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'''Road pricing''' (also '''Road User Charges''') are direct charges levied for the use of [[road]]s, including [[Toll road|road tolls]], distance or time based fees, [[congestion pricing|congestion charges]] and charges designed to discourage use of certain classes of vehicle, fuel sources or more polluting vehicles. These charges may be used primarily for revenue generation, usually for road infrastructure financing, to reduce peak [[Transportation Demand Management|transport demand]] and the associated [[traffic congestion]] or to incorporate a price for other social and environmental [[Externality|negative externalities]] associated with a choice of transport such as air pollution, noise and road casualties. |
'''Road pricing''' (also '''Road User Charges''') are direct charges levied for the use of [[road]]s, including [[Toll road|road tolls]], distance or time based fees, [[congestion pricing|congestion charges]] and charges designed to discourage use of certain classes of vehicle, fuel sources or more polluting vehicles. These charges may be used primarily for revenue generation, usually for road infrastructure financing, to reduce peak [[Transportation Demand Management|transport demand]] and the associated [[traffic congestion]] or to incorporate a price for other social and environmental [[Externality|negative externalities]] associated with a choice of transport such as air pollution, noise and road casualties. |
Revision as of 17:00, 20 May 2012
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Road pricing (also Road User Charges) are direct charges levied for the use of roads, including road tolls, distance or time based fees, congestion charges and charges designed to discourage use of certain classes of vehicle, fuel sources or more polluting vehicles. These charges may be used primarily for revenue generation, usually for road infrastructure financing, to reduce peak transport demand and the associated traffic congestion or to incorporate a price for other social and environmental negative externalities associated with a choice of transport such as air pollution, noise and road casualties.
Toll roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels were often used primarily for revenue generation; charges for entering a city centre, for use of low-occupancy vehicles using High-occupancy vehicle lane lanes and for use of vehicles with higher emissions typically include a cost for other externalities. A minority view holds that road pricing includes more generic motoring taxation, such as fuel taxes and annual vehicle license fees.[1] Parking fees are not considered as road pricing.[2]
Terminology
Road pricing is a general term which may be used for any system where the driver pays directly for use of a particular roadway or road network in a particular city, region or nation. Road pricing may also include congestion charging, which are charges levied on qualifying road users to reduce peak demand, and thereby reduce traffic congestion[3][4][5][6][7][8] and also to place a charge on road users for other negative externalities, including traffic injuries, noise and air pollution.[9] A minority view holds that road pricing includes more generic motoring taxation, such as fuel taxes and annual vehicle license fees.[1]
History
The first published reference to 'road pricing' was possibly in 1949 when the RAND Corporation proposed "use of direct road pricing to make freight journeys more expensive on congested routes or to influence the time of day at which freight traffic operates".[10] Nobel-laureate William Vickrey then built on the ideas of the economist Arthur Pigou, outlining a theoretical case for road pricing in a major work on the subject of 1955[11] proposing in 1959 that drivers should be charged by electronic means for use of busy urban roads.[12] Arthur Pigou had previously developed the concept of economic externalities in a publication of 1920[13] in which he proposed that what is now referred to as a Pigouvian tax equal to the negative externality should be used to bring the outcome within a market economy back to economic efficiency.[11]
In 1963 Vickery published a paper 'Pricing in urban and suburban transport’ in the American Economic Review[9] and Gabriel Joseph Roth, John Michael Thomson of the Department of Applied Economics at the University of Cambridge published a short paper titled "Road pricing, a cure for congestion?".[14] The Smeed Report, 'Road Pricing: The Economic and Technical Possibilities' which had been commissioned in 1962 by the United Kingdom Ministry of Transport was published in 1964.[15] Road pricing was then developed by Maurice Allais and Gabriel Roth in a paper titled "The Economics of Road User Charges" published by the World Bank in 1968.[16] The phrase entered general usage at about this time.[17]
The first successful implementation of a congestion charge was with the Singapore Area Licensing Scheme in 1976. The Electronic Road Pricing (Hong Kong) scheme operated as a trial between 1983 and 1985 but was not continued permanently due to public opposition. A number of road tolling schemes were then introduced in Norway between 1986 and 1991 in Bergen, Oslo and the Trondheim Toll Scheme.[18] It was noticed that the Oslo scheme had the unintended effect of reducing traffic by around 5%. The Singapore scheme was expanded 1995 and converted to use a new electronic tolling system in 1998 with the Electronic Road Pricing (Singapore). The first use of a road toll for access by low-occupancy vehicles to High-occupancy vehicle lane was introduced in the USA on California State Route 91 in 1995. Since 2000 and larger number of schemes have been introduced although notable the New York congestion pricing and a number of UK proposals were not progressed due to public opposition.
