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===Middle East===
===Middle East===
{{unreferenced}}
The New York Times reported that according to former U.S. intelligence officials, the CIA orchestrated a bomb and sabotage campaign with some of the many Iraqi resistance groups against [[Baghdad]] that included government targets between 1992 and 1995. No public records of the bombing campaign exist, and the former officials said their recollections were in many cases sketchy, and in some cases contradictory. There were bombing's of civilian targets at the time but the aforementioned agent couldn't recall whether the CIA backed organizations were involved. No civilian deaths could be confirmed. <ref name="NYT">{{cite journal
The New York Times reported that according to former U.S. intelligence officials, the CIA orchestrated a bomb and sabotage campaign with some of the many Iraqi resistance groups against [[Baghdad]] that included government targets between 1992 and 1995. No public records of the bombing campaign exist, and the former officials said their recollections were in many cases sketchy, and in some cases contradictory. There were bombing's of civilian targets at the time but the aforementioned agent couldn't recall whether the CIA backed organizations were involved. No civilian deaths could be confirmed. <ref name="NYT">{{cite journal
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Revision as of 10:19, 9 October 2006

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For other uses, see American terrorism (disambiguation).

Definition and the term American terrorism

Main article: Definition of terrorism

American terrorism is a political neologism meant to negatively characterize a variety of acts allegedly planned or perpetrated by the government of the USA, by its citizens, or proxy agents.

Some of the controversy associated with the term involves disputes over the definition of terrorism, and some with the substance of the allegations. The term's usage (and controversy) appears to have increased in parallel with media coverage of terrorism since the September 11, 2001 attacks and the Bush administration's proclamation of a War on Terrorism, but its usage to refer to lynching dates back to at least 1996.[1]

The United States Department of State maintains a list of states it considers to be supporters of terrorism. Critics have long accused the United States government of also perpetrating or supporting activities which could be defined as terrorism. The US Federal Bureau of Investigation defines a terrorist act as,

The unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.

As prominent 9/11 Scholar for Truth Dr. Daniele Ganser of the ETH Zürich states, the operations directive which set up the CIA falls under this definition.[2] NSC 10/2 states the CIA shall,

Plan and conduct covert operations which are conducted or sponsored by this government against hostile foreign states or groups or in support of friendly foreign states or groups but which are so planned and conducted that any US Government responsibility for them is not evident to unauthorised persons and that if uncovered the US Government can plausibly disclaim any responsibility for them. Covert action shall include any covert activities related to: propaganda; economic warfare; preventive direct action, including sabotage, anti-sabotage, demolition, and evacuation measures; subversion against hostile states, including assistance to underground resistance movements, guerrillas and refugee liberation groups, and support of indigenous anti-Communist elements in threatened countries of the free world.[3]

Dr. Ganser says that his research has also uncovered a Pentagon document, "Field Manual FM 30-31B", detailing the methodology for launching terrorist attacks in nations that "do not react with sufficient effectiveness" against "communist subversion." However, the veracity of this document is in question. Ganser says that according to this manual, the most dangerous moment comes when leftist groups "renounce the use of force" and embrace the democratic process. It is then that "U.S. army intelligence must have the means of launching special operations which will convince Host Country Governments and public opinion of the reality of the insurgent danger." These "special operations must remain strictly secret", the document warns.[4][5] The United States Army asserts that the document is a KGB-produced forgery and that no such field manual actually exists.[6] The existence of a secret "FM30-31A" has been acknowledged, but its contents are classified.[4]

The United Nations has long sought an official definition of terrorism, but has yet to do so. In working out the parameters of such a definition, terrorism expert A. P. Schmid has equated terrorism as the "peacetime equivalent of (a) war crime"[7] Schmid earlier discussed terrorism as

an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets. The immediate human victims of violence are generally chosen randomly (targets of opportunity) or selectively (representative or symbolic targets) from a target population, and serve as message generators. Threat- and violence-based communication processes between terrorist (organization), (imperilled) victims, and main targets are used to manipulate the main target (audience(s)), turning it into a target of terror, a target of demands, or a target of attention, depending on whether intimidation, coercion, or propaganda is primarily sought[7]

