Oracle Database: Difference between revisions

Oracle Database
Developer(s)	Oracle Corporation
Written in	Assembly language, C, C++
Available in	Multilingual
Type	ORDBMS
License	Proprietary
Website	Oracle RDBMS

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Oracle Database (commonly referred to as Oracle RDBMS or simply as Oracle) is an object-relational database management system ^[2] produced and marketed by Oracle Corporation.

Larry Ellison and two friends and former co-workers, Bob Miner and Ed Oates, started a consultancy called Software Development Laboratories (SDL) in 1977. SDL developed the original version of the Oracle software. The name Oracle comes from the code-name of a CIA-funded project Ellison had worked on while previously employed by Ampex.^[3]

Physical and logical structures

An Oracle database system—identified by an alphanumeric system identifier or SID^[4]—comprises at least one instance of the application, along with data storage. An instance—identified persistently by an instantiation number (or activation id: SYS.V_$DATABASE.ACTIVATION#)—comprises a set of operating-system processes and memory-structures that interact with the storage. (Typical processes include PMON (the process monitor) and SMON (the system monitor).) Oracle documentation can refer to an active database instance as a "shared memory realm".^[5]

Users of Oracle databases refer to the server-side memory-structure as the SGA (System Global Area). The SGA typically holds cache information such as data-buffers, SQL commands, and user information. In addition to storage, the database consists of online redo logs (or logs), which hold transactional history. Processes can in turn archive the online redo logs into archive logs (offline redo logs), which provide the basis (if necessary) for data recovery and for the physical-standby forms of data replication using Oracle Data Guard.

If the Oracle database administrator has implemented Oracle RAC (Real Application Clusters), then multiple instances, usually on different servers, attach to a central storage array. This scenario offers advantages such as better performance, scalability and redundancy. However, support becomes more complex, and many sites do not use RAC. In version 10g, grid computing introduced shared resources where an instance can use (for example) CPU resources from another node (computer) in the grid.

The Oracle DBMS can store and execute stored procedures and functions within itself. PL/SQL (Oracle Corporation's proprietary procedural extension to SQL), or the object-oriented language Java can invoke such code objects and/or provide the programming structures for writing them.

Storage

The Oracle RDBMS stores data logically in the form of tablespaces and physically in the form of data files ("datafiles").^[6] Tablespaces can contain various types of memory segments, such as Data Segments, Index Segments, etc. Segments in turn comprise one or more extents. Extents comprise groups of contiguous data blocks. Data blocks form the basic units of data storage.

A DBA can impose maximum quotas on storage per user within each tablespace.^[7]

Partitioning

Newer versions of the database can also include a partitioning feature: this allows the partitioning of tables based on different set of keys. Specific partitions can then be easily added or dropped to help manage large data sets.

Monitoring

Oracle database management tracks its computer data storage with the help of information stored in the SYSTEM tablespace. The SYSTEM tablespace contains the data dictionary—and often (by default) indexes and clusters. A data dictionary consists of a special collection of tables that contains information about all user-objects in the database. Since version 8i, the Oracle RDBMS also supports "locally managed" tablespaces that store space management information in bitmaps in their own headers rather than in the SYSTEM tablespace (as happens with the default "dictionary-managed" tablespaces). Version 10g and later introduced the SYSAUX tablespace, which contains some of the tables formerly stored in the SYSTEM tablespace, along with objects for other tools such as OEM, which previously required its own tablespace.^[8]

Disk files

Disk files primarily represent one of the following structures:

Data and index files: These files provide the physical storage of data, which can consist of the data-dictionary data (associated to the tablespace SYSTEM), user data, or index data. These files can be managed manually or managed by Oracle itself ("Oracle-managed files"). Note that a datafile has to belong to exactly one tablespace, whereas a tablespace can consist of multiple datafiles.
Redo log files, consisting of all changes to the database, used to recover from an instance failure. Note that often a database will store these files multiple times, for extra security in case of disk failure. The identical redo log files are said to belong to the same group.
Undo files: These special datafiles, which can only contain undo information, aid in recovery, rollbacks, and read-consistency.
Archive log files: These files, copies of the redo log files, are usually stored at different locations. They are necessary (for example) when applying changes to a standby database, or when performing recovery after a media failure. It is possible to archive to multiple locations.
Tempfiles: These special datafiles serve exclusively for temporary storage data (used for example for large sorts or for global temporary tables)
Control file, necessary for database startup. "A binary file that records the physical structure of a database and contains the names and locations of redo log files, the time stamp of the database creation, the current log sequence number, checkpoint information, and so on."^[9]

At the physical level, data files comprise one or more data blocks, where the block size can vary between data files.

Data files can occupy pre-allocated space in the file system of a computer server, utilize raw disk directly, or exist within ASM logical volumes.^[10]

Database schema

Most Oracle database installations traditionally came with a default schema called SCOTT. After the installation process sets up sample tables, the user can log into the database with the username scott and the password tiger. The name of the SCOTT schema originated with Bruce Scott, one of the first employees at Oracle (then Software Development Laboratories), who had a cat named Tiger.^[11]

Oracle Corporation now de-emphasizes the SCOTT schema, as it uses few features of more recent Oracle releases. Most recent^[update] examples supplied by Oracle Corporation reference the default HR or OE schemas.

Other default schemas^[12]^[13] include:

SYS (essential core database structures and utilities)
SYSTEM (additional core database structures and utilities, and privileged account)
OUTLN (utilized to store metadata for stored outlines for stable query-optimizer execution plans.^[14])
BI, IX, HR, OE, PM, and SH (expanded sample schemas^[15] containing more data and structures than the older SCOTT schema).

System Global Area

Each Oracle instance uses a System Global Area or SGA—a shared-memory area—to store its data and control-information.^[16]

Each Oracle instance allocates itself an SGA when it starts and de-allocates it at shut-down time. The information in the SGA consists of the following elements, each of which has a fixed size, established at instance startup:

Datafiles

Every Oracle database has one or more physical datafiles, which contain all the database data. The data of logical database structures, such as tables and indexes, is physically stored in the datafiles allocated for a database.

Datafiles have the following characteristics:

One or more datafiles form a logical unit of database storage called a tablespace.

A datafile can be associated with only one tablespace.

Datafiles can be defined to extend automatically when they are full.

Data in a datafile is read, as needed, during normal database operation and stored in the memory cache of Oracle Database. For example, if a user wants to access some data in a table of a database, and if the requested information is not already in the memory cache for the database, then it is read from the appropriate datafiles and stored in memory.

Modified or new data is not necessarily written to a datafile immediately. To reduce the amount of disk access and to increase performance, data is pooled in memory and written to the appropriate datafiles all at once

the redo log buffer: this stores redo entries—a log of changes made to the database. The instance writes redo log buffers to the redo log as quickly and efficiently as possible. The redo log aids in instance recovery in the event of a system failure.
the shared pool: this area of the SGA stores shared-memory structures such as shared SQL areas in the library cache and internal information in the data dictionary. An insufficient amount of memory allocated to the shared pool can cause performance degradation.
the Large pool Optional area that provides large memory allocations for certain large processes, such as Oracle backup and recovery operations, and I/O server processes
Database buffer cache: Caches blocks of data retrieved from the database
KEEP buffer pool: A specialized type of database buffer cache that is tuned to retain blocks of data in memory for long periods of time
RECYCLE buffer pool: A specialized type of database buffer cache that is tuned to recycle or remove block from memory quickly
nK buffer cache: One of several specialized database buffer caches designed to hold block sizes different from the default database block size
Java pool:Used for all session-specific Java code and data in the Java Virtual Machine (JVM)
Streams pool: Used by Oracle Streams to store information required by capture and apply

When you start the instance by using Enterprise Manager or SQL*Plus, the amount of memory allocated for the SGA is displayed.^[17]

Library cache

The library cache^[18] stores shared SQL, caching the parse tree and the execution plan for every unique SQL statement. If multiple applications issue the same SQL statement, each application can access the shared SQL area. This reduces the amount of memory needed and reduces the processing-time used for parsing and execution planning.

Data dictionary cache

The data dictionary comprises a set of tables and views that map the structure of the database.

Oracle databases store information here about the logical and physical structure of the database. The data dictionary contains information such as:

user information, such as user privileges
integrity constraints defined for tables in the database
names and datatypes of all columns in database tables
information on space allocated and used for schema objects

The Oracle instance frequently accesses the data dictionary to parse SQL statements. Oracle operation depends on ready access to the data dictionary—performance bottlenecks in the data dictionary affect all Oracle users. Because of this, database administrators must make sure that the data dictionary cache^[19] has sufficient capacity to cache this data. Without enough memory for the data-dictionary cache, users see a severe performance degradation. Allocating sufficient memory to the shared pool where the data dictionary cache resides precludes these particular performance problem.

Program Global Area

The Program Global Area^[20]^[21] or PGA memory-area of an Oracle instance contains data and control-information for Oracle's server-processes.

