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*[http://www.somethingfishy.org/ Something Fishy.org]
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*[http://www.oa.org/ Overeaters Anonymous]
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*[http://www.disorder.org/help-eating-disorder.html Eating Disorder - Disorder.org]
{{Mental and behavioural disorders}}
{{Mental and behavioural disorders}}


Revision as of 03:12, 23 December 2009

Eating disorder
SpecialtyPsychiatry, clinical psychology Edit this on Wikidata

An eating disorder is any psychological condition charectorized by abnormal eating habits that may involve either insufficient or excessive food intake to the detriment of an individuals physical and emotional health. Eating disorders are estimated to affect 5-10 million females and 1 million males in the United States.[1] Although not yet classified as separate disorder, binge eating disorder[2] is the most common eating disorder in the United States affecting 3.5% of females and 2% of males according to a study by Harvard affiliated McLean Hospital. Bulimia nervosa was the second most common followed by Anorexia nervosa.[3]

Statistics-Facts

  • Eating disorders affect all socio-economic levels.[4]
  • Binge eating is the most common eating disorder in the United States affecting 3.5% of females and 2% of males, followed by bulimia nervosa then anorexia nervosa.[5]
  • Females with anorexia nervosa have a higher suicide rate than those with any other mental health disorder and the general population[6] up to 60 times higher according to one study[7]
  • Anorexia nervosa has the highest mortality rate of any psychiatric disorder.[8]
  • Anorexia nervosa although usually reported in white adolescent females affects all races and ages groups[9][10]
  • The mortality rate for anorexia nervosa is 4.0%, bulimia nervosa is 3.9% and 'eating disorder not otherwise specified' (EDNOS) which includes binge eating disorder is placed at 5.2%[11]
  • Males account for 5%-10% of anorexia nervosa cases[12] and 10%-15% of bulimia nervosa cases.[13]
  • An optimum healthy weight is calculated using the Body Mass Index

Causes

It is not known with certainty what causes eating disorders. It can be due to a combination of biological, psychological or environmental causes.

Biological

DNA, the molecular basis for inheritance.
  • Genetic: Numerous studies have been undertaken that show a possible genetic predisposition toward eating disorders.[14][15][16]
  • Biochemical:Eating behavior is a complex process controlled by the neuroendocrine system of which the Hypothalumus-pituatary-adrenal-axis (HPA axis) is a major component.Dysregulation of the HPA-axis has been associated with eating disorders,[17][18] such as irregularities in the manufacture, amount or transmission of certain neurotransmitters, hormones[19] or neuropeptides[20].
  • leptin and ghrelin; leptin is a hormone produced primarily by the fat cells in the body it has a inhibitory effect on appetite by inducing a feeling of saiety. Ghrelin is an appetitite inducing hormone produced in the stomach and the upper portion of the small intestine. Circulating levels of both hormones are an important factor in weight control. While often associated with obesity both hormones and their respective effects have been implicated in the pathophysiology of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.[30]
  • immune system:studies have shown that a majority of patients with anorexia and bulimia nervosa have elevated levels of autoantibodies that affect hormones and neuropeptides that regulate appetite control and the stress response. There may be a direct correlation between autoantibody levels and associated psychological traits.[31]
    3D view of the four "true" lobes of the cerebral cortex : frontal (blue), parietal (green), temporal (yellow), occipital (red).
  • lesions:studies have shown that lesions to the right frontal lobe or temporal lobe can cause the pathological symptoms of an eating disorder[32][33][34]
  • tumors:tumors in various regions of the brain have been implicated in the development of abnormal eating patterns.[35][36][37][38][39]
  • brain calcificaton: a study highlights a case in which prior calcification of the right thalumus may have contributed to development of anorexia nervosa.[40]
  • Obstetric complications. There have been studies done which show obstetric and perinatal complications such as maternal anemia, very pre-term birth (32<wks.), being born small for gestational age and sustaining a cephalhematoma at birth increase the risk factor for developing either anorexia nervosa or bulimia nervosa.[41][42][43]

