Seed

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A ripe red jalapeño cut open to show the seeds

For other uses, see Seed (disambiguation).

A seed is a small embryonic plant enclosed in a covering called the seed coat, usually with some stored food. It is the product of the ripened ovule of gymnosperm and angiosperm plants which occurs after fertilization and some growth within the motherplant. The formation of the seed completes the process of reproduction in seed plants (started with the development of flowers and pollination), with the embryo developed from the zygote and the seed coat from the integuments of the ovule.

Seeds have been an important development in the reproduction and spread of flowering plants, relative to more primitive plants like mosses, ferns and liverworts, which do not have seeds and use other means to propagate themselves. This can be seen by the success of seed plants (both gymnosperms and angiosperms) in dominating biological niches on land, from forests to grasslands both in hot and cold climates.

Seed also has a general meaning that predates the above - anything that can be sown i.e. "seed" potatoes, "seeds" of corn or sunflower "seeds". In the case of sunflower and corn "seeds", what is sown is the seed enclosed in a shell or hull, and the potato is a root or stem depending on what is being sowed.

Seed formation

This process starts with double fertilization in angiosperms and it involves the fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei into a zygote. The second part of this process is the fusion of the polar nuclei with a second sperm cell nucleus, thus forming a primary endosperm. Right after fertilization the zygote is mostly inactive but the primary endosperm divides rapidly to form the endosperm tissue. This tissue becomes the food that the young plant will consume until the roots have developed after germination or it develops into a hard seed coat. The seed, which is an embryo with two points of growth (one of which forms the stems the other the roots) is enclosed in a seed coat with some food reserves. In gymnosperms the two sperm cells transferred from the pollen do not develop seed by double fertilization but instead only one sperm fertilizes the egg while the other is not used. The seed is composed of the embryo (the result of fertilization) and tissue from the mother plant, which also form a cone around the seed in coniferous plants like Pine and Spruce.

The new seed is formed in plant structures called fruits in angiosperms.

Seed structure

A seed contains the embryo from which a new plant will grow under proper conditions. Seeds also usually contain a supply of stored energy and is wrapped in the seed coat or testa. Seeds are very diverse in size. The dust-like orchid seeds are the smallest with about one million seeds per gram. Embryotic seeds have immature embryos and no significant energy reserves. They are myco-heterotrophs, depending on mycorrhizal fungi for nutrition during germination. At over 20 kg, the largest seed is the coco de mer.

The embryo has one cotyledon or seed leaf in monocotyledons, two cotyledons in almost all dicotyledons and two or more in gymnosperms. The radicle is the embryonic root. The plumule is the embryonic shoot. The embryonic stem above the point of attachment of the cotyledon(s) is the epicotyl. The embryonic stem below the point of attachment is the hypocotyl.

In angiosperms, the stored food begins as a tissue called the endosperm, which is derived from the parent plant via double fertilization. The usually triploid endosperm is rich in oil or starch and protein. In gymnosperms, such as conifers, the food storage tissue is part of the female gametophyte, a haploid tissue. In some species, the embryo is embedded in the endosperm or female gametophyte, which the seedling will use upon germination. In others, the endosperm is absorbed by the embryo as the latter grows within the developing seed, and the cotyledons of the embryo become filled with this stored food. At maturity, seeds of these species have no endosperm and are termed exalbuminous seeds. Some exalbuminous seeds are bean, pea, oak, walnut, squash, sunflower, and radish. Seeds with an endosperm at maturity are termed albuminous seeds. Most monocots (e.g. grasses and palms) and many dicots (e.g. brazil nut and castor bean) have albuminous seeds. All gymnosperm seeds are albuminous. The seed coat develops from the tissue, the integument, originally surrounding the ovule. The seed coat in the mature seed can be a paper-thin layer (e.g. peanut) or something more substantial (e.g. thick and hard in honey locust and coconut). The seed coat helps protect the embryo from mechanical injury and from drying out.

