early 1950s] rather than the Zeitgeist which made a comprehensive breakthrough possible. Mahler's work became accessible and repeatable in the home."[150] In the years following the centenary of his birth in 1960, Mahler rapidly became one of the most performed and most recorded of all composers, and has largely remained thus; in Britain and elsewhere, Carr notes, the extent of Mahler performances and recordings has replaced a relative famine with a glut, bringing problems of over-familiarity to the work of "the least complacent of all composers."[150] Music critic Harold Schonberg comments that while doubters find Mahler "neurotic and banal ... it is hard to think of a composer who arouses equal loyalty", adding that "a response of anything short of rapture to the Mahler symphonies will bring [to the critic] long letters of furious denunciation".[158]
In a letter to Alma dated 16 February 1902, Mahler wrote, with reference to Richard Strauss: "My day will come when his is ended. If only I might live to see it, with you at my side!"[159] Carr observes that Mahler might almost have lived to see "his day" (Strauss, four years younger, died only in 1949; another near contemporary, Sibelius, lived until 1957).[160]
Later influence
Among Mahler's loyal admirers in his lifetime were the Austrian trio of avant-garde composers: Arnold Schoenberg, Alban Berg and Anton Webern, who together founded the Second Viennese School.[161] Schoenberg was initially hostile to Mahler's music, but changed his mind after hearing the Third Symphony. Together with his pupils Berg and Webern, Schoenberg helped form the "Vereinigung schaffender Tonkünstler", a short-lived modern music society of which Mahler agreed to become honorary president.[162][163] Mahler did not support the trio's adoption of atonality (music lacking a key), but became a fierce defender of Schoenberg's work because of its bold originality; at the première of the latter's First String Quartet in February 1907, Mahler reportedly was held back from physically attacking the barrackers.[164] Mahler's Seventh Symphony is echoed in Schoenberg's Serenade, Op. 24 (1923), Berg's Three Pieces for Orchestra (1915) and Webern's Six Pieces (1928).[165]
Donald Mitchell writes that Mahler's influence on succeeding generations of composers is "a complete subject in itself",[166] and is evident in the music of many 20th century composers from a range of nationalities. Mitchell lists as examples America's Aaron Copland, the Austrian song and stage composer Kurt Weill,[167] Italy's Luciano Berio, Russia's Dimitri Shostakovich and England's Benjamin Britten. Cooke draws attention to the technical features which Shostakovich "borrowed" from Mahler who was, the Russian declared, "my favourite composer".[168][169] The pianist conductor Vladimir Ashkenazy, in a 1989 interview, said that the basic connection between the two composers was "very strong and obvious"; their music represented "the individual versus the vices of the world."[170] Mitchell highlights Britten's "marvellously keen, spare & independent writing for the wind in ... the first movement of the Cello Symphony of 1963 [which] clearly belongs to that order of dazzling transparency and instrumental emancipation which Mahler did so much to establish". Mitchell concludes with the statement: "Even were his own music not to survive, Mahler would still enjoy a substantial immortality in the music of these pre-eminent successors who have embraced his art and assimilated his techniques."[166]
Notes and References
- Notes
- ^ The music of Der Trompeter von Säkkingen has been mostly lost. A movement entitled "Blumine" was included in the first, five-movement version of Mahler's First Symphony.[22]
- ^ Mahler may have been aware of this collection earlier, since he had based the first of the Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen poems on a Wunderhorn text.[26]
- ^ Some sources, e.g. Sadie, p. 509, give the appointment date as 8 September 1897. According to de La Grange the decree appointing Mahler to the directorship was dated 8 October and signed by the Lord Chamberlain on behalf of the Emperor on 15 October.