Example schemes
Australasia
Australia
In January 2009, variable tolls were implemented at Sydney Harbour Bridge, two weeks after upgrading to 100% free-flow electronic toll collection. The highest fees are charged during the morning and afternoon peak periods; a toll 25% lower applies for the shoulder periods; and a toll lower than the previously existing is charged at nights, weekends, and public holidays. This is Australia's first road congestion pricing scheme, and has had only a very minor effect on traffic levels, reducing them by 0.19% [19][20][21][22]
China
Main roadways and highways in Shanghai are tolled, and an assessment was completed to evaluate implementation of congestion pricing for vehicles entering the central business district.[23][24] The city also restrains car use, ownership and there are restrictions on getting a driver's license; since 1998, the number of new car registrations is limited to 50,000 vehicles a year and car registrations are sold by public auction, with prices reaching up to US$5,000 in 2006. Parking is also limited.
The Electronic Road Pricing (Hong Kong) system operated between 1983 and 1985 with positive results.[25] Public opposition stalled its permanent implementation. Proposals were however raised again in 2012.[26]
Beijing implemented a temporary road space rationing based on plate numbers to improve air quality in the city during the 2008 Summer Olympics[27][28] which was adjusted and made permanent from October 2008. Congestion based pricing for the city was recommended by the World Bank in 2010[29][30] and local officials announced plans to introduce a scheme in September 2011 although no details about the cost or the charge zone have been provided.[31]
In early 2010 the city Guangzhou, Guangdong province, opened a public discussion on whether to introduce congestion charges. An online survey conducted by two local news outlets found that 84.4% of respondents opposed the charges.[30]
The City of Nanjing is considering the implementation of congestion pricing.[24]
Singapore
The world's first congestion pricing scheme was introduced in Singapore's core central business district in 1975[32] as the Singapore Area Licensing Scheme. It was extended in 1995 and converted to the 100% free-flowing Electronic Road Pricing (Singapore) in September 1998. Variable pricing based on congestion levels were introduced during 2007.[33] It is one of a number of elements in their Transportation Demand Management , which also includes high annual road tax, custom duties and vehicle registration fees for new vehicles, a quota system for new vehicles and heavy investment in public transportation.[34] Singapore has one of the highest per capita incomes in Asia by fewer than 30% of Singaporean households owns cars.[35]
Europe
Germany
The LKW-MAUT distance based charging scheme large goods vehicles in Germany began operation on 1 January 2005 after a two year delay with prices varying depending on emission levels and the number of axles. The scheme which combining satellite technology with other technologies and is operated by Toll Collect suffered delays before implementation. A scheme using much simpler technology in Austria was up and running in 2004.[citation needed]
Italy
Rome converted a residents' pass system for the core of the city to a road pricing system in 2001 and Genoa started a trial system in 2003.[9] The Milan "Ecopass" system began operation in early 2008 with an objective to reduce air pollution from vehicles.[36][37][38] It was extended several times[39] before being replaced by Area C, a conventional congestion pricing scheme covering the same geographic area in January 2012 as an 18-month pilot. Electric vehicles, public utilities' vehicles, police and emergency vehicles, buses and taxis are exempted from the charge. Hybrid electric and bi-fuel natural gas vehicles (CNG and LPG) will be exempted until January 1, 2013.[40]
Malta
The automated 'Controlled Vehicular Access' (CVA) system was launched in Malta's capital city of Valletta on May 1, 2007.[41] The number of vehicles entering the city reduced from 10,000 to 7,900; there has also been a 60% drop in car stays by non-residents of more than eight hours with a marked increase of 34% in non-residential cars visiting the city for an hour or less.[42][43]
Norway
Norway implemented electronic urban tolling on the main road corridors into Bergen in 1986), Oslo (1990) and then the Trondheim Toll Scheme the following year.[18] The Bergen scheme operated as a cordon on all entry points to the central area of the city. The Oslo scheme was initially created as a conventional road toll for revenue generation reasons, but had the unintended effect of reducing traffic by around 5%. Charges vary by time of the day. The legal basis for introducing congestion charging fee was approved by Parliament in 2001[44] and came into force in October 2011.[citation needed]
