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==Legacy and honors==
==Legacy and honors==
[[Image:Tuskegee Airmen + US Congressional Gold Medals, 2007March29.jpg|thumb|right|President [[George W. Bush]] presents the hdfhdfgughhrhjgnrtnjhkjhjlh,jjypojkpyo
[[Image:Tuskegee Airmen + US Congressional Gold Medals, 2007March29.jpg|thumb|right|President [[George W. Bush]] presents the Congressional Gold Medal to about 300 Tuskegee Airmen at the [[United States Capitol rotunda|US Capitol rotunda]] on March 29, 2007, in [[Washington, D.C.]]]]
On March 29, 2007, about 350 Tuskegee Airmen (or their widows) received the [[Congressional Gold Medal]]<ref name=THOMAS>Library of Congress. [http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?c110:2:./temp/~c110J3sEbQ:: Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That the Rotunda of the Capitol is authorized to be used on 29 March 2007, for a ceremony to award a Congressional... (Engrossed as Agreed to or Passed by Senate)], March 7, 2007</ref> at a ceremony in the [[United States Capitol rotunda|US Capitol rotunda]].<ref>Price, Deb. [http://www.detnews.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070329/NATION/703290308 "Nation to honor Tuskegee Airmen."]''The Detroit News'', March 29, 2007. Retrieved: March 29, 2007.</ref><ref> [http://www.house.gov/list/press/ny15_rangel/CBRStatementTuskegeeBillSigned04112006.html ''Tuskegee Airmen Gold Medal Bill Signed Into Law''. ] Office of Congressman Charles B. Rangel. Retrieved: October 26, 2006</ref><ref>
Evans, Ben. [http://thetandd.com/articles/2007/03/30/news/doc460c7d58cd40f058827045.txt "Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal."] ''Associated Press'', March 30, 2007. Retrieved: 30 April 2007.</ref> The medal will go on display at the [[Smithsonian Institution]]; individual honorees will receive bronze replicas.<ref>AP Story, March 29, 2007</ref>

The airfield where the airmen trained is now the [[Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]].<ref>Official NPS website: [http://www.nps.gov/tuai/ Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site]</ref>

In 2006, California Congressman [[Adam Schiff]] and Missouri Congressman [[William Lacy Clay, Jr.]], led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.<ref>[http://schiff.house.gov/HoR/CA29/Newsroom/Press+Releases/2006/Schiff+Votes+to+Honor+Tuskegee+Airmen.htmSchiff Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen]</ref>

[[Image:T-1A 3.jpg|"Red Tails" continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at [[Randolph Air Force Base]] in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen|left|thumb]]
The [[99th Flying Training Squadron]] flies [[T-1A Jayhawk]]s and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, they are in the process of painting the tops of the tails of their aircraft red.

On August 1, 2008, the City of [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] officially renamed a portion of [[Georgia State Route 6|State Route 6]], in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen. The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into [[Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport]].

On December 9, 2008, the remaining Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the [[inauguration of Barack Obama]], the first African-American elected President. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of Upper Marlboro, a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others' was this great prize we were given on Nov. 4. Now we feel like we've completed our mission."<ref>{{cite news| last = Seelye | first = Katharine | coauthors = | title = Tuskegee Airmen Invited to Obama Inauguration | work = | pages = | language = English | publisher = The New York Times | date = 2008-12-09 | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?hp | accessdate = 2008-12-09}}</ref><ref>''We've Completed Our Mission''. ''Washington Post'', December 13, 2008, p. B01.</ref> More than 180 airmen attended the January 20, 2009 inauguration.<ref>[http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123131934]</ref>

[[File:P-51C-18.jpg|thumb|The restored [[P-51 Mustang]] associated with the Tuskegee Airmen now flown by [[Red Tail Project]] as described in ''[[Red Tail Reborn]]'']]
The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at Walterboro Army Airfield, South Carolina, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, their instructors and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during the World War II.