- ^ Alma Schindler, Mahler's future wife, claimed to have introduced Mahler to Roller at her stepfather's house in January 1902. However, there is some evidence that had Roller worked on designs for the Hofoper as early as January 1901.[59]
- ^ The subscription concerts were an annual programme of orchestral concerts, performed by the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra which was comprised the elite instrumentalists from the Hofoper. Mahler was therefore well known to the players before he began his duties as the concerts conductor.[71]
- ^ One of the Rückert poems, "Liebst du um Schönheit", was left unorchestrated until this was carried out by a Leipzig musician, Max Puttmann. The song is usually performed alongside the others.[78]
- ^ See, for example, the letters to Alma sent from Munich in 1910, the last of which begins: "My beloved, madly beloved Almschili! Believe me, I am sick with love!"[86] Biographer Robert Carr, however, notes the extent to which Alma Mahler edited and selected the letters which she published in her book Memories and Letters, initially published in 1940.[87]
- ^ Mitchell differentiates between "song" and "song-cycle"; he also disparages the term "song-symphonist" which he calls "a horrid cliché that belongs to the dubious history of Mahler's critics".[118]
- ^ The title "Symphony of a Thousand" was not acknowledged by Mahler. Robert Carr indicates that, at its Munich premiėre, there were less than 1000 performers present. At the American premiėre under Leopold Stokowski in 1916, however, there were 1,068 performers, including 950 choristers.[97][149]
- References
- ^ Blaukopf, pp. 15–16
- ^ a b Cooke, p. 7
- ^ a b c Sadie, p. 505
- ^ a b c Blaukopf, pp. 18–19
- ^ a b c d e f Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (1. Background, childhood education 1860–80) - ^ Carr, p. 8
- ^ a b c Blaukopf, pp. 20–22
- ^ Blaukopf, pp. 25–26
- ^ Sadie, p. 506
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. I pp. 33–38
- ^ a b Blaukopf, p. 30–31
- ^ a b Blaukopf, pp. 33–35
- ^ Blaukopf, pp. 39–40
- ^ a b Carr, pp. 23–24
- ^ Cooke, p. 22
- ^ Sadie, p. 527
- ^ a b Carr, pp. 24–28
- ^ a b Carr, pp. 30–31
- ^ a b Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (2. Early conducting career, 1880–83) - ^ a b Carr, pp. 32–34
- ^ a b Carr, pp. 35–40
- ^ a b c Sadie, p. 507
- ^ Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (3. Kassel, 1883–85) - ^ a b c d e f Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (4. Prague 1885–86 and Leipzig 1886–88) - ^ a b c d Carr, pp. 44–47
- ^ a b Blaukopf, pp. 61–62
- ^ Carr, p. 49
- ^ Carr, p. 50
- ^ Cooke, pp. 27–30
- ^ Carr, pp. 48–49
- ^ Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (10. Das Klagende lied, early songs, First symphony) - ^ a b Mitchell, Vol II, pp. 51–53
- ^ a b c d e Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (5. Budapest 1888–91) - ^ a b c d e f Sadie, pp. 508–09
- ^ Carr, p. 52
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. II, p. 154
- ^ Carr, pp. 53–54
- ^ Freed, Richard (2007). "Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)". The Kennedy Centre. Retrieved 5 April 2007.
- ^ Carr, p. 56
- ^ Blaukopf, p. 83
- ^ a b c d e Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (6. Hamburg 1891–97) - ^ Steen, p. 750
- ^ Carr, p. 59
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. II p. 158
- ^ Blaukopf, p. 119
- ^ Carr, p. 51
- ^ Carr, pp. 81–82
- ^ Blaukopf, pp. 130–35
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 20–21
- ^ de La Grange, Vol 2 p. 5
- ^ a b c d Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (7. Vienna 1897–1907) - ^ a b de La Grange, Vol 2 pp. 32–36
- ^ de La Grange, Vol 2 pp. 49–51
- ^ de La Grange, Vol 2 p. 54
- ^ de La Grange, Vol 2 pp. 65–67
- ^ a b de La Grange, Vol. 3 pp. 941–44
- ^ de La Grange, pp. 249–52
- ^ de La Grange, pp. 515–16 and pp. 560–61
- ^ Carr, pp. 138–39
- ^ a b c d e f g Sadie, pp. 510–11
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. II pp. 419–22
- ^ Carr, p. 95
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 130–31 and 630–31
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 632–634.
- ^ a b Carr, pp. 150–51
- ^ Schonberg, p. 140
- ^ Snowball, p. 246
- ^ Blaukopf, pp. 217–19
- ^ a b Sadie, pp. 512–13
- ^ Carr, pp. 154–55
- ^ Blaukopf, pp. 150–51
- ^ de La Grange, Vol 2 p. 116
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 p. 117
- ^ a b Carr, pp. 87–94
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 263–64
- ^ Carr, p. 233
- ^ Cooke, pp. 71–94
- ^ Carr, p. 129
- ^ Carr, p.148
- ^ a b de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 418–20
- ^ A. Mahler, pp. 3–5
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 487–89
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 p. 432
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 p. 442
- ^ Carr, pp. 143–44
- ^ A. Mahler, pp. 334–38
- ^ Carr, p. 107
- ^ a b c d e Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 21 February 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (8. Europe and New York, 1907–11) - ^ Carr, pp. 152–54
- ^ Blaukopf, p. 217
- ^ Carr, p. 163
- ^ A Mahler, p. 143
- ^ "Bartered Bride at Metropolitan". The New York Times. No. 20 February 1909. Retrieved 20 June 2009.