The size and content of the PGA depends on the Oracle-server options installed. This area consists of the following components:

stack-space: the memory that holds the session's variables, arrays, and so on
session-information: unless using the multithreaded server, the instance stores its session-information in the PGA. In a multithreaded server, the session-information goes in the SGA.)
private SQL-area: an area that holds information such as bind-variables and runtime-buffers
sorting area: an area in the PGA that holds information on sorts, hash-joins, etc.

DBAs can monitor PGA usage via the V$SESSTA(T system view.

Dynamic performance views

The dynamic performance views (also known as "fixed views") within an Oracle database present information from virtual tables (X$ tables)^[22] built on the basis of database memory.^[23] Database users can access the V$ views (named after the prefix of their synonyms) to obtain information on database structures and performance.

Process architectures

Oracle processes

The Oracle RDBMS typically relies on a group of processes running simultaneously in the background and interacting to monitor and expedite database operations. Typical operating environments might include - temporarily or permanently - some of the following individual processes (shown along with their abbreviated nomenclature):^[24]

advanced queueing processes (Qnnn)^[25]
archiver processes (ARCn)
checkpoint process (CKPT) *REQUIRED*
coordinator-of-job-queues process (CJQn): dynamically spawns slave processes for job-queues
database writer processes (DBWn) *REQUIRED*
dispatcher processes (Dnnn): multiplex server-processes on behalf of users
main Data Guard Broker monitor process (DMON)^[26]
job-queue slave processes (Jnnn)^[27]
log-writer process (LGWR) *REQUIRED*
log-write network-server (LNSn): transmits redo logs in Data Guard environments
logical standby coordinator process (LSP0): controls Data Guard log-application
media-recovery process (MRP): detached recovery-server process
memory-manager process (MMAN): used for internal database tasks such as Automatic Shared Memory Management
memory-monitor process (MMON): process for automatic problem-detection, self-tuning and statistics-gathering^[28]
memory-monitor light process (MMNL): gathers and stores Automatic Workload Repository (AWR) data
mmon slaves (Mnnnn—M0000, M0001, etc.): background slaves of the MMON process^[29]
process-monitor process (PMON) *REQUIRED*
process-spawner (PSP0): spawns Oracle processes
queue-monitor coordinator process (QMNC): dynamically spawns queue monitor slaves^[30]
queue-monitor processes (QMNn)
recoverer process (RECO)
remote file-server process (RFS) - in Oracle Data Guard, a standby recipient of primary redo-logs^[31]
shared server processes (Snnn): serve client-requests
system monitor process (SMON) *REQUIRED*

User processes, connections and sessions

Oracle Database terminology distinguishes different computer-science terms in describing how end-users interact with the database:

user processes involve the invocation of application software^[32]
a connection refers to the pathway linking a user process to an Oracle instance^[33]
sessions consist of specific connections to an Oracle instance.^[34] Each session within an instance has a session identifier or "SID"^[35] (distinct from the system-identifier SID).

Concurrency and locking

Oracle databases control simultaneous access to data resources with locks (alternatively documented as "enqueues").^[36] The databases also utilize "latches" - low-level serialization mechanisms to protect shared data structures in the System Global Area.^[37]

Configuration

Database administrators control many of the tunable variations in an Oracle instance by means of values in a parameter file.^[38] This file in its ASCII default form ("pfile") normally has a name of the format init<SID-name>.ora. The default binary equivalent server parameter file ("spfile") (dynamically reconfigurable to some extent)^[39] defaults to the format spfile<SID-name>.ora. Within an SQL-based environment, the views V$PARAMETER^[40] and V$SPPARAMETER^[41] give access to reading parameter values.

Administration

The "Scheduler" (DBMS_SCHEDULER package, available from Oracle 10g onwards) and the Job subsystem (DBMS_JOB package) permit the automation of predictable processing.^[42]

Oracle Resource Manager aims to allocate CPU resources between users and groups of users when such resources become scarce.^[43]

Oracle Corporation stated in product announcements that manageability for DBAs had improved from Oracle9i to 10g. Lungu and Vătuiu (2008) assessed the relative manageability by performing common DBA tasks and measuring timings. ^[44] They performed their tests on a single Pentium CPU (1.7 GHz) with 512 MB RAM,running Windows Server 2000. From Oracle9i to 10g, installation improved 36%,day-to-day administration 63%, backup and recovery 63%, and performance diagnostics and tuning 74%, for a weighted total improvement of 56%. The researchers concluded that "Oracle10g represents a giant step forward from Oracle9i in making the database easier to use and manage".

Network access

Oracle Net Services allow client or remote applications to access Oracle databases via network sessions using various protocols.

Internationalization

Oracle Database software comes in 63 language-versions (including regional variations such as British English and American English). Variations between versions cover the names of days and months, abbreviations, time-symbols (such as A.M. and A.D.), and sorting.^[45]

Oracle Corporation has translated Oracle Database error-messages into Arabic, Catalan, Chinese, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Thai and Turkish.^[46]

Oracle Corporation provides database developers with tools and mechanisms for producing internationalized database applications: referred to internally as "Globalization".^[47]^[48]

History

Corporate/technical timeline

1977: Larry Ellison and friends founded Software Development Laboratories (SDL).
1978: Oracle Version 1, written in assembly language, runs on PDP-11 under RSX, in 128K of memory. Implementation separates Oracle code and user code. Oracle V1 is never officially released.^[49]
1979: SDL changed its company-name to "Relational Software, Inc." (RSI) and introduced its product Oracle V2 as an early relational database system - often cited^{[by whom?]} as the first commercially sold RDBMS. The version did not support transactions, but implemented the basic SQL functionality of queries and joins. (RSI never released a version 1 - instead calling the first version version 2 as a marketing gimmick.)^[50]
1982: RSI in its turn changed its name, becoming known as "Oracle Corporation",^[51] to align itself more closely with its flagship product.
1983: The company released Oracle version 3, which it had re-written using the C programming language, and which supported COMMIT and ROLLBACK functionality for transactions. Version 3 extended platform support from the existing Digital VAX/VMS systems to include Unix environments.^[51]
1984: Oracle Corporation released Oracle version 4, which supported read-consistency.^[52] In October it also released the first Oracle for the IBM PC.^[53]
1985: Oracle Corporation released Oracle version 5, which supported the client–server model—a sign of networks becoming more widely available in the mid-1980s.
1986: Oracle version 5.1 started supporting distributed queries.
1988: Oracle RDBMS version 6 came out with support for PL/SQL embedded within Oracle Forms v3 (version 6 could not store PL/SQL in the database proper), row-level locking and hot backups.^[54]
1989: Oracle Corporation entered the application-products market and developed its ERP product, (later to become part of the Oracle E-Business Suite), based on the Oracle relational database.
1990: the release of Oracle Applications release 8^[51]
1992: Oracle version 7 appeared with support for referential integrity, stored procedures and triggers.
1997: Oracle Corporation released version 8, which supported object-oriented development and multimedia applications.
1999: The release of Oracle8i aimed to provide a database inter-operating better with the Internet (the i in the name stands for "Internet"). The Oracle8i database incorporated a native Java virtual machine (Oracle JVM, also known as "Aurora").^[55]
2000: Oracle E-Business Suite 11i pioneers integrated enterprise application software^[51]
2001: Oracle9i went into release with 400 new features, including the ability to read and write XML documents. 9i also provided an option for Oracle RAC, or "Real Application Clusters", a computer-cluster database, as a replacement for the Oracle Parallel Server (OPS) option.
2002: the release of Oracle 9i Database Release 2 (9.2.0)^[56]
2003: Oracle Corporation released Oracle Database 10g, which supported regular expressions. (The g stands for "grid"; emphasizing a marketing thrust of presenting 10g as "grid computing ready".)
2005: Oracle Database 10.2.0.1—also known as Oracle Database 10g Release 2 (10gR2)—appeared.
2006: Oracle Corporation announces Unbreakable Linux^[51] and acquires i-flex
2007: Oracle Database 10g release 2 sets a new world record TPC-H 3000 GB benchmark result^[57]
2007: Oracle Corporation released Oracle Database 11g for Linux and for Microsoft Windows.
2008: Oracle Corporation acquires BEA Systems.
2010: Oracle Corporation acquires Sun Microsystems.
2011: Oracle Corporation acquires web content management system FatWire Software.
2011: On October 18, Oracle Corporation acquires Endeca Technologies Inc. faceted search engine software vendor.
2013: Oracle Corporation released Oracle Database 12c^[58] for Linux, Solaris and Windows. (The c stands for "cloud".)

Patch Updates and Security Alerts

Oracle Corporation releases Critical Patch Updates (CPUs) or Security Patch Updates (SPUs)^[59] and Security Alerts to close security holes that could be used for data theft. Critical Patch Updates (CPUs) and Security Alerts come out quarterly on the Tuesday closest to 17th day of the month.