In the 2010 [[Tournament of Roses Parade|Rose Parade]], City of [[West Covina, California|West Covina]] paid tribute to the "service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen" with a float, entitled ''"Tuskegee Airmen – A Cut Above"'', which featured a large bald eagle, two replica World War II "Redtails" fighter planes and historical images of some of the airmen who served our country. The float won the Mayor's trophy as the most outstanding city entry - national or international.


==Popular culture==
==Popular culture==

Revision as of 15:25, 1 March 2010

This article is about the World War II flyers. For the 1995 film, see The Tuskegee Airmen. For the non-profit organization, see Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.
Tuskegee Airmen (unofficial)
Center
Center
Emblems of wing
Active1940–1946
CountryUnited States
BranchUnited States Army Air Corps
United States Army Air Forces
United States Air Force
RoleFighter unit
Part of332d Fighter Group/Air Expeditionary Wing
Nickname(s)The Red Tails
Motto(s)Spit Fire
EngagementsWorld War II

The Tuskegee Airmen (Template:PronEng)[1] is the popular name of a group of African American pilots who fought in World War II as the 332nd Fighter Group of the US Army Air Corps.

The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African American military aviators in the United States armed forces. During World War II, African Americans in many U.S. states were still subject to Jim Crow laws. The American military itself was racially segregated. The Tuskegee Airmen were subject to racial discrimination, both within and outside the Army. Despite these adversities, they flew with distinction. They were particularly successful in their missions as bomber escorts in Europe.

Origins

Prior to the Tuskegee Airmen, no U.S. military pilots had been African American. A series of legislative moves by the United States Congress in 1941 forced the Army Air Corps to form an all-black combat unit, despite the War Department's reluctance. In an effort to eliminate the unit before it could begin, the War Department set up a system to accept only those with a level of flight experience or higher education that they expected would be hard to fill. This policy backfired when the Air Corps received an abundance of applications from men who qualified even under these restrictive specifications, many of whom had already participated in the Civilian Pilot Training Program, which the historically-black Tuskegee Institute had participated in since 1939.[2]

Portrait of Tuskegee airman Edward M. Thomas by photographer Toni Frissell, March 1945.

The U.S. Army Air Corps had established the Psychological Research Unit 1 at Maxwell Army Air Field, Montgomery, Alabama, and other units around the country for aviation cadet training, which included the identification, selection, education, and training of pilots, navigators and bombardiers. Psychologists employed in these research studies and training programs used some of the first standardized tests to quantify IQ, dexterity, and leadership qualities in order to select and train the right personnel for the right role (bombardier, pilot, navigator). The Air Corps determined that the same existing programs would be used for all units, including all-black units. At Tuskegee, this effort would continue with the selection and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.

Strict racial segregation in the U.S. Army required the development of separate African American flight surgeons to support the operations and training of the Tuskegee Airmen.[3] Prior to the development of this unit, all U.S. Army flight surgeons were white. Training of African American men as aviation medical examiners was conducted through correspondence courses until 1943 when two black physicians were admitted to the U.S. Army’s School of Aviation Medicine at Randolph Field, Texas. This was one of the earliest racially integrated courses in the U.S. Army. Seventeen flight surgeons served with Tuskegee Airmen from 1941 through 1949. At that time, the typical tour of duty for a U.S. Army flight surgeon was four years. Six of these physicians lived under field conditions during operations in North Africa, Sicily and Italy. The chief flight surgeon to the Tuskegee Airmen was Vance H. Marchbanks, Jr., M.D., a boyhood friend of Benjamin O. Davis, Jr.

Training

Major James A. Ellison returns the salute of Mac Ross of Dayton, Ohio, as he passes down the line during review of the first class of Tuskegee cadets; flight line at U.S. Army Air Corps basic and advanced flying school, Tuskegee, Alabama, 1941 with Vultee BT-13 trainers in the background.

On March 19, 1941, the 99th Pursuit Squadron (Pursuit being the pre-World War II descriptive for "Fighter") was activated at Chanute Field in Rantoul, Illinois.[4] Over 250 enlisted men were trained at Chanute in aircraft ground support trades. This small number of enlisted men became the core of other black squadrons forming at Tuskegee and Maxwell Fields in Alabama.