The United States has defined terrorism under the Federal Criminal Code. Chapter 113B of Part I of Title 18 of the United States Code defines terrorism and lists the crimes associated with terrorism.[8] In Section 2331 of Chapter 113b, terrorism is defined as:

..activities that involve violent... <or life-threatening acts>... that are a violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any State and... appear to be intended (i) to intimidate or coerce a civilian population; (ii) to influence the policy of a government by intimidation or coercion; or (iii) to affect the conduct of a government by mass destruction, assassination, or kidnapping; and ...<if domestic>...(C) occur primarily within the territorial jurisdiction of the United States...<if international>...(C) occur primarily outside the territorial jurisdiction of the United States..."

Criticism of the term

In any discussion of the proper usage of the term terrorism, identifying a common definition is a difficult and contentious matter.

One 1988 study by the US Army found that over 100 definitions of the word terrorism have been used.[9] That diversity of opinion has not, however, prevented politicians and the media from using the term "terrorism", or intellectuals such as Cornell West and Noam Chomsky from using the term "American terrorism" or associating themselves with it prominently in recent years.[10][11] Writer Gore Vidal has also been noted for his use of this term.

Objections to the use of the term "American terrorism" frequently center around the following points:

  • That renegade operations (like Calley's at My Lai) have always existed and probably will always exist in major military operations.[citation needed]
  • That the U.S. government's record regarding its efforts to minimize civilian casualties in battle zones is more persuasive than that of many other governments.[citation needed]
  • That use of the term terrorism is pejorative hyperbole used imprecisely (and inconsistently) by the far left, Islamists, and proponents of Anti-Americanism to negatively characterize the conduct of the government, culture, or people of the United States (Chomsky in particular has come under heavy criticism for his identification of contemporary American military actions with terrorism.)[12]

Allegations

Latin America

Cuba

Further information: [[:Church Committee]]
Further information: [[:Operation Northwoods]]

Cuban government officials have accused the United States Government of being an accomplice and protector of terrorism against Cuba on many occasions. [13] [14] According to Ricardo Alarcón, President of Cuba’s national assembly "Terrorism and violence, crimes against Cuba, have been part and parcel of U.S. policy for almost half a century.”[15] The claims formed part of Cuba's $181.1 billion lawsuit in 1999 against the United States on behalf of the Cuban people which alleged that for over 40 years, "terrorism has been permanently used by the U.S. as an instrument of its foreign policy against Cuba," and it "became more systematic as a result of the covert action program."[16]

The claims centre around allegations of CIA knowledge and involvement in operations against Cuba from the early Sixties to mid-Seventies, notably the bombing of Cubana Flight 455 in 1976 which killed all 73 people aboard and a series of attacks on tourist sites in the 1990s.[17] The allegations also claim U.S. involvement in the paramilitary group Omega 7, the undercover undercover operation known as Operation 40 and the umbrella group the Coordination of United Revolutionary Organizations. Cuban Counterterrorism investigator Roberto Hernández testified in a Miami court that the bomb attacks were "part of a campaign of terror designed to scare civilians and foreign tourists, harming Cuba's single largest industry."[18] In 2001 Cuban Ambassador to the UN Bruno Rodriguez Pauuilla called for UN General Assembly to address all forms and manifestations of terrorism in every corner of the world, including - without exception - State terrorism. He alleged to the UN General Assembly that 3478 Cubans have died as a result of aggressions and terrorist acts.[19] The Cuban government also asserted that in the 1990s, a total of 68 acts of terrorism were perpetrated against Cuba.[19]

The Cuban Government, its supporters and some outside observers believe that the group Alpha 66, whose former secretary general Andres Nazario acknowledged terrorist attacks on Cuban tourist spots in the 1990s[20] and conducted training sessions at a secluded camp near the Florida Everglades,[21] have been supported by the National Endowment for Democracy, the US International Development Agency and, more directly, the CIA. [22]