The seeds of angiosperms are contained in a hard or fleshy (or with layers of both) structure called a fruit. Gymnosperm seeds begin their development "naked" on the bracts of cones, although the seeds do become covered by the cone scales as they develop. An example of a hard fruit layer surrounding the actual seed is that of the so-called stone fruits (such as the peach).

Some seeds have an appendage on the seed coat such an aril (as in yew and nutmeg) or an elaiosome (as in Corydalis) or hairs (as in cotton). The hilum is the scar on the seed coat where the seed was attached to the ovary wall by the funiculus.

In order for the seed coat to split, the embryo must imbibe (soak up water), which causes it to swell, splitting the seed coat. However, the nature of the seed coat determines how rapidly water can penetrate and subsequently initiate germination. For seeds with a very thick coat, scarification of the seed coat may be necessary before water can reach the embryo. Examples of scarification include: gnawing by animals, freezing and thawing, battering on rocks in a stream bed, or passing through an animal's digestive tract. In the latter case, the seed coat protects the seed from digestion, while perhaps weakening the seed coat such that the embryo is ready to sprout when it gets deposited (along with a bit of fertilizer) far from the parent plant. In species with thin seed coats, light may be able to penetrate into the dormant embryo. The presence of light or the absence of light may trigger the germination process, inhibiting germination in some seeds buried too deeply or in others not buried in the soil. Abscisic acid is usually the growth inhibitor in seeds.

Seed functions

Seeds protect and nourish the embryo or baby plant. Seeds usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporling from a spore gets because of the larger food reserves in the seed.

Dandelion seeds (achenes) can be carried long distances by the wind.

Unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth. As a consequence, plants have evolved many ways to disperse their population through their seeds (see also vegetative reproduction). A seed must somehow "arrive" at a location and be there at a time favorable for germination and growth. Seed dispersal is often attributed mainly to fruits, however many seeds aid in their own dispersal, for example:

• Many seeds (e.g. maple, pine) have a wing that aids in wind dispersal.
• The dustlike seeds of orchids are carried efficiently by the wind.
• Some seeds, (e.g. dandelion, milkweed, poplar) have hairs that aid in wind dispersal.
• Seeds with a fleshy covering (e.g. apple, cherry, juniper) are eaten by animals (birds, mammals) which then disperse these seeds in their droppings.
• Seeds (nuts) which are an attractive long-term storable food resource for animals (e.g. acorns, hazelnut, walnut); the seeds are stored some distance from the parent plant, and some escape being eaten if the animal stores hold them.
• dock which attach to animal fur or feathers, and then drop off later.
• Seeds of some mangroves are viviparous, they begin to germinate while still attached to the parent. The large, heavy root allows the seed to penetrate into the ground when it falls.
• Some seeds have appendages called elaiosomes, e.g. bloodroot, trilliums and Acacias. Elaiosomes provide food for ants, which usually disperse such seeds.
• Some plants, such as Mucuna and Dioclea, produce buoyant seeds termed sea-beans or drift seeds because they float in rivers to the oceans and wash up on beaches .

For annuals, seeds are a way for the species to survive dry or cold seasons. Ephemeral plants are usually annuals that can go from seed to seed in as few as six weeks.

One important function of most seeds is delaying germination to allow time for dispersal and to prevent all seeds from germinating at once when conditions are favorable. Staggering germination prevents all seeds from germinating at once and being wiped out by bad weather or herbivores. Seed dormancy is defined as a seed failing to germinate under environmental conditions optimal for germination. It is often confused with seed quiescence, which is a seed failing to germinate because environmental conditions are inappropriate for germination. Many cultivated seeds lack dormancy but do not germinate in seed packets simply because there is insufficient moisture.

Origin and evolution

The origin of seed plants is a problem that still remains unsolved. However, more and more data tends to place this origin in the middle Devonian. The description in 2004 of the proto-seed Runcaria heinzelinii in the Givetian of Belgium is an indication of that ancient origin of seed-plants. As with modern ferns, most land plants before this time reproduced by sending spoor into the air, that would land and become whole new plants.