Version numbering

Oracle products follow a custom release numbering and naming convention. With the Oracle RDBMS 10g release, Oracle Corporation began using the "10g" label in all versions of its major products, although some sources refer to Oracle Applications Release 11i as Oracle 11i.^{[clarification needed]} The suffixes "i", "g" and "c" do not actually represent a low-order part of the version number, as letters typically represent in software industry version numbering; that is, there is no predecessor version of Oracle 10g called Oracle 10f. Instead, the letters stand for "internet", "grid" and "cloud", respectively.^[60] Consequently many simply drop the "g" or "i" suffix when referring to specific versions of an Oracle product.

Major database-related products and some of their versions include:

Oracle Application Server 10g (also known as "Oracle AS 10g"): a middleware product;
Oracle Applications Release 11i (aka Oracle e-Business Suite, Oracle Financials or Oracle 11i): a suite of business applications;
Oracle Developer Suite 10g (9.0.4);
Oracle JDeveloper 10g: a Java integrated development environment;

Since version 2, Oracle's RDBMS release numbering has used the following codes:

Oracle v2 : 2.3
Oracle v3 : 3.1.3
Oracle v4 : 4.1.4.0-4.1.4.4
Oracle v5 : 5.0.22, 5.1.17, 5.1.22
Oracle v6 : 6.0.17-6.0.36 (no OPS code), 6.0.37 (with OPS)
Oracle7: 7.0.12–7.3.4
Oracle8 Database: 8.0.3–8.0.6
Oracle8i Database Release 1: 8.1.5.0–8.1.5.1
Oracle8i Database Release 2: 8.1.6.0–8.1.6.3
Oracle8i Database Release 3: 8.1.7.0–8.1.7.4
Oracle9i Database Release 1: 9.0.1.0–9.0.1.5 (Patchset as of December 2003^[update])
Oracle9i Database Release 2: 9.2.0.1–9.2.0.8 (Patchset as of April 2007^[update])
Oracle Database 10g Release 1: 10.1.0.2–10.1.0.5 (Patchset as of February 2006^[update])
Oracle Database 10g Release 2: 10.2.0.1–10.2.0.5 (Patchset as of April 2010^[update])
Oracle Database 11g Release 1: 11.1.0.6–11.1.0.7 (Patchset as of September 2008^[update])
Oracle Database 11g Release 2: 11.2.0.1–11.2.0.4 (Patchset as of August 2013^[update])
Oracle Database 12c Release 1: 12.1 (Patchset as of June 2013^[update])
Oracle Database 12c Release 1: 12.1.0.2 (Patchset as of July 2014^[update])

The version-numbering syntax within each release follows the pattern: major.maintenance.application-server.component-specific.platform-specific.

For example, "10.2.0.1 for 64-bit Solaris" means: 10th major version of Oracle, maintenance level 2, Oracle Application Server (OracleAS) 0, level 1 for Solaris 64-bit.

The Oracle Database Administrator's Guide offers further information on Oracle release numbers.

Marketing editions

Over and above the different versions of the Oracle database management software developed over time, Oracle Corporation subdivides its product into varying "editions" - apparently for marketing and license-tracking reasons. (Do not confuse the marketing "editions" with the internal virtual versioning "editions" introduced with Oracle 11.2).^[61] In approximate order of decreasing scale:

Enterprise Edition^[62] (EE) includes more features than the "Standard Edition", especially in the areas of performance and security. Oracle Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors, typically for servers running 4 or more CPUs. EE has no memory limits, and can utilize clustering using Oracle RAC software.
Standard Edition^[63] (SE) contains base database functionality. Oracle Corporation licenses this product on the basis of users or of processors, typically for servers running from one to four CPUs. If the number of CPUs exceeds 4 CPUs, the user must convert to an Enterprise license. SE has no memory limits, and can utilize clustering with Oracle RAC at no additional charge.
Standard Edition One,^[64] (SE1^[65] or SEO) introduced with Oracle 10g, has some additional feature-restrictions. Oracle Corporation markets it for use on systems with one or two CPUs. It has no memory limitations.
Express Edition^[66] ("Oracle Database XE")
- The first Express Edition, introduced in 2005, offered Oracle 10g free to distribute on Windows and Linux platforms. It had a footprint of only 150 MB, had a limitation to a maximum of 4 GB of user data^[67] and could use only a single CPU. Although it could install on a server with any amount of memory, it used a maximum of 1 GB.^[68] Support for this version came exclusively through on-line forums and not through Oracle support.
- Oracle 11g Express Edition, released by Oracle Corporation on 24 September 2011,^[69] can support 11 GB of user data.^[70] Oracle XE does not support loading Java code into the database.^[71]
Oracle Database Lite,^[72] intended for running on mobile devices. The embedded^[73] mobile database located on the mobile device can synchronize with a server-based installation. Includes support for Win32, Windows CE, Palm OS, and EPOC database clients, integration with Oracle's Advanced Queuing (AQ) mechanism, and data and application synchronization software (to enterprise Oracle databases). Supports 100% Java development (through JDBC drivers and the database's native support for embedded SQLJ and Java stored procedures).

Host platforms

Prior to releasing Oracle 9i in 2001, Oracle Corporation ported its database product to a wide variety of platforms. Subsequently Oracle Corporation consolidated on a smaller range of operating-system platforms.

As of November 2011^[update], Oracle Corporation supported the following operating systems and hardware platforms for Oracle Database 11g (11.2.0.2.0):^[74]

In 2011, Oracle Corporation announced the availability of Oracle Database Appliance, a pre-built, pre-tuned, highly available clustered database server built using two SunFire X86 servers and direct attached storage.

Some Oracle Enterprise edition databases running on certain Oracle-supplied hardware can utilize Hybrid Columnar Compression for more efficient storage.^[76]

Related software

Oracle products

Oracle Database Firewall^[77] analyzes database traffic on a network to prevent threats such as SQL injection.^[78]

Database options

Oracle Corporation refers to some extensions to the core functionality of the Oracle database as "database options".^[79] As of 2013^[update] such options include:

Active Data Guard (extends Oracle Data Guard physical standby functionality in 11g)
Advanced Compression (compresses tables, backups and redo-data)^[80]
Advanced Security (adds data encryption methods for both data at rest and on the network)
Content database (provides a centralized repository for unstructured information)
Data Mining ( ODM) (mines for patterns in existing data)
Database Vault (enforces extra security on data access)
In-Memory Database Cache (utilizes TimesTen technology)
Label Security (enforces row-level security)
Management Packs (various). For example:
- Oracle Database Change Management Pack^[81]^[82] (tracks and manages schema changes)
Oracle Answers (for ad-hoc analysis and reporting)
Oracle Application Express, a no-cost environment for database-oriented software-development^[83]
Oracle GoldenGate 11g (distributed real-time data acquisition)
Oracle Multitenant - a container database holding pluggable databases (PDBs) (from 12c)^[84]
Oracle OLAP (adds analytical processing)
Oracle Programmer (provides programmatic access to Oracle databases via precompilers, interfaces and bindings)^[85]
Oracle Real Application Testing (new at version 11g)—including Database Replay (for testing workloads) and SQL Performance Analyzer (SPA) (for preserving SQL efficiency in changing environments)^[86]
Oracle Spatial and Graph (includes 2D,3D and Raster geospatial data types, indexes, and spatial analytics and data models used in business applications and geographic information systems (GIS)) as well as World Wide Web Consortium Resource Description Framework (RDF) graph management and analysis
Oracle Text (standard SQL to index, search, and analyze text and documents stored in the Oracle database) ^[87]
Oracle XML DB, a no-cost component in each edition of the database that provides high-performance technology for storing and retrieving native XML
Oracle Warehouse Builder (in various forms and sub-options)
Partitioning (granularizes tables and indexes for efficiency)
Real Application Clusters (RAC) (coordinates multiple database servers, together accessing the same database)
Records database (a records management application)
Transparent Gateway for connecting to non-Oracle systems. Offers optimized solution, with more functionality and better performance than Oracle Generic Connectivity.
Total Recall (optimizes long-term storage of historical data)

In most cases, using these options entails extra licensing costs.^[88]^[89]

Suites

In addition to its RDBMS, Oracle Corporation has released several related suites of tools and applications relating to implementations of Oracle databases. For example:

Oracle Application Server, a J2EE-based application server, aids in developing and deploying applications that use Internet technologies and a browser.
Oracle Collaboration Suite contains messaging, groupware and collaboration applications.
Oracle Developer Suite contains software development tools, including JDeveloper.
Oracle E-Business Suite collects together applications for enterprise resource planning (including Oracle Financials), customer relationship management and human resources management (Oracle HR).
Oracle Enterprise Manager (OEM) used by database administrators (DBAs) to manage the DBMS, and recently^[update] in version 10g, a web-based rewrite of OEM called "Oracle Enterprise Manager Database Control". Oracle Corporation has dubbed the super-Enterprise-Manager used to manage a grid of multiple DBMS and Application Servers "Oracle Enterprise Manager Grid Control".
Oracle Programmer/2000, a bundling of interfaces for 3GL programming languages, marketed with Oracle7 and Oracle8.^[90]^[91]
Oracle WebCenter Suite^[92]