The Cubans also believe that Luis Posada Carriles, who alongside Orlando Bosch is accused by the Cuban authorities of organising the terrorist bombing of the aircraft Cubana 455, was recruited by the CIA becoming a trainer of other paramilitary forces in the mid 1960s. On May 18, 2005 The U.S. National Security Archive posted additional documents that claim to show that the CIA had concrete advance intelligence, as early as June 1976, on plans by Posada to bomb the airliner. The archive also alleges that he remained in contact with the CIA until June 1976.[17] When questioned on the matter Posada stated "The FBI and the CIA don't bother me, and I am neutral with them," he said. "Whenever I can help them, I do."[23] The Cuban ambassador to the U.N. claimed that Posada had been "doubly employed by the Government of the U.S." both before and after the bombing of the Cubana aircraft.[19]

In a series of interviews with the New York Times, Posada claimed responsibility for the bombings at hotels and nightclubs in Cuba in 1997 in which an Italian tourist died and scores more were injured. Posada said his activities were directly supported by Jorge Mas Canosa, founder of the Cuban-American National Foundation.[23] In 1998 the Cuban government charged The Cuban American National Foundation, which was founded in 1981 at the initiative of the Reagan administration and receives U.S. government funding [24] with the continued financing of anti-Cuban terrorist activities [25] They also claim that U.S. senator Mel Martinez was meeting with Cuban American terrorists and sponsoring them via CANF.[26] In 2006 a former board member of CANF, Jose Antonio Llama testified that leaders of the foundation had created a paramilitary group to carry out destabilizing acts in Cuba.[27]

The Cuban government have also condemned the U.S. for actions which they describe as "protecting terrorists". These allegations follow a decision in the U.S. to refuse to put on trial or to extradite Luis Posada Carriles, Guillermo Novo Sampol, Pedro Remon, and Gaspar Jimenezand to Cuba or Venezuela, although they are accused of having perpetrated terrorist acts. [28] In an interview in 2001, Ricardo Alarcón stated:"The most quoted phrase by President Bush or ever repeated by him refers to the same idea every time he speaks. "Those who harbor a terrorist are as guilty as the terrorist himself". Agreed!"[29]

Nicaragua

Further information: [[:Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare]]

In 1984 a CIA manual for training the Nicaraguan contras in psychological operations was discovered, entitled "Psychological Operations in Guerrilla War".[30]

The manual recommended “selective use of violence for propagandistic effects” and to “neutralize” government officials. Nicaraguan Contras were taught to lead:

The manual also recommended:

...selective use of armed force for PSYOP [psychological operations] effect.... Carefully selected, planned targets — judges, police officials, tax collectors, etc. — may be removed for PSYOP effect in a UWOA [unconventional warfare operations area], but extensive precautions must insure that the people “concur” in such an act by thorough explanatory canvassing among the affected populace before and after conduct of the mission.[31]

Middle East

The New York Times reported that according to former U.S. intelligence officials, the CIA orchestrated a bomb and sabotage campaign with some of the many Iraqi resistance groups against Baghdad that included government targets between 1992 and 1995. No public records of the bombing campaign exist, and the former officials said their recollections were in many cases sketchy, and in some cases contradictory. There were bombing's of civilian targets at the time but the aforementioned agent couldn't recall whether the CIA backed organizations were involved. No civilian deaths could be confirmed. [32]

Stephen Kinzer has written that in 1953 agent Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. oversaw Operation Ajax, which involved organised riots and the training of right-wing terrorist groups in a successful effort to overthrow democratically-elected Iranian government of Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh, and reverse the nationalisation of Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later renamed BP). Kinzer says that following the coup, Iran became a US client state under the dictatorship of the Shah until the Iranian Revolution of 1979, when Iran again became a target.[33]

Western Europe

Main article: Operation Gladio

On October 24, 1990 Italian Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti told the Italian Parliament that NATO had long held a covert policy of training partisan in the event of a Soviet Invasion of Western Europe.[34][35][36] Under Operation Gladio the CIA, British MI6 and NATO trained and armed partisan groups in NATO states to fight a guerrilla war if they were captured during a future Soviet Invasion. It has been alleged that these groups and individuals in they were responsible for the strategy of tension in Italy which aimed at impeding the "historic compromise" between the Christian Democracy and the Italian Communist Party (PCI) (including the 1969 Piazza Fontana bombing and the Bologna massacre (1980)) [37][38] [2] political assassinations in Belgium[39], military coups in Greece (1967) and Turkey (1980)[40] and an attempted coup in France (1961)[41]. The supposed aim of this group was to prevent Communist movements in Western Europe gaining power. Some researchers have said that the true aim was to increase the power and control of the United States over Europe.[2][42][43][2]