Sweden
The Stockholm congestion tax covering Stockholm City Centre was trialed for seven month trial during 2006 and has been operational on a permanent basis since August 1, 2007;[45][46] all the entrances and exits of this area have unmanned control points operating with automatic number plate recognition and most vehicles pay a fixed fee during peak hours.[47]
United Kingdom
The Smeed Report recommended the implementation of congestion charging in 1964[48] and road pricing for London was considered by the Greater London Council in 1973 but was not progressed. The Durham City congestion charge was introduced in 2002[49] and the London congestion charge in 2003.[50] In June 2005, Transport Secretary Alistair Darling announced the a proposal for a national scheme[51][52] in which every vehicle would be fitted with a satellite receiver which would calculate charges, with prices (including fuel duty) ranging from 2p per mile on uncongested roads to £1.34 on the most congested roads at peak times.[53] The scheme was dropped after an online petition against proposals gained over 1.8 million signatures.[54] A number of local schemes were then proposed and rejected during 2007-2008, including the Manchester congestion charge[55] Planned emissions based charges in London cancelled following the 2008 Mayoral election.[56] A 'Western Extension' was added to the London scheme in 2007 but then removed in January 2011.[57] The London low emission zone was introduced in stages between 2008 and 2012 with an aim of reducing the pollution emissions of diesel-powered commercial vehicles in London.[58] UK wide road pricing for Large goods vehicles, which was first proposed in 2000 before being dropped[59] and then revived in 2012.[60]
Middle east
Dubai
The Salik (road toll) system in Dubai, United Arab Emirates was introduced by the Roads and Transport Authority in 2007 and extended in 2008.
North America
New York
In March 2001, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey implemented a discount during off-peak hours for those vehicles paying tolls for several tunnels and bridges connecting New York City and New Jersey using the electronic EZ Pass.[61][62] Since March 2008, qualified low-emission automobiles could get a 50% discount during off-peak hours.[63]
In April 2007 the New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg proposed a contentious congestion charge on cars using most streets in the central business district (southern half of Manhattan)[64] as part of the broader PlaNYC 2030. The plan received broad support from a coalition of civic, business, environmental, labor, community and public health organizations and the City Council voted for the measure but also received significant opposition. The New York Legislature declined to vote on it in in April 2008 saying that "...the opposition was so overwhelming,...that he would not hold an open vote of the full Assembly,".[65]
San Francisco
In 2006, San Francisco authorities began a feasibility study to evaluate congestion pricing in the city. The initial charging scenarios considered were presented in public meetings held in December 2008[66] and the final draft proposal were discussed by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors (SFBS) in December 2010 which recommended implementation of a six-month to one-year trial in 2015.[67][68] Separately, in July 2010 congestion tolls were implemented at the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge.[69]
Other metropolitan areas
In August 2007, the United States Department of Transportation selected five metropolitan areas to initiate congestion pricing demonstration projects under the Urban Partnerships Congestion Initiative, for US$ 1 billion of federal funding.[70] The five projects under this initiative are; Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco,[71] State Route 520 serving downtown Seattle and communities to its east,[72] Interstate 95 between Miami and Ft. Lauderdale,[73] Interstate 35W serving downtown Minneapolis,[74] and a variable rate parking meter system in Chicago, which replaced New York City after it left the program in 2008.[75]
High occupancy toll (HOT) lanes
The most common application of congestion pricing policies in the U.S. urban transportation context is to toll a single facility (highway or bridge).[76] Tolls for the use of High-occupancy vehicle lanes by low or single-occupancy vehicles were first implemented on California's private toll 91 Express Lanes, in Orange County in 1995, followed in 1996 by Interstate 15 in San Diego.