In June 1941, the Tuskegee program officially began with formation of the 99th Fighter Squadron at the Tuskegee Institute.[5] The unit consisted of an entire service arm, including ground crew. After basic training at Moton Field, they were moved to the nearby Tuskegee Army Air Field about 16 km (10 mi) to the west for conversion training onto operational types. The Airmen were placed under the command of Captain Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., then one of the few black West Point graduates.

Color poster of a Tuskegee Airman

During its training, the 99th Fighter Squadron was commanded by white and Puerto Rican officers[citation needed], beginning with Major James Ellison. By 1942, Colonel Frederick Kimble oversaw operations at the Tuskegee airfield. Kimble maintained segregation on the field in deference to local customs, a policy the airmen resented.[6] Later that year, the Air Corps replaced Kimble with the director of instruction at Tuskegee Army Airfield, Major Noel F. Parrish. Parrish, counter to the prevalent racism of the day, was fair and open-minded, and petitioned Washington to allow the Tuskegee Airmen to serve in combat.[7] The founder of Negro Airmen International, Edward A. Gibbs, was a civilian flight instructor in the U.S. Aviation Cadet Program at the airfield during this time.[8] An Instructor of the 99th Pursuit Squadron was Lt Daniel James, Jr..

Combat

Considered ready for combat duty, the 99th was transported to Casablanca, Morocco, on the USS Mariposa and participated in the North African campaign. From Morocco they traveled by train to Oujda then to Tunis from where they operated against the enemy. Flyers and ground crew alike were largely isolated by the racial segregation practices of their initial command, the white 33rd Fighter Group and its commander Colonel William W. Momyer. The flight crews were handicapped by being left with little guidance from battle-experienced pilots beyond a week spent with Colonel Phillip Cochran. The 99th's first combat mission was to attack the small but strategic volcanic island of Pantelleria in the Mediterranean Sea, in preparation for the Allied invasion of Sicily in July 1943. The 99th moved to Sicily where it received a Distinguished Unit Citation for its performance in combat.

Tuskegee Airmen in front of a
P-40.

Colonel Momyer, however, told media sources in the U.S. that the 99th was a failure and its pilots cowardly, incompetent or worse, resulting in a critical article in TIME. In response, the House Armed Services Committee convened a hearing to determine whether the Tuskegee Airmen experiment should be allowed to continue. Momyer accused the 99th's pilots of being incompetent, based on the fact that they had seen little air-to-air combat. To bolster the recommendation to scrap the project, a member of the committee commissioned and then submitted into evidence a "scientific" report by the University of Texas which purported to prove that African Americans were of low intelligence and incapable of handling complex situations (such as air combat). Colonel Davis forcefully denied the committee members' claims, but only the intervention of Colonel Emmett "Rosie" O'Donnell prevented a recommendation for disbandment of the squadron from being sent to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. General Hap Arnold ordered an evaluation of all Mediterranean Theater P-40 units be undertaken to determine the true merits of the 99th; the results showed the 99th Fighter Squadron to be at least equal to other units operating the fighter.

Shortly after the hearing, three new squadrons fresh out of training at Tuskegee embarked for Africa. After several months operating separately, all four squadrons were combined to form the all-black 332nd Fighter Group.

The Tuskegee Airmen were initially equipped with P-40 Warhawks, briefly with P-39 Airacobras (March 1944), later with P-47 Thunderbolts (June-July 1944), and finally with the aircraft that they became most commonly identified with, the P-51 Mustang (July 1944).

On January 27 and 28, 1944, Luftwaffe Fw 190 fighter-bombers raided Anzio, where the Allies had conducted amphibious landings on January 22. Attached to the 79th Fighter Group, eleven of the 99th Fighter Squadron's pilots shot down enemy fighters, including Capt. Charles B. Hall, who claimed two shot down, bringing his aerial victory total to three. The eight fighter squadrons defending Anzio together claimed 32 German aircraft shot down whilst the 99th claimed the highest score among them with 13.[9]

Col. Benjamin O. Davis, Jr., commander of the Tuskegee Airmen 332nd Fighter Group, in front of his P-47 Thunderbolt in Sicily.