In 2000, an report from the Italian Left Democrat party, "Gruppo Democratici di Sinistra l'Ulivo", concluded that the strategy of tension had been supported by the United States to "stop the PCI (Communist Party), and to a certain degree also the PSI, from reaching executive power in the country". A report, stated that "Those massacres, those bombs, those military actions had been organised or promoted or supported by men inside Italian state institutions and, as has been discovered more recently, by men linked to the structures of United States intelligence."[44][45]

On November 5, 1990 NATO's spokesman denied any knowledge or involvement with Gladio[46] and has since refused to comment.[2] The US State Department has admitted the existance of Gladio, but denied it has been involved in terrorism.[5]

Court Cases

Nicaragua vs. United States

Main article: Nicaragua vs. United States

The Republic of Nicaragua vs. The United States of America[47] was a case heard in 1986 by the International Court of Justice which found that the United States had violated international law by supporting Contra guerrillas in their war against the Nicaraguan government and by mining Nicaragua's harbors. The Court ruled in Nicaragua's favor, but the United States refused to abide by the Court's decision, on the basis that the court erred in finding that it had jurisdiction to hear the case.[48] The court stated that the United States had been involved in the "unlawful use of force".[49] Author Noam Chomsky argues that:

The World Court considered their case, accepted it, and presented a long judgment, several hundred pages of careful legal and factual analysis that condemned the United States for what it called “unlawful use of force”--which is the judicial way of saying “international terrorism”--ordered the United States to terminate the crime and to pay substantial reparations, many billions of dollars, to the victim.[50]

The ICJ used the Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare CIA manual as evidence in the case.

Yugoslavia v. United States

The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia brought an "unlawful use of force" action in 1999 against the US and other NATO members, in response to NATO bombing in the Kosovo War.[51] The International Court dismissed the case because the US did not recognize the FRY government and did not accept the court's jurisdiction.[52] Similar cases were taken by Yugoslavia against each NATO member state[53]

Other allegations of American terrorism

Institute for Policy Studies scholar Professor Noam Chomsky has referred to the tactics used by agents of the US government and their proxies in their execution of US foreign policy in such countries as Nicaragua, Chile, Costa Rica, Honduras, Argentina, Colombia, Turkey, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia as a form of terrorism from which the term "American terrorism" has been drawn.[54] Chomsky has also described the U.S as "a leading terrorist state." After President Bush began using the term "War on Terrorism," Chomsky stated:

The U.S. is officially committed to what is called "low-intensity warfare."[...] If you read the definition of low-intensity conflict in army manuals and compare it with official definitions of "terrorism" in army manuals, or the U.S. Code, you find they're almost the same.[55]

In an article about Timothy McVeigh, author Gore Vidal cites a 2001 New York Times article entitled "The Future of American Terrorism."[56]

Christianity Today in an article has described organized violence against blacks as "American terrorism."[57]

Among the incidents described by others as terrorism committed by or on behalf of the United States government are those highlighted below.

Reporter after reporter told us that the Oklahoma City bombing by Timothy McVeigh was the worst terrorist attack ever perpetuated on U.S. soil. Either they have very racist definitions of what constitutes terrorism or they are very poorly educated in history! How many remember the massacres at Wounded Knee, at Sand Creek, at the Washita, all carried out by U.S. Army units or by Colorado State militia against First Americans? It is very likely that each of these terrorist attacks resulted in greater numbers of deaths than McVeigh's bombing, but the exact totals will perhaps never be known because many died of exposure afterwards, as at Wounded Knee.[58]

  • U.S. action in Vietnam has been characterised as terrorism. According to An account of American terrorism in Vietnam:

At a time when acts of military aggression perpetrated or planned by the US government are typically justified in the name of fighting "international terrorism," a book has appeared which documents America's role as the organizer of the biggest campaign of terrorism and sabotage since World War II.[59]