The first "true" seeds are described from the upper Devonian, which is probably the theater of their true first evolutionary radiation. The seed plants progressively became one of the major elements of nearly all ecosystems.

Economic importance

Immature Elm seeds.

Many seeds are edible. The majority of human calories comes from seeds, especially from cereals, legumes and nuts. Seeds also provide most cooking oils, many beverages and spices and some important food additives.

Seeds are used to propagate many crops such as cereals, legumes, forest trees, turfgrasses and pasture grasses.

The world's most important clothing fiber grows attached to cotton seed. Other seed fibers are from kapok and milkweed.

Many important nonfood oils are extracted from seeds. Linseed oil is used in paints. Oil from jojoba and crambe are similar to whale oil.

Seeds are the source of some medicines including castor oil, tea tree oil and the discredited cancer drug, Laetrile.

Many seeds have been used as beads in necklaces and rosaries including Job's tears, Chinaberry and rosary pea. However, the latter two are also poisonous.

Other seed uses include:

• Seeds once used as weights for balances.
• Seeds used as toys by children, such as for the game conker.
• Resin from Clusia rosea seeds used to caulk boats.
• Nematicide from milkweed seeds.
• Cottonseed meal used as animal feed and fertilizer.
• Many seeds used as birdseed.

Poison and Food Safety

Some seeds are also poisonous. An infamously deadly poison, ricin, comes from seeds of the castor bean. Reported lethal doses are anywhere from two to eight seeds.[3][4] though, only a few deaths have been reported when castor beans have been ingestion by animals. Another seed poison is strychnine.

In addition, seeds containing amygdalin:

apple, apricot, bitter almond[5], peach, plum, quince, and others

when consumed in significant amounts, may result in cyanide toxicity[6], though its not likely that enough could be eaten to cause serous harm to most healthy people.

Some other poisonous seeds are those of annona, cherry, cotton, custard apple, datura, uncooked durian, golden chain, horse-chestnut, larkspur, locoweed, lychee, nectarine, rambutan, rosary pea, sour sop, sugar apple, wisteria, and yew.[7][8]

Children are more susceptible to poisoning or death by plants and seeds.[9]

Eating Seeds

Please refer to List_of_edible_seeds.

Some seeds (such as grape, sunflower seed, and watermelon) are considered by some as healthy to eat, while others may be harmful. Some information can also be found in this article.[10]

One should be satisfied with reliable food safety information before choosing to eat any particular seeds.

Oldest viable seeds

Main article: oldest viable seed

• The oldest carbon-14-dated seed that has grown into a viable plant was a Judean date palm seed about 2,000 years old, recovered from excavations at Herod the Great's palace on Masada in Israel. It was germinated in 2005. [11]

Seed packets and seed information

A farmer's son holding out seeds

Generally, seed packets labels includes:

• Common plant name and the botanical name (in parentheses).
• Space and deep: how deep to place the seeds in the soil, space between plants (from one row to the other one and from one plant to the other one in the same row).
• Height: approximate height the plant will reach when mature.
• Soil: type of soil the plant prefers.
• Water: It can indicate "keep the soil lightly damp", "bottom water the plant", "drench the soil with water", "daily misting of water" and "almost dry out before re-watering".
• Sun: full direct sunlight, partial sun, diffused sunlight, or grows well in the shade.
• Door: if the plant is best suited for growing Indoor, Outdoor or Both.
• Live: Perennial or annual.
• Planting, germination and harvest period: This information can be indicated by months or quarters of the year.
• Special requirements, if necessary.

This information can be represented graphically.

See also

• Biological dispersal
• List of edible seeds
• Seed company
• Seed predation
• Seedbed
• Seedheads
• Stratification

External links

• List of Common Botanical Seed Names
• The Seed Site: collecting, storing, sowing, germinating, and exchanging seeds, with pictures of seeds, seedpods and seedlings.
• The Seed Biology Place seed structure, dormany, evolution, ecology, etc.
• Flavon's Secret Flower Garden - Pictures of Japanese plant seeds, fruits and etc.
• The Millenium Seed Bank Project Kew Garden's ambitious preservation project