The squadron won its second Distinguished Unit Citation on May 12-14, 1944, while attached to the 324th Fighter Group, attacking German positions on Monastery Hill (Monte Cassino), attacking infantry massing on the hill for a counterattack, and bombing a nearby strong point to force the surrender of the German garrison to Moroccan Goumiers.

By the spring of 1944, more graduates were ready for combat, and the all-black 332nd Fighter Group had been sent overseas with three fighter squadrons: The 100th, 301st, and 302nd. Under the command of Colonel Davis, the squadrons were moved to mainland Italy, where the 99th Fighter Squadron, assigned to the group on May 1, joined them on June 6 at Ramitelli Airfield, near Termoli on the Adriatic coast. From Ramitelli, the Airmen of the 332nd Fighter Group escorted Fifteenth Air Force heavy strategic bombing raids into Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, and Germany.

Flying escort for heavy bombers, the 332nd earned an impressive combat record. Reportedly, the Luftwaffe awarded the Airmen the nickname, "Schwarze Vogelmenschen," or "Black Birdmen." The Allies called the Airmen "Redtails" or "Redtail Angels," because of the distinctive crimson paint on the vertical stabilizers of the unit's aircraft.

Pilots of the 332nd Fighter Group, "Tuskegee Airmen" at Ramitelli Airfield, Italy. From left to right, Lt. Dempsey W. Morgan, Lt. Carroll S. Woods, Lt. Robert H. Nelron, Jr., Capt. Andrew D. Turner and Lt. Clarence P. Lester

A B-25 bomb group, the 477th Bombardment Group, was forming in the U.S. but completed its training too late to see action. The 99th Fighter Squadron after its return to the United States became part of the 477th, redesignated the 477th Composite Group.

By the end of the war, the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 112 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down,[9] the German-operated Italian destroyer TA-23 sunk by machine-gun fire, and destruction of numerous fuel dumps, trucks and trains. The squadrons of the 332nd FG flew more than 15,000 sorties on 1,500 missions. The unit received recognition through official channels and was awarded a Distinguished Unit Citation (DUC) for a mission flown March 24, 1945, escorting B-17s to bomb the Daimler-Benz tank factory at Berlin, Germany. During the action its pilots were credited with destroying three Me-262 jets of the Luftwaffe's all-jet Jagdgeschwader 7 in aerial combat that day, despite the American unit initially claiming 11 Me 262s on that particular mission.[10] However on examining German records, JG 7 records just four Me 262s were lost and all of the pilots survived.[10] In return the 463rd Bomb Group, one of the many B-17 groups the 332nd were escorting, lost two bombers.[10] The 332nd themselves lost three P-51s during the mission.[10] The bombers also made substantial claims, making it impossible to tell which units were responsible for those individual four kills. The 99th Fighter Squadron in addition received two DUCs, the second after its assignment to the 332nd FG.[11] The Tuskegee Airmen were awarded several Silver Stars, 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses, 8 Purple Hearts, 14 Bronze Stars and 744 Air Medals.

In all, 994 pilots were trained in Tuskegee from 1941 to 1946, about 445 deployed overseas, and 150 Airmen lost their lives in accidents or combat.[12]

Controversy over escort record

File:Tuskegee airmen.jpg
Tuskegee Airmen gathered at a U.S. base after a mission in the Mediterranean theater.

While it had long been said that the Redtails were the only fighter group who never lost a bomber to enemy fighters,[13] suggestions to the contrary, combined with Air Force records and eyewitness accounts indicating that at least 25 bombers were lost to enemy fire,[14] resulted in the Air Force conducting a reassessment of the history of the unit in late 2006.