Database "features"

Apart from the clearly defined database options, Oracle databases may include many semi-autonomous software sub-systems, which Oracle Corporation sometimes refers to as "features" in a sense subtly different from the normal usage of the word. For example, Oracle Data Guard counts officially as a "feature", but the command-stack within SQL*Plus, though a usability feature, does not appear in the list of "features" in Oracle's list.^{[original research?]} Such "features" may include (for example):

Active Session History (ASH), the collection of data for immediate monitoring of very recent database activity.^[93]
Automatic Workload Repository (AWR), providing monitoring services to Oracle database installations from Oracle version 10. Prior to the release of Oracle version 10, the Statspack facility^[94] provided similar functionality.
Clusterware
Data Aggregation and Consolidation
Data Guard for high availability
Generic Connectivity for connecting to non-Oracle systems.
Data Pump utilities, which aid in importing and exporting data and metadata between databases^[95]
SQL*Loader, utility that facilitates high performance data loading.
Database Resource Manager (DRM), which controls the use of computing resources.^[96]
Fast-start parallel rollback^[97]
Fine-grained auditing (FGA) (in Oracle Enterprise Edition)^[98] supplements standard security-auditing features^[99]
Flashback for selective data recovery and reconstruction^[100]
iSQL*Plus, a web-browser-based graphical user interface (GUI) for Oracle database data-manipulation (compare SQL*Plus)
Oracle Data Access Components (ODAC), tools that consist of:^[101]
- Oracle Data Provider for .NET (ODP.NET)^[102]
- Oracle Developer Tools (ODT) for Visual Studio
- Oracle Providers for ASP.NET
- Oracle Database Extensions for .NET
- Oracle Provider for OLE DB
- Oracle Objects for OLE
- Oracle Services for Microsoft Transaction Server
Oracle-managed files (OMF) -- a feature allowing automated naming, creation and deletion of datafiles at the operating-system level.
Oracle Multimedia (known as "Oracle interMedia" before Oracle 11g) for storing and integrating multimedia data within a database^[103]
Oracle Spatial and Graph
Recovery Manager (rman) for database backup, restoration and recovery
SQL*Plus, a program that allows users to interact with Oracle database(s) via SQL and PL/SQL commands on a command-line. Compare iSQL*Plus.
Universal Connection Pool (UCP), a connection pool based on Java and supporting JDBC, LDAP, and JCA^[104]
Virtual Private Database^[105] (VPD), an implementation of fine-grained access control.^[106]

Tools

Users can develop their own applications in Java and PL/SQL using tools such as:

As of 2007^[update] Oracle Corporation had started^{[clarification needed]} a drive toward "wizard"-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.^[107]

The Database Upgrade Assistant (DBUA)^[108] provides a GUI for the upgrading of an Oracle database.^[109]

JAccelerator (NCOMP) - a native-compilation Java "accelerator", integrates hardware-optimized Java code into an Oracle 10g database.^[110]

Oracle SQL Developer, a free graphical tool for database development, allows developers to browse database objects, run SQL statements and SQL scripts, and edit and debug PL/SQL statements. It incorporates standard and customized reporting.

Oracle's OPatch provides patch management for Oracle databases.^[111]

The SQLTXPLAIN tool (or SQLT) provides tuning assistance for Oracle SQL queries.^[112]

Other databases marketed by Oracle Corporation

By acquiring other technology in the database field, Oracle Corporation can also offer:

TimesTen, a memory-resident database that can cache transactions and synchronize data with a centralized Oracle database server. It functions as a real-time infrastructure software product intended for the management of low-latency, high-volume data, of events and of transactions.
BerkeleyDB, a simple, high-performance, embedded database
Oracle Rdb, a legacy relational database for the OpenVMS operating-system
MySQL a relational database purchased as part of Oracle Corporation's takeover of its immediate previous owner, Sun Microsystems
Oracle NoSQL Database, a scalable, distributed key-value NoSQL database^[113]

Use

The Oracle RDBMS has had a reputation among novice users as difficult to install on Linux systems.^{[citation needed]} Oracle Corporation has packaged recent^[update] versions for several popular Linux distributions in an attempt to minimize installation challenges beyond the level of technical expertise required to install a database server.^{[citation needed]}

Official support

Users who have Oracle support contracts can use Oracle's "My Oracle Support" or "MOS"^[114] web site - known as "MetaLink" until a re-branding exercise completed in October 2010. The support site provides users of Oracle Corporation products with a repository of reported problems, diagnostic scripts and solutions. It also integrates with the provision of support tools, patches and upgrades.

The Remote Diagnostic Agent or RDA^[115] can operate as a command-line diagnostic tool executing a script. The data captured provides an overview of the Oracle Database environment intended for diagnostic and trouble-shooting. Within RDA, the HCVE (Health Check Validation Engine)^[116] can verify and isolate host system environmental issues that may affect the performance of Oracle software.

Database-related guidelines

Oracle Corporation also endorses certain practices and conventions as enhancing the use of its database products. These include:

Oracle Maximum Availability Architecture (MAA)^[117] guidelines on developing high-availability systems
Optimal Flexible Architecture (OFA), blueprints for mapping Oracle-database objects to file-systems

Oracle Certification Program

The Oracle Certification Program, a professional certification program, includes the administration of Oracle Databases as one of its main certification paths. It contains three levels:

Oracle Certified Associate (OCA)
Oracle Certified Professional (OCP)
Oracle Certified Master (OCM)

User groups

A variety of official (Oracle-sponsored) and unofficial Oracle User Groups has grown up of users and developers of Oracle databases. They include:

Geographical/regional user groups^[118]
Independent Oracle Users Group
Industry-centric user groups
Oracle Technology Network
Oracle Health Sciences User Group
Product-centric user groups
The OakTable Network
Usenet newsgroups

Market position

As of 2013 Oracle holds #1 DBMS market share worldwide based on the revenue share ahead of its four closest competitors - IBM , Microsoft, SAP and Teradata. ^[119]

Competition

In the market for relational databases, Oracle Database competes against commercial products such as IBM's DB2 UDB and Microsoft SQL Server. Oracle and IBM tend to battle for the mid-range database market on UNIX and Linux platforms, while Microsoft dominates the mid-range database market on Microsoft Windows platforms. However, since they share many of the same customers, Oracle and IBM tend to support each other's products in many middleware and application categories (for example: WebSphere, PeopleSoft, and Siebel Systems CRM), and IBM's hardware divisions work closely^{[citation needed]} with Oracle on performance-optimizing server-technologies (for example, Linux on zSeries). The two companies have a relationship perhaps^{[original research?]} best described as "coopetition". Niche commercial competitors include Teradata (in data warehousing and business intelligence), Software AG's ADABAS, Sybase, and IBM's Informix, among many others.

In 2007, competition with SAP AG occasioned litigation from Oracle Corporation.^[120]

Increasingly, the Oracle database products compete against such open-source software relational database systems as PostgreSQL, Firebird, and MySQL. Oracle acquired Innobase, supplier of the InnoDB codebase to MySQL, in part to compete better against open source alternatives, and acquired Sun Microsystems, owner of MySQL, in 2010. Database products licensed as open source are, by the legal terms of the Open Source Definition, free to distribute and free of royalty or other licensing fees.

Pricing

Oracle Corporation offers term licensing for all Oracle products. It bases the list price for a term-license on a specific percentage of the perpetual license price. Prospective purchasers can obtain licenses based either on the number of processors in their target machines or on the number of potential seats ("named users").^[121]

Enterprise Edition (DB EE): As of July 2010^[update], the database that costs the most per machine-processor among Oracle database editions, at $47,500 per processor. The term "per processor" for Enterprise Edition is defined with respect to physical cores and a processor core multiplier (common processors = 0.5*cores). e.g. An 8-processor, 32-core server using Intel Xeon 56XX CPUs would require 16 processor licenses.^[122]^[123]
Standard Edition (DB SE): Cheaper: it can run on up to four processors but has fewer features than Enterprise Edition—it lacks proper parallelization,^[124] etc.; but remains quite suitable for running medium-sized applications. There are not additional cost for Oracle RAC on the latest Oracle 11g R2 standard edition release.
Standard ONE (DB SE1 or DB SEO): Sells even more cheaply, but remains limited to two CPUs. Standard Edition ONE sells on a per-seat basis with a five-user minimum. Oracle Corporation usually sells the licenses with an extra 22% cost for support and upgrades (access to My Oracle Support—Oracle Corporation's support site), which customers must renew annually.
Oracle Express Edition (DB XE) ^[125] (Oracle XE): An addition to the Oracle database product family (beta version released in 2005, production version released in February 2006), offers a free version of the Oracle RDBMS, but one limited to 11 GB of user data and to 1 GB of memory used by the database (SGA+PGA).^[126] XE will use no more than one CPU and lacks an internal JVM. XE runs only on 32-bit Windows and 64-bit Linux, but not on AIX, Solaris, HP-UX and the other operating systems available for other editions. Support is via a free Oracle Discussion Forum only.