{{cite news}}
: Unknown parameter|dateformat=
ignored (help) PDF format - ^ "Gustav Mahler Conducts" (PDF). The New York Times. 30 November 1908. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
- ^ Blaukopf, pp. 225–26
- ^ Carr, pp. 172–73
- ^ a b c Carr, p. 207
- ^ Blaukopf, p. 254
- ^ Cooke, pp. 118–19
- ^ Blaukopf, p. 233
- ^ Carr, p. 214
- ^ Carr, pp. 215–20
- ^ Carr, pp. 2–3
- ^ "Gustav Mahler Dies in Vienna" (PDF). The New York Times. 18 May 1908. Retrieved 21 March 2010.
- ^ "In memoriam: Gustav Mahler 1860–1911". The Musical Times. 52 (6). London. June 1911. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
- ^ Steen, pp. 764–65
- ^ Carr, pp. 106–07 and p. 114
- ^ Mitchell (The Mahler Companion), p. 580
- ^ "International Gustav Mahler Society, Vienna". The International Gustav Mahler Society. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
- ^ "GMJO Mission statement and History". Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
- ^ Cooke, p. 27, p. 71, p. 103
- ^ Cooke, p. 27
- ^ Cooke, p. 34
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 757–59
- ^ a b Cooke, pp. 71–91
- ^ Cooke, p. 93
- ^ a b de La Grange, Vol. 2 p. 805
- ^ a b c d Mitchell, Vol. II p. 32
- ^ a b Sadie, pp. 524–25
- ^ a b Schonberg, p. 143
- ^ Cooke, p. 103
- ^ Blaukopf, p. 240
- ^ a b c Franklin, Peter (2007). Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 2 April 2020.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help) (9. Musical style) - ^ a b Cooke, pp. 10–11
- ^ Carr, p. 38
- ^ Cooke, pp. 13–14
- ^ Schonberg, p. 138
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. II p. 47
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. II p. 309
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 p. 743
- ^ Mitchell, Vol II p. 136
- ^ Sadie, p. 519
- ^ Mitchell, pp. 36–41
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. II p. 286
- ^ Cooke, pp. 16–17
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 p. 179
- ^ a b c Cooke, p. 14
- ^ Barham, Karbusický, pp. 196–201
- ^ Cooke, pp. 83–87
- ^ Carr, pp. 221–222
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 p. 99, p. 140
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 2 pp. 141–42
- ^ de La Grange: Vol. 2 pp. 307–09, pp. 148–55
- ^ de La Grange Vol. 3 pp. 68–69
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 3 pp. 107–08
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 3 p. 405
- ^ de La Grange, Vol. 3 pp. 412–13
- ^ de La Grange, Vol 3 p. 536
- ^ a b Ander Smith, p. 91
- ^ a b c d Carr, pp. 221–24
- ^ Copland, pp. 149–50
- ^ Kennedy, Michael (13 January 2010). "Mahler's mass following". The Spectator. London. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
{{cite journal}}
: Text "Michael Kennedy" ignored (help) - ^ Hussey, pp. 455–56
- ^ Harrison, p. 237
- ^ Shaw, p. 753
- ^ Schiff, David (4 November 2001). "Music: The Man who Mainstreamed Mahler". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
- ^ Cooke, pp. 3–4
- ^ Schonberg, p. 137
- ^ A. Mahler, pp. 220–21
- ^ Steen. p. 742
- ^ Schonberg, pp. 256–58
- ^ de La Grange, pp. 690–93
- ^ Carr, p. 128
- ^ de La Grange, Vol 3 pp. 608-09
- ^ Carr, p. 105
- ^ a b Mitchell, Vol. II pp. 373–74
- ^ Mitchell, Vol. II p. 261
- ^ Cooke, p. 5
- ^ Blaukopf, p. 245
- ^ Kozinn, Allan. "Ashkenazy Mining A Mahler Vein". The New York Times. No. 3 February 1989. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
Sources
- Barham, Jeremy (ed.) (2005). "Gustav Mahler's Musical Jewishness" in Perspectives on Gustav Mahler. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited. ISBN 0-7546-0709.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help); Check|isbn=
value: length (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - "Bartered Bride at Metropolitan". The New York Times. No. 20 February 1909. Retrieved 20 June 2009. PDF format
- Blaukopf, Kurt (1974). Gustav Mahler. Harmondsworth, UK: Futura Publications Ltd. ISBN 0-8600-7034-4..