The claim that no bomber escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen had ever been lost to enemy fire first appeared on March 24, 1945, in the Chicago Defender, under the headline "332nd Flies Its 200th Mission Without Loss." According to the March 28, 2007, Air Force report, however, some bombers under 332nd Fighter Group escort protection were shot down on the very day the Chicago Defender article was published.[15][16][17][18] The subsequent report, based on after-mission reports filed by both the bomber units and Tuskegee fighter groups as well as missing air crew records and witness testimony, was released in March 2007 and documented 25 bombers shot down by enemy fighter aircraft while being escorted by the Tuskegee Airmen.[19]

Men of the 332nd Fighter Group attend a briefing in Italy in 1945.

The St. Petersburg Times in 2008 quoted a historian at the Air Force Historical Research Agency as confirming the loss of up to 25 bombers. Disputing this, a professor at the National Defense University said he researched more than 200 Tuskegee Airmen mission reports and found no bombers were lost to enemy fighters. Bill Holloman, a Tuskegee airman who taught black studies at the University of Washington and now chairs the Airmen's history committee, was reported by the Times as saying his review of records did confirm lost bombers, but "the Tuskegee story is about pilots who rose above adversity and discrimination and opened a door once closed to black America — not about whether their record is perfect."[20]

One mission report states that on July 26, 1944: "1 B-24 seen spiraling out of formation in T/A (target area) after attack by E/A (enemy aircraft). No chutes seen to open." A second report, dated August 31, 1944, praises group commander Colonel Davis by saying he "so skillfully disposed his squadrons that in spite of the large number of enemy fighters, the bomber formation suffered only a few losses."[21]

Postwar

Several Tuskegee airmen at Ramitelli, Italy, March 1945.

Far from failing as originally expected, a combination of pre-war experience and the personal drive of those accepted for training had resulted in some of the best pilots in the U.S. Army Air Corps. Nevertheless, the Tuskegee Airmen continued to have to fight racism. Their combat record did much to quiet those directly involved with the group (notably bomber crews who often requested them for escort), but other units continued to harass the Airmen.

In 1949, the 332nd entered the annual All Air Force Gunnery Meet in Las Vegas, Nevada and won. After segregation in the military was ended in 1948 by President Harry S. Truman with Executive Order 9981, the veteran Tuskegee Airmen now found themselves in high demand throughout the newly formed United States Air Force. Some taught in civilian flight schools, such as the black-owned Columbia Air Center in Maryland.[22]

Many of the surviving members of the Tuskegee Airmen annually participate in the Tuskegee Airmen Convention, which is hosted by Tuskegee Airmen, Inc.[23]

In 2005, four Tuskegee Airmen (Lt. Col. Lee Archer, Lt. Col. Robert Ashby, MSgt. James Sheppard, and TechSgt. George Watson) flew to Balad, Iraq, to speak to active duty airmen serving in the current incarnation of the 332nd, reactivated as first the 332nd Air Expeditionary Group in 1998 and made part of the 332nd Air Expeditionary Wing. "This group represents the linkage between the 'greatest generation' of airmen and the 'latest generation' of airmen," said Lt. Gen. Walter E. Buchanan III, commander of the Ninth Air Force and US Central Command Air Forces, in an e-mail to the Associated Press.

About 119 pilots and 211 ground personnel are still alive from the original crew member number of 994 pilots and about 15,000 ground personnel.[24]

Legacy and honors

President George W. Bush presents the Congressional Gold Medal to about 300 Tuskegee Airmen at the US Capitol rotunda on March 29, 2007, in Washington, D.C.

On March 29, 2007, about 350 Tuskegee Airmen (or their widows) received the Congressional Gold Medal[25] at a ceremony in the US Capitol rotunda.[26][27][28] The medal will go on display at the Smithsonian Institution; individual honorees will receive bronze replicas.[29]

The airfield where the airmen trained is now the Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site.[30]

In 2006, California Congressman Adam Schiff and Missouri Congressman William Lacy Clay, Jr., led the initiative to create a commemorative postage stamp to honor the Tuskegee Airmen.[31]

"Red Tails" continue to fly in the 99th Flying Training Squadron at Randolph Air Force Base in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen

The 99th Flying Training Squadron flies T-1A Jayhawks and, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, they are in the process of painting the tops of the tails of their aircraft red.