As computers running Oracle often have many multi-core processors (resulting in many cores, all to be licensed), the software price can rise into the hundreds of thousands of dollars. The total cost of ownership often exceeds this, as large Oracle installations usually require experienced and trained database administrators to do the set-up properly. Furthermore, further components must be licensed and paid for, for instance the Enterprise Options used with the databases. Many licensing pitfalls let even rise the costs of ownership.^[127] Because of the product's large installed base and available training courses, Oracle specialists in some areas have become a more abundant resource than those for more exotic databases. Oracle frequently provides special training offers for database-administrators.

On Linux, Oracle's certified configurations include Oracle's own Oracle Linux and other commercial Linux distributions (Red Hat Enterprise Linux 3, 4 and 5, SuSE SLES 8, 9, 10 and 11, Asianux), which can cost in a range from a few hundred to a few thousand USD per year (depending on processor architecture and the support package purchased).

The Oracle database system can also install and run on freely available Linux distributions such as the Red Hat-based CentOS,^[128] or Debian-based systems.^[129]

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^ Debes, Norbert (2009). Secrets of the Oracle Database. Apress series. Apress. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-4302-1952-1. Retrieved 2 May 2011. The job queue is handled by the job queue coordinator process CJQ0 and job queue slave processes (JNNN). {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)
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^ Oracle database options
^ Alapati, Sam R.; Charles Kim (2007). Oracle database 11g: new features for DBAs and developers. Expert's voice in Oracle. Apress. p. 602. ISBN 978-1-59059-910-5. Retrieved 10 May 2011.
^ Adkoli, Anand; Rama Velpuri (2002). Oracle9i for Windows handbook. Oracle Press Series (2 ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-07-219092-2. Retrieved 26 January 2011. Oracle Change Management Pack[:] A new feature available on Oracle9i allows you to track and make changes to database object definitions. You can compare two objects in different schemas or different databases.
^ Choi, Phil (2005). "Oracle Database Change Management Pack". Oracle Enterprise Manager Concepts, 10g Release 2 (10.2). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 26 January 2011. This pack gives database administrators the ability to evaluate, plan for, and implement database schema changes to support new application requirements without error and data loss while minimizing downtime.
^ "Oracle Application Express 4.1". apex.oracle.com. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 9 January 2012. Oracle Application Express is a no-cost option of the Oracle database.
^ "Oracle Multitenant". Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 23 October 2013. A new option for Oracle Database 12c, Oracle Multitenant [...] is supported by a new architecture that allows a multitenant container database to hold many pluggable databases.
^ See download.oracle.com/docs/cd/B28359_01/license.111/b28287/options.htm#CIHBDGAD
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^ Alapati, Sam R. (2005). Expert Oracle database 10g administration. Apress. p. 845. ISBN 978-1-59059-451-3. Retrieved 25 May 2009. ... ASH records very recent session activity (within the last five or ten minutes). {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |nopp=, |lastauthoramp=, |laydate=, |laysummary=, |chapterurl=, and |separator= (help)
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^ Ault, Mike; Liu, Daniel; Tumma, Madhu (2003). Don Burleson (ed.). Oracle Database 10g New Features: Oracle 10g Reference for Advanced Tuning & Administration. Oracle In-Focus series. Rampant TechPress. p. 544. ISBN 978-0-9740716-0-2. Retrieved 16 November 2011. In the fast-start parallel rollback method, the background process SMON [...] rolls back a set of transactions in parallel [...] This feature is particularly useful when a system has transactions that run a long time before committing [...]
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^ Oracle.com
^ "Oracle Product Accessibility Status: Database Server Enterprise Edition". Oracle Corporation. 2 June 2008. Retrieved 14 April 2009.
^ "Oracle Data Provider for .NET". Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 7 May 2009. The Oracle Data Provider for .NET (ODP.NET) features optimized ADO.NET data access to the Oracle database.
^ "Oracle Multimedia". www.oracle.com. Oracle Technology Network. Retrieved 12 December 2013. Oracle Multimedia is a feature that enables Oracle Database to store, manage, and retrieve multimedia data in an integrated manner with other enterprise information.
^ Greenwald, Rick; Stackowiak, Robert; Alam, Maqsood; Bhuller, Mans (2011). Achieving Extreme Performance with Oracle Exadata. Osborne ORACLE Press Series. McGraw-Hill Prof Med/Tech. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-07-175259-6. Retrieved 12 October 2011. The UCP is a Java-basd connection pool that supports JDBC, the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) and Java EE Connector Architecture (JCA) connection types from any middle tier.
^ "Virtual Private Database" appears listed as a feature available as part of Oracle Enterprise Edition in: Manmeet Ahluwalia; et al. (October 2009). "Feature Availability by Edition". Oracle Database Licensing Information 11g Release 2 (11.2). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 9 February 2010. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)
^ Kate, Aniket; Menezes, Bernard; Singh, Ashish (December 2005). "Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on E-Governance, ICEG 2005" (PDF). Lahore: Lahore University of Management Sciences: 156–159. Retrieved 9 February 2010. Oracle's Virtual Private Database (VPD) [...] is a practically implemented model for fine-grained access control wherein one or more security policies are attached to each table and view in the database. These polices are sets of functions coded in PL/SQL, C or Java. A user query that accesses a table or view having a security policy, is dynamically and transparently modified by appending a predicate. This predicate is returned by the policy function for the relation/view and is a function of the user who has fired the query. A secure application context is created for each user at log in. {{cite journal}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Evdoridis, Theodoros; Tzouramanis, Theodoros (2007). "A Generalized Comparison of Open Source and Commercial Database management Systems". In St. Amant, Kirk; Still, Brian (eds.). Handbook of Research on Open Source Software: Technological, Economic, and Social Perspectives. IGI Global research collection. Idea Group Inc (IGI). pp. 294–308. ISBN 9781591408925. Retrieved 20 February 2013. Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward wizard-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.
^ Shaw, John; Dyke, Julian (2006). Pro Oracle Database 10g RAC on Linux: Installation, Administration, and Performance. Expert's Voice in Oracle. Apress. p. 54. ISBN 9781430202141. Retrieved 22 January 2012. The Database Upgrade Assistant (DBUA) is a GUI tool that guides you through the various steps in the upgrade process and configures the database for the target release.
^ Freeman, Robert (2004). Oracle Database 10g New Features. Osborne ORACLE Press Series. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 4. ISBN 9780072229479. Retrieved 22 January 2014. The DBUA is a GUI that is designed for upgrading your Oracle database [...]
^ Iyer, Venkatasubramaniam (August 2006). "9 Oracle Database Java Application Performance". Oracle Database Java Developer's Guide: 10g Release 2 (10.2). et al. Redwood City: Oracle USA, Inc. Retrieved 29 July 2013. Native compilation provides a speed increase ranging from two to ten times the speed of the bytecode interpretation.
^ Kuhn, Darl; Kim, Charles; Lopuz, Bernard (2008). Linux Recipes for Oracle DBAs. Apress Series. Apress. p. 501. ISBN 978-1-4302-1575-2. Retrieved 5 December 2011. OPatch is a collection of Perl scripts and Java classes providing the capability to apply and roll back interim (one-off) patches to an Oracle database environment.
^ Charalambides, Stelios (2013). Oracle SQL Tuning with Oracle SQLTXPLAIN. Apress. p. 1. ISBN 9781430248101. Retrieved 17 June 2013. [...] fast Oracle SQL tuning with SQLTXPLAIN, or SQLT as it is typically called [...]
^ Taft, Darryl K (18 October 2011). "Oracle to Boost Data Management With Endeca Buy". eWeek. Ziff Davis. Retrieved 3 November 2011. Oracle also announced the Oracle NoSQL Database, a distributed, highly scalable, key-value database.
^ Kuhn, Darl; Alapati, Sam; Nanda, Arup (2013). RMAN Recipes for Oracle Database 12c: A Problem-Solution Approach. Expert's voice in Oracle. Apress. p. 534. ISBN 9781430248361. Retrieved 7 July 2014. Search Oracle's My Oracle Support (MOS) web site at http://support.oracle.com.
^ "Advanced MetaLink" (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2009.
^ Rea, Stephen (16 September 2008). "Upgrading Oracle 9.2.0.6 to 10.2.0.3 on AIX 5.2". University of Arkansas. Retrieved 11 August 2009. Run the PreInstall checklist for Oracle 10.2.0 (Metalink Note 250262.1: RDA 4 - Health Check / Validation Engine Guide): The Health Check Validation Engine (HCVE) rule set for Oracle Database 10g R2 (10.2.0) PreInstall (AIX) is described in: Oracle.com {{cite web}}: External link in |quote= (help)
^ "oracle maximum availability architecture News and Other Resources | TechRepublic". Search.techrepublic.com.com. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
^ "Oracle Users Group Groups". Morganslibrary.org. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
^ [1] ("Oracle Market Share")
^ About the case in Hungarian
^ Kreines, David C. (2005). Oracle DBA Pocket Guide. Pocket References Series. O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-596-10049-0. Retrieved 10 August 2010. Oracle products are currently licensed using two different licensing models: Per Named User. [...] Per Processor [...]
^ "Oracle Technology Global Price List" (PDF). Oracle Corporation. 14 June 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
^ "Processor Core Factor Table" (PDF). Retrieved 8 April 2011.
^ Oracle Database Licensing Information Database Editions
^ "overview". Oracle.com. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
^ Licensing Restrictions
^ "Top 60 Licensing Pitfalls for Oracle Databases and Oracle Technology Products". OMTCO Operations Management Technology Consulting GmbH. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
^ "Installation centos; official Oracle Wiki". Wiki.oracle.com. Retrieved 19 December 2009.
^ "Installation on Debian-based systems; official Oracle Wiki". Wiki.oracle.com. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