Psychological

Eating disorders are classified as Axis I[44] disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (DSM-IV). Published by The American Psychiatric Association. There are various other psychological issues that may factor into eating disorders, some fulfill the criteria for a separate Axis I diagnosis or a personality disorder which is coded Axis II and thus are considered comorbid to the diagnosed eating disorder. Axis II disorders are subtyped into 3 "clusters", A,B and C.The causality between personality disorders and eating disorders has yet to be fully established.[45] Some people have a previous disorder which may increase their vulnerability to developing an eating disorder.[46][47][48] Some develop them afterwards.[49] The severity and type of eating disorder symptoms have been shown to affect comorbidity.[50]

Comorbid Disorders
Axis I Axis II
depression[51] obsessive compulsive personality disorder[52]
substance abuse[53] borderline personality disorder[54]
anxiety disorders[55] narcissistic personality disorder[56]
obsessive compulsive disorder[57][58] histrionic personality disorder[59]
Attention-Deficit-Hyperactivity-Disorder[60][61][62][63] avoidant personality disorder[64]

Personality Traits

There are various childhood personality traits associated with the development of eating disorders.[65]During adolescence these traits may become intensified due to a variety of physiological and cultural influences such as the hormonal changes associated with puberty, stress related to the approaching demands of maturity and socio-cultural influences and perceived expectations, especially in areas that concern body image. The onset of disordered eating causes various neurobiological changes that increase and reinforce these personality traits and their negative effect on eating behavior thus setting in motion a vicious circle. While studies are still continuing via the use of various imaging techniques such as fMRI; these traits have been shown to originate in various regions of the brain[66]such as the amygdala[67][68]and the prefrontal cortex[69] Some traits such as rigidity are part of the executive functions which also originate in the frontal lobe. Disorders in the prefrontal cortex and the executive functioning system have have been shown to effect eating behavior.[70]

  • self esteem(low)[71][72][73] A "favorable or unfavorable attitude toward the self (Rosenberg, 1965)."An individual's sense of his or her value or worth, or the extent to which a person values, approves of, appreciates, prizes, or likes him or herself" (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991).
  • perfectionism[74][75]"I don't think needing to be perfect is in any way adaptive" (Paul Hewitt, PhD[76].)
    • Socially prescribed perfectionism-"believing that others will value you only if you are perfect."
    • Self-oriented perfectionism-"an internally motivated desire to be perfect."
  • Alexithymia[77][78](From Greek, a=lack, lexis=word, thymos=emotions). The inability to express emotions."To have no words for one's inner experience"(Rený J. Muller Ph.D).
  • rigidity[79][80] inflexibility, difficulty making transitions, adherence to set patterns. (Behavioral rigidity: divided into 3 factors; "motor-cognitive speed,", "personality-perceptual rigidity," and "motor-cognitive rigidity.(Schaie, K. Warner,Ph.D.)
  • neuroticism:[81]"refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional" (Hans Eysenck) "Neuroticism is the major factor of personality pathology" (Eysenck & Eysenck, 1969).Neuroticism has a been linked to serotonin transporter (5-HTT) binding sites in the thalamus[82] as well as activity in the insular cortex.[83]
  • impulsivity[84][85]:related impulsivity to risk taking, lack of planning, and making up one’s mind quickly(Eysenck and Eysenck)[86]. "Patton et. al. describes impulsivity as; 1. acting on the spur of the moment (motor activation), 2. not focusing on the task at hand (attention), and 3. not planning and thinking carefully.[87]
  • obsessionality:[88]persistent often unwelcome ideas, thoughts, images or emotions, rumination, often inducing an anxious state.[89][90]

Environmental

Child maltreatment which encompasses physical, psychological and sexual abuse, as well as neglect has been shown by innumerable studies to be a precipitating factor in a wide variety of psychiatric disorders including eating disorders.Children who are subjugated to abuse may develop a disordered eating pattern in an effort to gain some sense of control or for a sense of comfort.Or they may be in an environment where the diet is unhealthful or insufficient.