On August 1, 2008, the City of Atlanta, Georgia officially renamed a portion of State Route 6, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen. The road is a highway that serves as the main artery into Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport.

On December 9, 2008, the remaining Tuskegee Airmen were invited to attend the inauguration of Barack Obama, the first African-American elected President. Retired Lt. William Broadwater, 82, of Upper Marlboro, a Tuskegee Airman, summed up the feeling. "The culmination of our efforts and others' was this great prize we were given on Nov. 4. Now we feel like we've completed our mission."[32][33] More than 180 airmen attended the January 20, 2009 inauguration.[34]

The restored P-51 Mustang associated with the Tuskegee Airmen now flown by Red Tail Project as described in Red Tail Reborn

The Tuskegee Airmen Memorial was erected at Walterboro Army Airfield, South Carolina, in honor of the Tuskegee Airmen, their instructors and ground support personnel who trained at the Walterboro Army Airfield during the World War II.

In the 2010 Rose Parade, City of West Covina paid tribute to the "service and commitment of the Tuskegee Airmen" with a float, entitled "Tuskegee Airmen – A Cut Above", which featured a large bald eagle, two replica World War II "Redtails" fighter planes and historical images of some of the airmen who served our country. The float won the Mayor's trophy as the most outstanding city entry - national or international.

Images

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ See Pronunciation of Tuskegee.
  2. ^ Benton, Jeffrey C.They Served Here: Thirty-Three Maxwell Men. Air University Press, "Noel F. Parrish",1999, p. 43.
  3. ^ Jones, DR; Gross, LP; Marchbanks-Robinson, R (2007). "United States Army Aeromedical Support to African Fliers, 1941 - 1949: The Tuskegee Flight Surgeons". SAM-FE-BR-TR-2007-0001. US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine. Retrieved 2009-03-03. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Francis 1997, p. 15. Note: It was a lawsuit or the threat of a law suit from a rejected candidate that caused the USAAC to accept black applicants.
  5. ^ Thole 2002, p. 48. Note: The Coffey School of Aeronautics in Chicago was also considered.
  6. ^ Francis 1997, p. 233.
  7. ^ Francis 1997, p. 258.
  8. ^ Gubert et al. 2002, p. 130.
  9. ^ a b Haulman, Dr. Daniel L. Aerial Victory Credits of the Tuskegee Airmen. AFHRA Maxwell AFB. Air Force Retrieved: February 16, 2007.
  10. ^ a b c d Caldwell and Muller 2007, p. 276.
  11. ^ Air Force Historical Study 82, AFHRA Maxwell AFB, 1969. Retrieved: February 16, 2007.
  12. ^ Tuskegee Airmen, National Museum of the Air Force.
  13. ^ Lt. Col. Thomas E. Highsmith, Jr.; speech at The Pingry School, November 8, 2002
  14. ^ An uneasy question for the Tuskegee Airmen
  15. ^ "Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers." USA Today, April 1, 2007. Retrieved: April 1, 2007.
  16. ^ Article ID:539246 Comcast.net news. Retrieved: December 11, 2006.
  17. ^ Ex-Pilot Confirms Bomber Loss, Flier Shot down in 1944 was Escorted by Tuskegee Airmen. Washington Post, December 17, 2006, p. A18.
  18. ^ AP Story March 29, 2007
  19. ^ "Report: Tuskegee Airmen lost 25 bombers." The Associated Press, April 2, 2007. Retrieved: April 10, 2007
  20. ^ Levesque, William R. "An uneasy question for the Tuskegee Airmen." St. Petersburg Times, January 26, 2008.
  21. ^ Banerji, Shilpa. "Historians Question Record of Tuskegee Airmen". www.diverseeducation.com. Retrieved 2008-06-19.
  22. ^ Andy Zieminski (February 7, 2008). "County's first black-owned airport becomes training ground". Gazette.net: Maryland Community Newspapers Online.
  23. ^ Tuskegee Airmen Inc.
  24. ^ (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/10/us/politics/10inaug.html?ref=us)
  25. ^ Library of Congress. Resolved by the Senate (the House of Representatives concurring), That the Rotunda of the Capitol is authorized to be used on 29 March 2007, for a ceremony to award a Congressional... (Engrossed as Agreed to or Passed by Senate), March 7, 2007
  26. ^ Price, Deb. "Nation to honor Tuskegee Airmen."The Detroit News, March 29, 2007. Retrieved: March 29, 2007.
  27. ^ Tuskegee Airmen Gold Medal Bill Signed Into Law. Office of Congressman Charles B. Rangel. Retrieved: October 26, 2006
  28. ^ Evans, Ben. "Tuskegee Airmen awarded Congressional Gold Medal." Associated Press, March 30, 2007. Retrieved: 30 April 2007.
  29. ^ AP Story, March 29, 2007
  30. ^ Official NPS website: Tuskegee Airmen National Historic Site
  31. ^ Votes to Honor Tuskegee Airmen
  32. ^ Seelye, Katharine (2008-12-09). "Tuskegee Airmen Invited to Obama Inauguration". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-12-09. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  33. ^ We've Completed Our Mission. Washington Post, December 13, 2008, p. B01.
  34. ^ [1]
  35. ^ Wings for This Man at IMDb
  36. ^ The Tuskegee Airmen at IMDb
  37. ^ 1997 G.I. Joe Classic Collection
  38. ^ Ambrose 2001, p. 27.
  39. ^ Silver Wings & Civil Rights: The Fight to Fly at IMDb
  40. ^ Siver Wings & Civil Rights: The Flight to Fly