Bibliography

Loney, Kevin (17 December 2008). "Oracle Database 11g The Complete Reference" (1st ed.). McGraw-Hill: 1368. ISBN 0-07-159875-8. Retrieved 5 September 2009. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

External links

[1] Lextrait, Vincent (January 2010). "The Programming Languages Beacon, v10.0". Retrieved 14 March 2010.

[2] "What's New". Retrieved 29 November 2010.

[3] "Welcome to Larryland". Guardian. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[4] Bhakthavatsalam, Namrata (August 2008). "Glossary". Oracle Database Client quote = The SID automatically defaults to the database name portion of the global database name (sales in the example sales.us.example.com) until you reach eight characters or enter a period. You can accept or change the default value. Retrieved 17 November 2008. {{cite web}}: Missing pipe in: |work= (help)

[5] McLaughlin, Michael (2011). Oracle Database 11g & MySQL 5.6 Developer Handbook. Osborne Oracle Press. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 11. ISBN 9780071768856. Retrieved 4 June 2012. The set of programs also lets you start a database instance. They allocate a shared memory realm where other programs process SQL statements. This shared memory realm is the active database instance.

[6] Alapati, Sam R. (2008). Expert Oracle Database 11g Administration. The expert's voice in Oracle. Apress. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4302-1015-3. Retrieved 7 July 2010. Oracle databases are logically divided into one or more tablespaces. An Oracle tablespace is a logical entity that contains the physical datafiles.

[7] Ashdown, Lance; Kyte, Tom (2011). "Oracle Database Concepts: 11g Release 2 (11.2)". Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 12 July 2013. You can use tablespaces to achieve the following goals: [...] Assign a quota (space allowance or limit) to a database user [...]

[8] Alapati, Sam R. (2004). OCP Oracle Database 10g: New Features for Administrators Exam Guide. McGraw-Hill/Osborne. p. 287. ISBN 0-07-225862-4.

[9] Oracle Corporation, Oracle Database Concepts 11g Release 1 (11.2), http://download.oracle.com/docs/cd/E11882_01/server.112/e25789/glossary.htm#CHDDFGEC, 2011

[10] Watkins, Bob (30 January 2007). "Look inside ASM disk groups with Oracle 10gR2's ASMCMD". techrepublic.com. ZDNet. Retrieved 30 July 2009. In 10g, Oracle introduced a new kind of storage for its database product. Automatic Storage Management (ASM) is a logical volume manager that takes physical disk partitions and manages their contents [...] Until ASM, there were only two choices: file system storage and raw disk storage.

[11] Oracle FAQ

[12] "Known schemas in Oracle". Adp-gmbh.ch. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[13] "11g Default Schema". ABCdba.com. Retrieved 26 October 2010.

[14] "Optimizer plan stability definition". Adp-gmbh.ch. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[15] "Oracle's sample schemas". Adp-gmbh.ch. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[16] "Oracle Architecture, System Global Area". World-class-programme.com. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

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[19] "Oracle Architecture, data dictionary cache". World-class-programme.com. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[20] "Oracle architecture, Program Global Area section". World-class-programme.com. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[21] PGA Definition, Oracle Database Master Glossary

[22] Bell, Mike (2002). "V$ views - don't leave $HOME without them" (PDF). New York Oracle users Group. pp. 9–10. Retrieved 9 March 2010. X$ tables are fixed tables created in memory at database startup [...] V$ views are created on one or more X$ tables

[23] Tony, Morales; et al. (October 2009). "Overview of the Dynamic Performance Views" (PDF). Oracle Database Reference 11g Release 2 (11.2). Oracle Corporation. pp. 8–1. Retrieved 9 March 2010. V$INDEXED_FIXED_COLUMN displays the columns in dynamic performance tables that are indexed (X$ tables). {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help) ^{[dead link]}

[24] "Oracle Process architecture concepts". Download.oracle.com. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[25] Antognini, Christian (2008). Troubleshooting Oracle Performance. Apress Series. Apress. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-59059-917-4. Retrieved 5 May 2011.

[26] Carpenter, Larry (2009). Oracle Data Guard 11g Handbook. et al. Oracle Press. p. 173. ISBN 978-0-07-162111-3. Data Guard Monitor (DMON)[:] This Broker-controller process is the main Broker process and is responsible for coordinating all Broker actions as well as maintaining the Broker configuration files. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)

[27] Debes, Norbert (2009). Secrets of the Oracle Database. Apress series. Apress. p. 173. ISBN 978-1-4302-1952-1. Retrieved 2 May 2011. The job queue is handled by the job queue coordinator process CJQ0 and job queue slave processes (JNNN). {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |chapterurl= (help)

[28] Safaribooksonline.com Niemiec, Richard (25 June 2007). "1.30. New Background Processes in 10g". Oracle Database 10g Performance Tuning: Tips & Techniques. Oracle Press. p. 967. ISBN 978-0-07-226305-3. Retrieved 12 August 2009. MMON Memory Monitor process is associated with the Automatic Workload Repository new features used for automatic problem detection and self-tuning. MMON writes out the required statistics for AWR on a scheduled basis. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |nopp=, |lastauthoramp=, |laydate=, |chapterurl=, |laysummary=, and |separator= (help)

[29] Safaribooksonline.comNiemiec, Richard (25 June 2007). "1.30. New Background Processes in 10g". Oracle Database 10g Performance Tuning: Tips & Techniques. Oracle Press. p. 967. ISBN 978-0-07-226305-3. Retrieved 12 August 2009. M000 These are MMON background slave (m000) processes. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |nopp=, |lastauthoramp=, |laydate=, |chapterurl=, |laysummary=, and |separator= (help)

[30] Dyke, Julian; Steve Shaw (2006). Pro Oracle database 10g RAC on Linux: installation, administration, and performance. Apress Series. Apress. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-59059-524-4. Retrieved 5 May 2011. In Oracle 10.1, a queue monitor coordinator (QMNC) process [...] dynamically spawns queue monitor slaves (q000 to q009).

[31] Vallath, Murali (2006). Oracle 10g RAC Grid, Services & Clustering. Digital Press. p. 467. ISBN 9780080492032. Retrieved 14 April 2014. Redo data transmitted from the primary database is received by the remote file server (RFS) process on the standby system, where the RFS process writes the redo data to archived log files or standby redo log files.

[32] Cyran, Michele; Paul Lane (2005). "Process Architecture". Oracle Database Concepts. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 13 August 2008. When a user runs an application program (such as a Pro*C program) or an Oracle tool (such as Enterprise Manager or SQL*Plus), Oracle creates a user process to run the user's application.

[33] Cyran, Michele; Paul Lane (2005). "Process Architecture". Oracle Database Concepts. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 13 August 2008. A connection is a communication pathway between a user process and an Oracle instance.

[34] Cyran, Michele; Paul Lane (2005). "Process Architecture". Oracle Database Concepts. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 13 August 2008. A session is a specific connection of a user to an Oracle instance through a user process

[35] Morales, Tony (2008). "V$SESSION". Oracle Database Reference 11g Release 1 (11.1). Oracle. Retrieved 17 November 2008.

[36] Chan, Immanuel (July 2008). "Glossary". Oracle Database Performance Tuning Guide 11g Release 1 (11.1). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 29 April 2009. enqueue[:] This is another term for a lock.

[37] "Oracle Database Master Glossary: 11g Release 1 (11.1)". Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 24 April 2009. latch[:] A simple, low-level serialization mechanism to protect shared data structures in the System Global Area.