Child abuse and neglect can cause profound changes in both the physiological structure and the neurochemistry of the developing brain. Children who as wards of the state were placed in orphanages or foster homes are especially susceptible to developing a disordered eating pattern. In a study done in New Zealand 25% of the study subjects in foster care exhibited an eating disorder.(Tarren-Sweeney M. 2006) A unstable home environment is is detrimental to the emotional wellbeing of children, even in the absence of blatant abuse or neglect the stress of an unstable home can contribute to the development of an eating disorder.[91] [92][93] [94][95][96][97][98][99]

Some other possible indicators which may have a causal effect:

Signs

Anorexia-Bulimia

Anorexia nervosa (AN) is divided into two subtypes restrictive,which doesn't enage in purging behavior and purging type which does. Bulimia nervosa is divided into two subtypes purging and the less common; non purging. There is a tendency for diagnostic "crossover" in which symptoms change over time between the restricting and binge eating/purging anorexia nervosa subtypes and bulimia nervosa.[107][108]


Possible Signs of Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa
weight loss an obvious, rapid, dramatic weight loss
Russell's sign[109] scarring of the knuckles from placing fingers down throat to induce vomiting.
lanugo soft fine hair grows on face and body [110]
obsession with calories, fat content
preoccupation with food, recipes, cooking, may cook elaborate dinners for others but not eat themselves
dieting despite being thin
rituals cuts food into tiny pieces, refuses to eat around others, hides food
purging uses laxatives, diet pills, ipecac syrup, water pills
may engage in self induced vomiting, may run to bathroom after eating,to vomit.
exercise may engage in frequent strenuous exercise
perception perceives themselves to be overweight despite being told by others they are too thin
cold becomes intolerant to cold, frequently complains of being cold due to loss of insulating body fat, body temperature lowers in effort to conserve calories.
depression may frequently be in a sad lethargic state
solitude may avoid friends and family, become withdrawn and secretive
clothing may wear baggy, loose fitting clothes to cover weight loss
cheeks may become swollen due to enlargement of the salivary glands caused by excessive vomiting

Binge Eating

Both bulimics and those with binge eating disorder (BED) engage in binge eating. Those with BED do not engage in any compensatory behavior e.g. they do not purge or use laxatives.

Possible Signs of Binge Eating Disorder | Binge Eating in Bulimia Nervosa
rapid eats at a rapid pace, much faster than normal
amount eats a large amount of food at one sitting
powerless feels powerless to stop eating
saiety never feeling satisfied after eating
embarrasment over amount of food being eaten
secret eats normally around others but binges in secret
hunger eats even when not hungry
depression frequently in depressed mood
hoarding hoards food and hides empty food containers

Rumination Syndrome

Rumination Syndrome, is an under-diagnosed eating disorder, characterized by the regurgitation of small amounts of food which is then either re-chewed, re-swallowed or discarded.[111]

Diabulimia

Diabulimia; not currently a recognized medical condition, is the deliberate manipulation of insulin by individuals with Type 1 diabetes in an effort to control their weight.[112] Insulin is an anobolic hormone[113] that is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates and lipids (fats).[114] It helps the body maintain muscle mass, it also encourages fat retention.[115]

The effects of witholding insulin can lead to severe complications[116] such asdiabetic ketoacidosis. The long term effects can lead to the acceleration of diabetes related complications such as diabetic vasculopathy which may lead to limb amputation.[117][118]

Food Maintenance Syndrome

Food Maintenance Syndrome is charectorized by a set of aberrant eating behaviors of children in foster care it is "a pattern of excessive eating and food acquisition and maintenance behaviors without concurrent obesity", it resembles "the behavioral correlates of Hyperphagic Short Stature". (Tarren-Sweeney M. 2006)[119] It is hypothesised that this syndrome is triggered by the stress and maltreatment these children are subjected to.