Bibliography

  • Ambrose, Stephen Edward. The Wild Blue: The Men and Boys who Flew the B-24s over Germany. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001. ISBN 0-74320-339-9.
  • Broadnax, Samuel L. Blue Skies, Black Wings: African American Pioneers of Aviation. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 2007. ISBN 0-27599-195-4.
  • Bucholtz, Chris and Jim Laurier. 332nd Fighter Group - Tuskegee Airmen. London: Osprey Publishing, 2007. ISBN 1-84603-044-7.
  • Caldwell, Donald and Richard Muller. The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich. London: Greenhill Books, 2007. ISBN 978-1-85367-712-0.
  • Cotter, Jarrod. "Red Tail Project." Flypast No. 248, March 2002.
  • Francis, Charles F. 'The Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation. Boston: Branden Books, 1997 ISBN 0-82832-029-2.
  • Gubert, Betty Kaplan, Miriam Sawyer and Caroline M. Fannine. "Distinguished African Americans in Aviation and Space Science". Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002. ISBN 978-1573562461.
  • Hill, Ezra M. Sr. The Black Red Tail Angels: A Story of the Tuskegee Airmen. Columbus, Ohio: SMF Haven of Hope. 2006.
  • Holway, John B. Red Tail, Black Wings: The Men of America's Black Air Force. Las Cruces, New Mexico: Yuca Tree Press, 1997. ISBN 1-88132-521-0.
  • Leuthner, Stuart and Olivier Jensen. High Honor: Recollections by Men and Women of World War II Aviation. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989. ISBN 0-87474-650-7.
  • McKissack, Patricia C. and Fredrick L. Red Tail Angels: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II. New York: Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996. ISBN 0-80278-292-2.
  • Ross, Robert A. Lonely Eagles: The Story of America's Black Air Force in World War II. Los Angeles: Tuskegee Airmen Inc., Los Angeles Chapter, 1980. ISBN 0-917612-00-0.
  • Sandler, Stanley. Segregated Skies: All-Black Combat Squadrons of WWII. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1992. ISBN 1-56098-154-7.
  • Thole, Lou. "Segregated Skies." Flypast No, 248, March 2002.
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