[38] Strohm, Richard; et al. (October 2008). "Parameter Files". Oracle Database Concepts 11g Release 1 (11.1). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2009. Parameter files contain a list of configuration parameters for that instance and database. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)

[39] Strohm, Richard; et al. (October 2008). "Initialization Parameter Files and Server Parameter Files". Oracle Database Concepts 11g Release 1 (11.1). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2009. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)

[40] Morales, Tony; et al. (April 2009). "V$PARAMETER". Oracle Database Reference 11g Release 1 (11.1). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2009. V$PARAMETER displays information about the initialization parameters that are currently in effect for the session. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)

[41] Morales, Tony; et al. (April 2009). "V$SPPARAMETER". Oracle Database Reference 11g Release 1 (11.1). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 14 July 2009. V$SPPARAMETER displays information about the contents of the server parameter file. {{cite web}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)

[42] Bryla, Bob; Thomas, Biju (2006). OCP: Oracle 10g New Features for Administrators Study Guide: Exam 1Z0-040. John Wiley & Sons. p. 95. ISBN 9780782150858. Retrieved 10 October 2013. Oracle 10g includes a [...] scheduling mechanism to automate routine tasks. [...] It is a collection of procedures and functions in the DBMS_SCHEDULER package. The earlier versions of Oracle included the DBMS_JOB program to schedule jobs; this utility is still available in Oracle 10g.

[43] Ingram, Geoff (2002). High-Performance Oracle: Proven Methods for Achieving Optimum Performance and Availability. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 354–355. ISBN 9780471430346. Retrieved 15 January 2014. Oracle Resource Manager is [...] designed to ensure that CPU resources can be allocated fairly between groups of users on a single instance [...]

[44] Lungu, Ion; Vătuiu, Teodora (2008). Bolunduţ, Ioan-Lucian (ed.). "Manageability comparison: Oracle Database 10g and Oracle9i Database" (PDF). Annals of the University of Petroşani, Economics. 8 (1). Petroşani, Romania: Universitas Publishing House: 295-300. ISSN 1582-5949. Retrieved 6 March 2014. [...] we performed a basic and common DBA tasks on the two products and measured the time taken and the steps required to complete each task, to assess their relative manageability.

[titleLocale_Data-45] "Locale Languages". Retrieved 26 February 2008.

[titleMessages_Data-46] "Error Message Languages". Retrieved 26 February 2008.

[47] Arju, Md. Abdul; et al. (November 2010). "A complete RMAN shell script backup for Oracle 8i, 9i, 10g, 11g". A complete RMAN shell script backup for Oracle 8i, 9i, 10g, 11g. Md.Abdul Arju. Retrieved 7 November 2010. A complete RMAN backup shell script that will work regardless of most used oracle version as well as most used unix operating system. In this script it is assumed that you are using recovery catalog for you rman backup. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dateformat= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)

[48] Shea, Cathy; et al. (September 2007). "Overview of Globalization Support". Oracle Database Globalization Support Guide 11g Release 1 (11.1). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 16 February 2009. In the past, Oracle referred to globalization support capabilities as National Language Support (NLS) features. NLS is actually a subset of globalization support. NLS is the ability to choose a national language and store data in a specific character set. Globalization support enables you to develop multilingual applications and software products that can be accessed and run from anywhere in the world simultaneously. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dateformat= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)

[49] ttp://www.oracle.com/us/corporate/profit/p27anniv-timeline-151918.pdf

[50] As Larry Ellison said in an Oracle OpenWorld keynote presentation on 11 November 2007: "Who'd buy a version 1.0 from four guys in California?"

[autogenerated2-51] Oracle.com

[52] "Oracle Timeline". Retrieved 21 March 2013. Oracle Version 4 is released with a new feature called "read consistency," which assures that a query will have a consistent set of data during execution.

[webster19841113-53] Webster, Robin (13 November 1984). "PC Relational Database? New Answer Is Oracle". PC Magazine. p. 57. Retrieved 25 October 2013.

[54] Compare Oracle.com

[55] Harrison, Guy (2001). Oracle SQL high-performance tuning. Prentice Hall PTR Oracle series (2 ed.). Prentice Hall PTR. p. 630. ISBN 978-0-13-012381-7. Retrieved 20 January 2011. Aurora[:] The name of the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) incorporated into Oracle8i.

[56] Gennick, Jonathan (2004). Oracle SQL*Plus: The Definitive Guide. Definitive Guides (2 ed.). O'Reilly Media, Inc. p. 592. ISBN 9780596007461. Retrieved 3 August 2012. iSQL*Plus was expanded to most other operating systems in 2002 with the release of Oracle 9i Database Release 2.

[57] "Oracle Database 10g Sets New Record for TPC-H Three TB Benchmark". Retrieved 31 January 2008.

[58] "Oracle Announces General Availability of Oracle Database 12c, the First Database Designed for the Cloud" (Press release). Redwood Shores, California: Oracle Corporation. 1 July 2013. Retrieved 9 September 2013. Oracle Database 12c is a next-generation database [...] providing a new multitenant architecture on top of a fast, scalable, reliable, and secure database platform.

[59] Baransel, Emre (2013). Oracle Data Guard 11gR2 Administration Beginner's Guide. Packt Publishing Ltd. ISBN 9781849687911. Retrieved 15 January 2014. You should not get confused between Critical Patch Update (CPU) and Security Patch Update (SPU) as CPU terminology has been changed to SPU from October 2012.

[theregister.co.uk-60] theregister.co.uk: Oracle gears up for infrastructure cloud and 12c database launches • The Register

[61] Llewellyn, Bryn (July 2009). "Edition-Based Redefinition" (PDF). Redwood Shores, California: Oracle Corporation. p. 45. Retrieved 9 March 2010. An edition is a [...] nonschema object type, uniquely identified [...] by just its name.

[62] Enterprise Edition

[63] Standard Edition

[64] Standard Edition One

[65] Teodora, Vatuiu (27 December 2008). "Technologies solutions and Oracle instruments used in the accomplishment of executive informatics systems (EIS)" (PDF). MPRA: Munich Personal RePEc Archive. pp. 1555–1559. Retrieved 9 May 2011. Oracle Database 10g Standard Edition One (SE1) is intended for business mediums with quite a low request of adaptation[...]

[66] "Oracle Database 10g Express Edition". Oracle Technology Network. Oracle Corp. Retrieved 25 July 2010. Oracle Database 10g Express Edition (Oracle Database XE) is an entry-level, small-footprint database based on the Oracle Database 10g Release 2 code base that's free to develop, deploy, and distribute [...]

[67] "Oracle Express Edition". Retrieved 21 February 2013. [...] this topic uses Oracle® 10g Express Edition. [...] User data cannot exceed 4 gigabytes in size (in addition to Oracle system data).

[68] "Oracle Data Sheet" (PDF). Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[69] Niemiec, Richard (2012). Oracle Database 11g Release 2 Performance Tuning Tips & Techniques. Osborne Oracle Press. McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 47. ISBN 9780071780261. Retrieved 20 February 2013. [...] Oracle 11g Express Edition Released (September 24, 2011).

[70] Kanaracus, Chris (4 April 2011). "Oracle releases beta for Express Edition of 11g database". Computerworld. Computerworld Inc. Retrieved 21 February 2013. [...] no more than 11 GB of user data can be placed in an XE database, and it can use no more than 1 GB of RAM [...]

[71] Aust, Dietmar; Kubicek, Denes; Pokolm, Jens-Christian (2010). Oracle APEX und Oracle XE in der Praxis (in German). Hüthig Jehle Rehm. p. 295. ISBN 9783826655494. Retrieved 3 July 2014. Java in der Databank (nicht von Oracle XE unterstutzt) [...] Java-Klassen oder auch komplette Bibliotheken koennen in der Databank mit dem Kommando loadjava installiert werden. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |trans_title= ignored (|trans-title= suggested) (help)

[72] "Oracle Database Lite 10g". oracle.com. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 23 June 2009. [...] for developing, deploying and managing applications for mobile and embedded environments.

[73] Greenwald, Rick; Stackowiak, Robert; Stern, Jonathan (2007). Oracle Essentials: Oracle Database 11g. Essential Series (4 ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-596-51454-9. Retrieved 8 June 2010. Today, Oracle offers other embedded databases including TimesTen, Berkeley DB, and Oracle Database Lite.

[74] Oracle Database Online Documentation 11g Release 2 (11.2)

[75] "Oracle Rdb and Oracle Database on OpenVMS Product Update" (PDF). Kevin Duffy, Senior Director of Software Development, Oracle Corporation. Retrieved November 2012. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

[76] Martin, Christopher (2011). "Hybrid Columnar Compression And Oracle Storage" (PDF). Oracle Corporation. p. 1. Retrieved 7 February 2013. Oracle Database Hybrid Columnar Compression is included at no extra cost with the Sun ZFS Storage Appliance and Pillar Axiom Storage System [...] Oracle's Hybrid Columnar Compression technology [...] utilizes a combination of both row and columnar methods for storing data. This approach [...] achieves the compression benefits of columnar storage, while avoiding the performance shortfalls of a pure columnar format.