  • Representatives of the former Iraqi regime of Saddam Hussein, the Ba'ath Party, describe the current U.S.-led occupation as "American terrorism." In an Associated Press report from 12 November 05, a member of the Jordanian branch of the Ba'ath Party, lawyer Ziad al-Najdawi (who also has ties to Saddam's family) reacts to the death of Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri:

Izzat Ibrahim is a warrior and a militant who graduated from the school of the leader, Saddam Hussein, and both are graduates from the school of the Baath. He died while holding a gun and remained a leader for the resistance and liberation forces, rejecting American terrorism and Persian rule in Iraq"[60]

References

  1. ^ "The Civil Rights Movement". abbeville.com. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
  2. ^ a b c d e Ganser, Daniele. Natos Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe. ISBN 0714656070. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  3. ^ NSC 10/2: National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects, June 18, 1948. Formmerly Top Secret, obtained by Etzold and Gaddis under FOIA rules
  4. ^ a b "Cryptome: Field Manual FM 30-31B". Retrieved 2006-07-30.
  5. ^ a b "Misinformation about "Gladio/Stay Behind" Networks Resurfaces". US Dept of State Official Website, 20 Jan 2006. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
  6. ^ Christopher Andrew. The Sword and The Shield.
  7. ^ a b "Definitions of Terrorism". United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. Retrieved 2006-08-15.
  8. ^ CRIMES AND CRIMINAL PROCEDURE [1]
  9. ^ "Bounding the Global War on Terrorism" (PDF). strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil. Retrieved 2006-07-30. (PDF)
  10. ^ [citation needed]
  11. ^ West, Cornel (May 25, 2001). Race Matters. Beacon Press. ISBN 0807009725. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link) p. vii.
  12. ^ Welch, Matt (2001). "Midweek Perspectives: In wartime, hold the hyperbole The U.S. bombing campaign is not 'terrorism,' but war dissenters are not 'ayatollahs' of anti-Americanism". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  13. ^ The United States is an accomplice and protector of terrorism, states Alarcón Granma News
  14. ^ Terrorism organized and directed by the CIA Granma
  15. ^ http://www.counterpunch.org/landau02192003.html Cuba's View of Bush's War on Terrorism Counterpunch February 19, 2003
  16. ^ Cuba's case against Washington Workers World
  17. ^ a b CIA and FBI Documents Detail Career in International Terrorism; Connection to U.S.
  18. ^ Investigator from Cuba takes stand in spy trial Miami Herald
  19. ^ a b c Cuba Statement to the United Nations 2001 since the Cuban revolution
  20. ^ Alpha 66 says it carried out bomb attacks Cuba solidarity
  21. ^ Anti-Castro Alpha 66 still fighting for Cuba Palm Beach Post Florida
  22. ^ Alpha 66 expands its offices and training camp granma
  23. ^ a b http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/43b/146.htmlPosada "I'll kill Castro if it's the last thing I do" Observer, Sunday 19 July 1998
  24. ^ http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/oig/aireports/i13f0012.pdf
  25. ^ http://www.radiohc.org/Distributions/Radio_Havana_English/.1998/98_aug/rhc-eng-08.14.98 Radio Havana Cuba's news service for Friday, August 14, 1998]
  26. ^ http://granmai.cubaweb.com/ingles/2006/junio/mier28/27escandalo-i.html Scams and scandals among Miami terrorists
  27. ^ http://www.miami.com/mld/miamiherald/news/breaking_news/14873233.htm
  28. ^ Sanchez, Marcela (September 3). "Moral Misstep: Some Terrorists Get a Hero's Welcome". Washington Post. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  29. ^ Interview by Saul Laundau with Ricaro Alarcon 13 February 2003
  30. ^ "Declassified Army and CIA Manuals". Latin American Working Group. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
  31. ^ "Terrorism Debacles in the Reagan Administration". The Future of Freedom Foundation. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
  32. ^ Brinkley, Joel (June 9). "Ex-C.I.A. Aides Say Iraq Leader Helped Agency in 90's Attacks". New York Times. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  33. ^ Kinzer, Stephen (2003). All the Shah's Men: An American Coup and the Roots of Middle East Terror. John Wiley & Sons Inc. 0471265179. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  34. ^ Vulliamy, Ed (1990). "Secret agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of political 'destabilisation'". The Guardian: 12. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  35. ^ Würsten, Felix (2005). "Conference "Nato Secret Armies and P26": The dark side of the West". ETH Life Magazine. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. ^ Richards, Charles (1990). "Gladio is still opening wounds". The Independent: 12. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  37. ^ "Translated from Bologna massacre Association of Victims Italian website". Google.com. Retrieved 2006-07-30.Template:It icon