South America
Chile
Congestion pricing has also been implemented in urban freeways. Between 2004 and 2005, Santiago de Chile implemented the first 100% non-stop urban toll for concessioned freeways passing through a downtown area,[77] charging by the distance traveled.[78] Congestion pricing is used since 2007 during rush hours in order to maintain reasonable speeds within the city's core with the aim of keeping a minimum level of service for their customers.[79][80]
See also
- Toll Road
- Transport demand management
- GNSS Road Pricing
- List of toll bridges
- List of toll roads
- Road space rationing
- Toll roads around the world
- Vignette
References
- ^ a b Of the five references given in this article for the definition of road pricing (from Australia, Canada, the UK and the USA governments and from the Texas Transportation Institute), only the one from the Texas Transportation Institute claims that fuel taxes and annual vehicles licenses are part of road pricing
- ^ None of the five references given in this article for the definition of road pricing mention parking charges as being within scope.
- ^ "Road Pricing Defined". Federal Highway Administration.
- ^ "Road Pricing. Congestion Pricing, Value Pricing, Toll Roads and HOT Lanes". Victoria Transport Policy Institute.
- ^ "Road Pricing: The Next Steps" (PDF). Transport Select Committee.
- ^ "Inquiry into Federal-State Road Funding Arrangements". Parliament of Victoria. p. 143.
- ^ "Glossary terms". Texas Transportation Institute.
- ^ Small, Kenneth A.; José A. Gomez-Ibañez (1998). Road Pricing for Congestion Management: The Transition from Theory to Policy (PDF). The University of California Transportation Center, University of California at Berkeley. p. 213.
- ^ a b c "Comparisons of different implementation procedures of road pricing schemes in two European countries".
- ^ The Rand paper series. RAND Corporation. p. 16.
Potentially more effective in the near term would be the use of direct road pricing to make freight journeys more expensive on congested routes or to influence the time of day at which freight traffic operates
- ^ a b "Road Pricing: Lessons from London".
Models of increasing sophistication, which describe congestion have been developed over the years since the seminal work of Vickrey (1955).
- ^ "What's the Toll? It Depends on the Time of Day". New York Times.
- ^ Pigou, A. C. (1920). The Economics of Welfare. London: Macmillan.
- ^ "Road pricing, a cure for congestion?". University of Cambridge. 1963.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|authors=
ignored (help) - ^ R.J.Smeed (1964). "Road Pricing: The Economic and Technical Possibilities (Smeed Report)". Ministry of Transport.
- ^ Walters, A. A. (1968). The Economics of Road User Charges. World Bank Staff Occasional Papers Number Five, Chapter VII, Washington, D.C. pp. 191–217. ISBN 978-0-8018-0653-7.
- ^ "NGram viewer=1900-2000 "road pricing"". Google.
- ^ a b Ieromanachou, Potter and Warren. "Norway's urban toll rings: evolving towards congestion charging?" (PDF).
- ^ http://au.news.yahoo.com/latest/a/-/latest/12384129/harbour-bridge-variable-tolls-to-stay/
- ^ "Peak hour toll begins on Harbour Bridge". Yahoo!7 News (Australia). 2009-01-27. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
- ^ Michael Daley (2009-02-05). "Motorists Embrace Cashless Tolling on Sydney Harbour Bridge" (PDF). NSW Minister for Roads. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
- ^ "Harbour congestion tax 'will anger some'". ABC News (Australia). 2009-01-22. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
- ^ Sperling, Daniel and Deborah Gordon (2009). "Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability". Oxford University Press, New York: 219–220. ISBN 978-0-19-537664-7. . See on Chapter 8 Stimulating Chinese Innovation.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ a b Bob McQueen, Tom Biggstitle, and Chris Bausher (2006). "Congestion pricing" (iPaper). ETC, etc. I (1). Thinking Highways: 35–36. Retrieved 2009-02-23.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) A PDF version of the article is available for download here [1] - ^ Electronic road pricing. Developments in Hong Kong 1983–1986
- ^ "HK news watch". South China Morning Post. 2012-02-27.