- Carr, Jonathan (1998). Mahler: A Biography. Woodstock, NY: The Overlook Press. ISBN 0-87951-802-2.
{{cite book}}
: Text "Carr, Jonathan" ignored (help) - Cooke, Deryck (1980). Gustav Mahler: An Introduction to his Music. London: Faber Music. ISBN 0-571-10087-2.
- Copland, Aaron (2004). Aaron Copland, a reader: Selected writings, 1923–72. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93940.
{{cite book}}
: Check|isbn=
value: length (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - de La Grange, Henry-Louis (1995). Gustav Mahler Volume 2: Vienna: The Years of Challenge (1897-1904). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-315159-6.
- de La Grange, Henry-Louis (2000). Gustav Mahler Volume 3: Vienna: Triumph and Disillusion (1904-1907). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-315160-X.
- Franklin, Peter. Macy, Laura (ed.) (ed.). "Mahler, Gustav". Oxford Music Online. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
{{cite web}}
:|editor-first=
has generic name (help); Unknown parameter|dateformat=
ignored (help) (subscription required) - Freed, Richard (2007). "Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)". The Kennedy Centre. Retrieved 5 April 2007.
- "Gustav Mahler Conducts" (PDF). The New York Times. 30 November 1908. Retrieved 21 March 2010. PDF format
- "Gustav Mahler Dies in Vienna" (PDF). The New York Times. 18 May 1908. Retrieved 21 March 2010. PDF format
- "GMJO Mission statement and History". Gustav Mahler Jugendorchester. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
- Harrison, Julius (1934). "The Orchestra and Orchestral Music". In Bacharach, A.L. (ed.). The Musical Companion. London: Victor Gollancz. pp. 127–282.
- Hussey, Dyneley (1934). "Vocal Music in the 20th Century". In Bacharach, A.L. (ed.). The Musical Companion. London: Victor Gollancz. pp. 454–66.
- "In memoriam: Gustav Mahler 1860–1911". The Musical Times. 52 (6). London. June 1911. Retrieved 18 March 2010.
- "International Gustav Mahler Society, Vienna". The International Gustav Mahler Society. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
- Kennedy, Michael (13 January 2010). "Mahler's mass following". The Spectator. London. Retrieved 26 March 2010.
{{cite journal}}
: Text "Michael Kennedy" ignored (help) - Kozinn, Allan. "Ashkenazy Mining A Mahler Vein". The New York Times. No. 3 February 1989. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- Mahler, Alma (1968). Gustav Mahler: Memories and letters. London: John Murray.
- Mitchell, Donald (1995). Gustav Mahler Volume 1: The Early Years. Berkeley. ISBN 0-520-20214-7.
{{cite book}}
: Text "Donald Mitchell" ignored (help); Text "University of California Press" ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Mitchell, Donald (1975). Gustav Mahler Volume II: The Wunderhorn Years: Chronicles and Commentaries. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN 0-571-10674-9.
- Mitchell, Donald (1999). The Mahler Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-816376-2.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthor=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - Sadie, Stanley (ed.) (1980). New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians Volume 11. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-3333-23111.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help); Check|isbn=
value: checksum (help) - Schiff, David (4 November 2001). "Music: The Man who Mainstreamed Mahler". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 March 2010.
- Schonberg, Harold (1970). The Lives of the Great Composers, Vol. II. London: Futura Publications. ISBN 0-8600-7723-3.
- Shaw, George Bernard (1981). Shaw's Music, Volume III 1893–1950. London: The Bodley Head. ISBN 0-370-30333-4.
- Smith, William Ander (1990). The mystery of Leopold Stokowski. Cranbury, N.J.: Associated University Presses Ltd. ISBN 0-8386-3362-5.
- Snowman, Daniel (2009). The Gilded Stage: A Social History of Opera. London: Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-84354-466-1.
- Steen, Michael (2003). The Lives & Times of the Great Composers. London: Icon Books. ISBN 978-1840466-79-9.
External links
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- 20th-century classical composers
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- Austrian composers
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