Female Athlete Triad

Female Athlete Triad is a syndrome in which eating disorders/disordered eating behavior, amenorrhoea/oligomenorrhoea and decreased bone mineral density (osteoporosis and osteoenia) are present.[120][121]

Other Eating Disorders

Symptoms-Complications

Symptoms and complications vary according to the nature and severity of the eating disorder[122]

Possible Symptoms and Complications of Eating Disorders
acne xerosis amenorrhoea tooth loss, cavities
telogen effluvium: cardiac arrest hypokalemia death
osteoporosis[123] electrolyte imbalance hyponatremia brain atrophy[124][125]
pellagra[126] scurvy kidney failure suicide[127][128][129]

Diagnosis

A diagnosis is made by a trained mental health or medical professional.

Medical

A number of medical tests can assess the effects of an eating disorder on a patients body and help detect the presence of medical conditions which may cause or contribute to weight loss or gain; some of the tests are:

and hyperthyroidism[131] which may cause weight gain or loss and can occur concurrently with an eating disorder.[132][133][134][135]

Psychological

Eating Disorder Specific Tests
Eating Attitudes Test[136] SCOFF questionnaire[137]
Body Attitudes Test[138] Body Attitudes Questionnaire[139]
Eating Disorder Inventory[140] Eating Disorder Examination Interview[141]

A trained clinician conducts a clinical interview and may employ various psychometric tests some are general in nature others were devised specifically for use in the assessment of eating disorders.Some of the general tests that may be used are the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale[142] and the Beck Depression Inventory.[143]

Treatment

Treatment varies according to type and severity of eating disorder. Usually more than one treatment option is utilized.[144] Some of the treatment methods are:

  • Cognitive Behavioral Therapy(CBT)[145][146][147]is based on the assumption that a person's thoughts cause their feelings and behaviors not external stimulus like other people, situations or events in a persons life. The rational is to change how a person thinks and reacts to a situation even if the situation itself does not change.CBT has been shown to be efficacious in the treatment of bulimia nervosa.
  • Family Therapy[149]
    • Maudsley Family Therapy[150]
  • Behavioral Therapy;focuses on gaining control and changing unwanted behaviors.[151]
  • Interpersonal Psychotherapy[152]
  • Art Therapy;is the therapeutic use of art. The American Art Therapy Association describes art therapy "as a belief that individuals can resolve conflicts, develop interpersonal skills, and gain self-esteem and insight through the creative process of artistic self-expression".[153]

Prognosis

There are varying estimates as to the prognosis of individual eating disorders. The criteria used to arrive at the respective conclusions vary.

  • anorexia nervosa; Dr. Walter Vandereycken a noted expert in the field chooses to be optimistic in his prognostic assessment and places the potential recovery rate at 70%.[163]

See also

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Bibliography

  • Too Fat or Too Thin?: A Reference Guide to Eating Disorders; Cynthia R. Kalodner.Publisher: Greenwood Press; 1 edition (August 30, 2003) Language: English ISBN 0313315817 ISBN 978-0313315817
  • Overcoming Binge Eating; Christopher Fairburn. Publisher: The Guilford Press; Reissue edition (March 10, 1995) Language:English ISBN 0898621798 ISBN 978-0898621792
  • The Great Starvation Experiment: Ancel Keys and the Men Who Starved for Science. By Todd Tucker. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006. ISBN 9780816651610.)
  • Blascovich, J., & Tomaka, J. (1991). Measures of self-esteem. In J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.) Measures of personality and social psychological attitudes, Volume I. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Abstract
  • The many faces of perfectionism,The need for perfection comes in different flavors, each associated with its own set of problems, researchers say.By ETIENNE BENSON. Monitor Staff, November 2003, Vol 34, No. 10 Print version: page 18Article
  • Psychiatric Times.July 1, 2000 Vol. 17 No. 7 When a Patient Has No Story To Tell: Alexithymia Rený J. Muller, Ph.D. Article
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  • Stewin,L (1983). "The concept of rigidity: An enigma". Advancement of Counselling. 6 (3): 227–232. doi:10.1007B/F00124273. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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