- ^ "Car restrictions begin in Beijing". BBC News. 2008-07-20. Retrieved 2008-07-25.
- ^ Andrew Jacobs (2008-04-14). "Traffic Beijing Stops Construction for Olympics". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-14.
- ^ China Daily (2010-12-21). "Time to fix traffic in Beijing". Xinhuanet. Retrieved 2011-09-07.
- ^ a b "Will Congestion Pricing Relieve Traffic Jams?". Beijing Review. 2010-05-31. Retrieved 2011-09-07.
- ^ "Beijing 'plans congestion charge' to ease traffic woes". BBC News. 2011-09-02. Retrieved 2011-09-07.
- ^ Cervero, Robert (1998). "The Transit Metropolis". Island Press, Washington, D.C.: 169. ISBN 1-55963-591-6. Chapter 6/The Master Planned Transit Metropolis: Singapore.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help) - ^ Ken Belson (2008-03-16). "Importing a Decongestant for Midtown Streets". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-04-06.
- ^ R. Cervero op. cit. pp. 155
- ^ Singapore Census of Population Office
- ^ Marco Bertacche (2008-01-03). "Milan Introduces Congestion Charge To Cut Pollution". The New York Sun. Retrieved 2008-01-17.
- ^ Ken Belson (2008-01-27). "Toll Discounts for Going Green". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-01-27.
- ^ BBC News (2008-03-02). "Milan introduces traffic charge". Retrieved 2008-01-17.
- ^ Edoardo Croci (2008-12-31). "Ecopass. Prorogato fino al 31 dicembre 2009. Nei primi mesi dell'anno prevista la consultazione dei cittadini" (in Italian). Comune di Milano. Retrieved 2009-02-14. The complete pricing scheme is presented in this article.
- ^ Rosario Mastrosimone (2011-12-27). "Congestion charge Milano: Area C, tariffe, divieti, esenti" (in Italian). Sostenibile. Retrieved 2012-01-02.
- ^ Controlled Vehicular Access, CVA Technology, May 1, 2007.
- ^ "Valletta traffic congestion considerably reduced". MaltaMedia News. 2007-05-06. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
- ^ European Local Transport Information Service (ELTIS). "Controlled Vehicle Access, Valleta, Malta". Retrieved 2008-04-05.
- ^ Wærsted, Kristian. "Urban Tolling in Norway" (PDF). p. 5.
- ^ "Trängselskatt i Stockholm". Swedish Road Administration. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ "Odramatisk start för biltullarna". Dagens Nyheter. 2007-08-01. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ "Tider och belopp". Swedish Road Administration. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
- ^ Tempest, Matthews (2006-08-07). "Q&A: National road charging scheme". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
- ^ "Local welcome for congestion charge". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2002-10-01. Retrieved 2007-04-27.
- ^ Beard, Matthew (2003-02-17). "Livingstone predicts 'difficult few days' as congestion charge begins". The Independent. London: Independent News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2006-04-09.
- ^ "'Pay-as-you-go' road charge plan". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2005-06-06. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
- ^ Tempest, Matthew (2005-06-09). "Darling unveils road charging plans". The Guardian. London: Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
- ^ "Feasibility study of road pricing in the UK". Department for Transport. 2004-07-16. pp. para B.52. Archived from the original on 2007-07-17. Retrieved 2007-08-25.
- ^ "Blair's statement in full". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 2007-02-21. Retrieved 2007-06-22.
- ^ Salter, Alan (2007-05-25). "C-charge details revealed". Manchester Evening News. M.E.N. media 2007. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
- ^ "Mayor quashes £25 C-charge hike". BBC News. 2008-07-08. Retrieved 2008-08-16.