  38. ^ Floyd, Chris (2005). "Global Eye - Sword Play". The Moscow Times. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  39. ^ Hans Depraetere and Jenny Dierickx, "La Guerre froide en Belgique" ("Cold War in Belgium") (EPO-Dossier, Anvers, 1986) Template:Fr icon
  40. ^ Selahattin Celik, Türkische Konterguerilla. Die Todesmaschinerie (Köln: Mesopotamien Verlag, 1999; see also Olüm Makinasi Türk Kontrgerillasi, 1995), quoting Cuneyit Arcayurek, Coups and the Secret Services, p.190
  41. ^ Pierre Abramovici and Gabriel Périès, La Grande Manipulation, éd. Hachette, 2006
  42. ^ Howells, Tim (November 28). "How our governments use terrorism to control us". The On-Line Journal Special Reports. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  43. ^ Rowse, Arthur E. (January 31). "Gladio: The Secret U.S. War to Subvert Italian Democracy". Independent Media Center. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  44. ^ "US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'". The Guardian. 2000. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  45. ^ Willan, Philip (2001). "Obituary: Paolo Emilio Taviani". The Guardian. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  46. ^ The European, Nov 9th 1990, quoted by Ganser, p25
  47. ^ Official name: Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicar. v. U.S.), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, 1984 ICJ REP. 392 June 27, 1986.
  48. ^ Morrison, Fred L. (January 1987). "Legal Issues in The Nicaragua Opinion". American Journal of International Law. 81: 160–166.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: year (link) "Appraisals of the ICJ's Decision. Nicaragua vs United State (Merits)"
  49. ^ "International Court of Justice Year 1986, 27 June 1986, General list No. 70, paragraphs 251, 252, 157, 158, 233". International Court of Justice. Retrieved 2006-07-30. Large PDF file from the ICJ website
  50. ^ "On the War in Afghanistan Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pervez Hoodbhoy". chomsky.info. Retrieved 2006-07-30.
  51. ^ "Application instituting proceedings Legality of the Use of Force (Yugoslavia v. United States of America)". International Court of Justice. Retrieved 20060730. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  52. ^ "The Court rejects the request for the indication of provisional measures submitted by Yugoslavia and dismisses the case". International Court of Justice press release 99/33 June 2, 1999. Retrieved 20060730. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  53. ^ "List of Contentious Cases by Country (Serbia)". International Court of Justice (Website). Retrieved 20060813. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  54. ^ [citation needed]
  55. ^ Barsamian, David (2001). "The United States is a Leading Terrorist State An Interview with Noam Chomsky". Monthly Review. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  56. ^ Vidal, Gore (2001). "The Meaning of Timothy McVeigh". Vanity Fair. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  57. ^ Clapp, Rodney (2002). "When Tulsa Burned A forgotten episode in American terrorism". Christianity Today. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ^ Forbes, Jack. "McVeigh Terrorist Attack:Part of an Old Tradition?". {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  59. ^ Martin, Patrick (6 June). "An account of American terrorism in Vietnam". World Socialist Web Site. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link) Review of Secret War Against Hanoi by Richard H. Shultz, Jr.
  60. ^ "Web site run by Saddam loyalists says former top deputy has died". Associated Press. 2005. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

Further reading

  • Gareau, Frederick H. (March 2004). State Terrorism and the United States : From Counterinsurgency to the War on Terrorism. Clarity Press. ISBN 0932863396. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)

See also

The phrasing of the following unrelated links reflect the pejoritive use of the term American terrorism:

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