[77] "Oracle and Secerno". Oracle Corporation. 2010. Retrieved 18 October 2010. Secerno product[:] Oracle Database Firewall

[78] "Oracle Database Fiorewall: Frequently Asked Questions". Oracle Technology Network. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 28 March 2011. It is designed to prevent SQL Injection attacks [...] It is [...] deployed on the network to monitor and secures database traffic coming through the network.

[79] Oracle database options

[80] Alapati, Sam R.; Charles Kim (2007). Oracle database 11g: new features for DBAs and developers. Expert's voice in Oracle. Apress. p. 602. ISBN 978-1-59059-910-5. Retrieved 10 May 2011.

[81] Adkoli, Anand; Rama Velpuri (2002). Oracle9i for Windows handbook. Oracle Press Series (2 ed.). McGraw-Hill Professional. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-07-219092-2. Retrieved 26 January 2011. Oracle Change Management Pack[:] A new feature available on Oracle9i allows you to track and make changes to database object definitions. You can compare two objects in different schemas or different databases.

[82] Choi, Phil (2005). "Oracle Database Change Management Pack". Oracle Enterprise Manager Concepts, 10g Release 2 (10.2). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 26 January 2011. This pack gives database administrators the ability to evaluate, plan for, and implement database schema changes to support new application requirements without error and data loss while minimizing downtime.

[83] "Oracle Application Express 4.1". apex.oracle.com. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 9 January 2012. Oracle Application Express is a no-cost option of the Oracle database.

[84] "Oracle Multitenant". Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 23 October 2013. A new option for Oracle Database 12c, Oracle Multitenant [...] is supported by a new architecture that allows a multitenant container database to hold many pluggable databases.

[85] See download.oracle.com/docs/cd/B28359_01/license.111/b28287/options.htm#CIHBDGAD

[86] "Real Application Testing Overview" (PDF). Oracle Corporation. August 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2008.

[87] Shaharear, Mohammad Hasan; et al. (December 2008). "installation of Oracle Text on 10g". installation of Oracle Text on 10g. Mohammad Hasan Shaharear. Retrieved 8 December 2011. installation of Oracle Text on 10g {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dateformat= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author2= (help)

[88] See "Term licenses" at http://oraclestore.oracle.com/ for various markets/countries.

[89] "The Licensing Of Oracle Technology Products". OMT-CO Operations Management Technology Consulting GmbH. Retrieved 26 June 2013.

[90] "Oracle Programmer/2000" (PDF). Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 25 February 2009. Oracle Programmer/2000 is a suite of programmatic interfaces that allows you to access and manipulate Oracle7 data and schemas. Programmer/2000 provides a rich set of interfaces and supports many programming languages, allowing the programmer to use the programming language and the programming paradigm of choice. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dateformat= (help)

[91] "Other Ways of Working with Oracle". Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 25 February 2009. Programmer/2000[:] a set of 3GL programming language interfaces {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |dateformat= (help)

[92] Desbiens, Frédéric; Peter Moskovits; Philipp Weckerle (2009). Oracle WebCenter 11g Handbook: Build Rich, Customizable Enterprise 2.0 Applications. Osborne ORACLE Press Series. McGraw Hill Professional. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-07-162932-4. Retrieved 9 May 2011. Oracle WebCenter Suite includes Content Server [...] {{cite book}}: Invalid |nopp=498 (help); Unknown parameter |nopp= ignored (|no-pp= suggested) (help)

[93] Alapati, Sam R. (2005). Expert Oracle database 10g administration. Apress. p. 845. ISBN 978-1-59059-451-3. Retrieved 25 May 2009. ... ASH records very recent session activity (within the last five or ten minutes). {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |nopp=, |lastauthoramp=, |laydate=, |laysummary=, |chapterurl=, and |separator= (help)

[94] Sai Peck lee; Džemal Zildžić (2006). "Oracle Database Workload Performance Measurement and Tuning Toolkit". Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology. 3: 371–381. Retrieved 5 February 2010. Statspack utility consists of a set of Programming Language/Structured Query Language (PL/SQL) scripts, executed against the database to gather, store data and metrics, and generate reports database activity reports

[95] "Overview of Oracle Data Pump". Download.oracle.com. Retrieved 19 December 2009.

[96] Greenwald, Rick; Robert Stackowiak; Jonathan Stern (November 2007). Oracle Essentials: Oracle Database 11g. O'Reilly. p. 184. ISBN 978-0-596-51454-9. The Database Resource Manager (DRM) was first introduced in Oracle 8i [...] to place limits on the amount of computer resources that can be used [...] {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |origmonth= and |chapterurl= (help)

[97] Ault, Mike; Liu, Daniel; Tumma, Madhu (2003). Don Burleson (ed.). Oracle Database 10g New Features: Oracle 10g Reference for Advanced Tuning & Administration. Oracle In-Focus series. Rampant TechPress. p. 544. ISBN 978-0-9740716-0-2. Retrieved 16 November 2011. In the fast-start parallel rollback method, the background process SMON [...] rolls back a set of transactions in parallel [...] This feature is particularly useful when a system has transactions that run a long time before committing [...]

[98] "Feature Availability by Edition". Oracle Database Licensing Information 11g Release 1 (11.1) Part Number B28287-08. Oracle Corporation. May 2008. Retrieved 19 August 2008.

[99] Nanda, Arup. "Auditing Tells All". Oracle Database 10g: The Top 20 Features for DBAs. Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 19 August 2008. ...the standard audit (available in all versions) and the fine-grained audit (available in Oracle 9i and up ...

[100] Oracle.com

[101] "Oracle Product Accessibility Status: Database Server Enterprise Edition". Oracle Corporation. 2 June 2008. Retrieved 14 April 2009.

[102] "Oracle Data Provider for .NET". Oracle Corporation. Retrieved 7 May 2009. The Oracle Data Provider for .NET (ODP.NET) features optimized ADO.NET data access to the Oracle database.

[103] "Oracle Multimedia". www.oracle.com. Oracle Technology Network. Retrieved 12 December 2013. Oracle Multimedia is a feature that enables Oracle Database to store, manage, and retrieve multimedia data in an integrated manner with other enterprise information.

[104] Greenwald, Rick; Stackowiak, Robert; Alam, Maqsood; Bhuller, Mans (2011). Achieving Extreme Performance with Oracle Exadata. Osborne ORACLE Press Series. McGraw-Hill Prof Med/Tech. p. 432. ISBN 978-0-07-175259-6. Retrieved 12 October 2011. The UCP is a Java-basd connection pool that supports JDBC, the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) and Java EE Connector Architecture (JCA) connection types from any middle tier.

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[106] Kate, Aniket; Menezes, Bernard; Singh, Ashish (December 2005). "Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on E-Governance, ICEG 2005" (PDF). Lahore: Lahore University of Management Sciences: 156–159. Retrieved 9 February 2010. Oracle's Virtual Private Database (VPD) [...] is a practically implemented model for fine-grained access control wherein one or more security policies are attached to each table and view in the database. These polices are sets of functions coded in PL/SQL, C or Java. A user query that accesses a table or view having a security policy, is dynamically and transparently modified by appending a predicate. This predicate is returned by the policy function for the relation/view and is a function of the user who has fired the query. A secure application context is created for each user at log in. {{cite journal}}: |contribution= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[107] Evdoridis, Theodoros; Tzouramanis, Theodoros (2007). "A Generalized Comparison of Open Source and Commercial Database management Systems". In St. Amant, Kirk; Still, Brian (eds.). Handbook of Research on Open Source Software: Technological, Economic, and Social Perspectives. IGI Global research collection. Idea Group Inc (IGI). pp. 294–308. ISBN 9781591408925. Retrieved 20 February 2013. Oracle Corporation has started a drive toward wizard-driven environments with a view to enabling non-programmers to produce simple data-driven applications.

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v t e Database management systems
Types	Object-oriented comparison Relational list comparison Key–value Column-oriented list Document-oriented Wide-column store Graph NoSQL NewSQL In-memory list Multi-model comparison Cloud Blockchain-based database
Concepts	Database ACID Armstrong's axioms Codd's 12 rules CAP theorem CRUD Null Candidate key Foreign key Superkey Surrogate key Unique key
Objects	Relation table column row View Transaction Transaction log Trigger Index Stored procedure Cursor Partition
Components	Concurrency control Data dictionary JDBC XQJ ODBC Query language Query optimizer Query rewriting system Query plan
Functions	Administration Query optimization Replication Sharding
Related topics	Database models Database normalization Database storage Distributed database Federated database system Referential integrity Relational algebra Relational calculus Relational model Object–relational database Transaction processing
Category Outline WikiProject