- ^ "Consultation results". Transport for London. Retrieved 6 December 2010.
- ^ "The Low Emission Zone. Cleaner air for Greater London" (PDF). Transport for London. pp. Pages 10–12. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
- ^ [www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN00588.pdf "Roads: lorry road user charging"] (PDF). Parliament.
{{cite web}}
: Check|url=
value (help) - ^ "Foreign lorries face £10 daily charge on UK roads". BBC News.
Foreign lorry drivers could pay as much as £10 a day to use UK roads, the government has announced. UK haulage firms already have to pay to make journeys in other European Union countries, including France. Transport Minister Mike Penning said charging overseas companies would create a "fairer" situation.
- ^ Peter Samuel (2001-01-11). "Peak/Off-Peak Tolls:Whitman whittles down PANYNJ tolls". TOLLROADSnews. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
- ^ Ronald Smothers (2001-03-27). "Grumbling, but Still Moving, Under New Rush-Hour Tolls". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-03-10.
- ^ "New Toll Rates – Effective, 3 AM, March 2, 2008: Frequently Asked Questions (FAQS)". Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Retrieved 2009-03-10. [dead link]
- ^ http://www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/downloads/pdf/report_transportation.pdf
- ^ (2010-03-30). "Congestion Pricing Dies in Albany". NY1. Retrieved 2010-12-12.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ Malia Wollan (2009-01-04). "San Francisco Studies Fees to Ease Traffic". The New York Times. Retrieved 2009-02-22.
- ^ Rachel Gordon (2010-11-11). "S.F. may hit drivers with variety of tolls". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Heather Ishimaru (2010-11-10). "SF considers downtown congestion pricing". ABC7 News San Francisco. Retrieved 2010-12-05.
- ^ Michael Cabanatuan (2010-05-13). "Reminder: Bridge tolls go up July 1". The San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
- ^ "Urban Partnerships". U.S. Department of Transportation. Archived from the original on June 28, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "San Francisco Urban Partnership Agreement". U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
- ^ "Seattle (Lake Washington) Urban Partnership Agreement". U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 2008-06-20. [dead link]
- ^ "Miami Urban Partnership Agreement". U.S. Department of Transportation. Archived from the original on May 3, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Minneapolis Urban Partnership Agreement". U.S. Department of Transportation. Retrieved 2008-06-20. [dead link]
- ^ Jennifer Lee (2008-04-29). "Chicago Gets New York's Congestion Money". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-06-20.
- ^ Small, Kenneth A.; José A. Gomez-Ibañez (1998). Road Pricing for Congestion Management: The Transition from Theory to Policy. The University of California Transportation Center, University of California at Berkeley. pp. 226–232.
- ^ UK Commission on Integrated Transport. "Road Charging Scheme: South America – Chile, Santiago de Chile". Retrieved 2008-07-04. [dead link]
- ^ Costanera Norte Freeway. "Costanera Norte Freeway" (in Spanish).
- ^ "Costanera Norte Tarifas 2010" (PDF) (in Spanish). Sociedad Concesionaria Costanera Norte. Retrieved 2010-02-27. [dead link] Three different tolls are charged based on pre-set average operating speeds: basic non-peak hour, basic rush hour, and fixed congestion toll.
- ^ "Autopistas urbanas proponen subir tarifas y el MOP elabora plan para auditar alzas" (in Spanish). ODECU. 2009-07-15. Retrieved 2010-02-27. [dead link]
Further reading
- Smeed, R.J. (1964), "Road pricing: the economic and technical possibilities", HMSO.
External links
- Combating Gridlock - Study of Deloitte Research on Congestion Charging
- National Alliance Against Tolls (Britain) Road pricing page
- Road pricing case studies
- Reducing Congestion and Funding Transportation Using Road Pricing in Europe and Singapore published by FHWA, AASHTO and the TRB
- Transportation Research Board Committee on Road Pricing
- Review of Road Pricing to Reduce Congestion, U.S. Government Accountability Office - 2012