Heqin: Difference between revisions

Heqin
Heqin
Traditional Chinese	和親
Simplified Chinese	和亲
Literal meaning	peace marriage
Hanyu Pinyin
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin	Héqīn
Wade–Giles	Ho-ch‘in

Browse history interactively

← Previous edit Next edit →

Content deleted Content added

VisualWikitext

Inline

Revision as of 17:23, 24 September 2018

Heqin, also known as marriage alliance, refers to the historical practice of Chinese emperors marrying princesses—usually members of minor branches of the royal family—to rulers of neighboring states.^[1] It was often adopted as an appeasement strategy with an enemy state that was too powerful to defeat on the battlefield. The policy was not always effective. It implied an equal diplomatic status between the Chinese emperor and the foreign ruler. As a result, it was controversial and had many critics.^[1]

Lou Jing (Chinese: 娄敬, later granted the royal surname Liu), the architect of the policy, proposed granting the eldest daughter of Emperor Gaozu of Han to the Modu Chanyu of the Xiongnu. His proposal was adopted and implemented with a treaty in 198 BC, following the Battle of Baideng two years prior.^[2]^[3] Wang Zhaojun, of the Han dynasty, and Princess Wencheng, of the Tang dynasty, are among the most famous heqin princesses. Heqin was never again practiced by any Han Chinese dynasty after the Tang.

The 20th-century scholar Wang Tonglin praised heqin for facilitating the "melting of races" in China.^[4]

Han Dynasty

There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han Dynasty.^[5]^[3]

200 BC: Emperor Gaozu of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu. This is the first recorded incidence of heqin marriage in Chinese history.
192 BC: Emperor Hui of Han marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu.
176 BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Modu Chanyu.
174 BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Laoshang Chanyu. She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor.
162 BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Laoshang Chanyu.
160 BC: Emperor Wen of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
156 BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
155 BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
152 BC: Emperor Jing of Han marries a fourth Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
140 BC: Emperor Wu of Han marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain Gunchen Chanyu.
108 BC: Emperor Wu of Han marries Liu Xijun (刘细君) (130 BC–101 BC), daughter of Liu Jian (刘建), Prince of Jiangdu (江都王) (d.121 BC), granddaughter of Prince Yi of Jiangdu, to Liejiaomi, King of Wusun.
103 BC: Emperor Wu of Han marries Liu Jieyou (刘解忧) (121 BC–49 BC) to King Junxumi of Wusun (Liejiaomi's grandson). After Junxumi's death in 93 BC, Princess Jieyou, in accordance with Wusun tradition, married his successor (and younger brother), King Wengguimi. After Wengguimi's death in 60 BC, Princess Jieyou again remarried his successor King Nimi (son of Junximi and a Xiongnu princess).
33 BC: Emperor Yuan of Han marries Wang Zhao Jun (王昭君) (52 BC–15), a lady of the imperial harem, to Xiongnu chieftain Huhanye. After Huhanye's death in 31 BC, she remarried Huhanye's successor (his son by his first wife and thus her stepson) Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu.

Sixteen Kingdoms Period

During the Sixteen Kingdoms period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the Han dynasty in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (ie daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the Sixteen Kingdoms period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.^[5]

Fu Jian (337–385), Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin, married one of his daughters to Yang Ding, ruler of the state of Chouchi.
Fu Deng, Emperor Gao of Former Qin, married his younger sister, Princess Dongping (东平公主) to Qifu Gangui, Prince of Western Qi.
441: Feng Ba, Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan, married his daughter, Princess Lelang (乐浪公主), to Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran.
415: Yao Xing, Emperor Wenhuan of Later Qin, married his daughter, Princess Xiping (西平公主), to Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei. Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands, she was never formally empress, but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan's wife, Consort Yao.
Qifu Chipan, Prince Wenzhao of Western Qin, married his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang's son Juqu Xingguo.
433: Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang, marries his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei. She became Emperor Taiwu's concubine.

Southern and Northern Dynasties

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, China was also divided into many rival states. A complicated system of rivalries and vassalage existed. Heqin marriage was employed as a method to maintain a balance of power or to solidify alliances between states.^[5]

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of heqin marriage.

428: Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei marries his daughter, Princess Shiping (始平公主), to Helian Chang, Emperor of Xia.
437: Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei marries his daughter, Princess Wuwei (武威公主), to Juqu Mujian, Prince Ai of Hexi, last ruler of the state of Northern Liang, whence she is known as Princess Tuoba.
Princess Lanling (兰陵公主), a "princess" of the imperial family of Northern Wei, married the Khagan of the Rouran Khaganate, Yujiulü Anagui.
Princess Qianjin (千金公主), daughter of Yuwen Zhao, Prince of Zhao (赵王宇文招) and a member of the imperial family of Northern Zhou, married Ishbara, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate.
582: Emperor Ming of Western Liang marries his daughter, Princess Xiao, to Yang Guang, Prince of Jin, the second son Emperor Ming's overlord, Emperor Wen of Sui. She is known as Empress Xiao of Sui after his accession to the throne as Emperor Yang of Sui.

Sui Dynasty

With the establishment of the Sui dynasty in 581, China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.^[5]

There were a total of seven instances of heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.

597: Emperor Wen of Sui marries Princess Anyi (安义公主), a Sui "princess", to Yami Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. She was assassinated by Yung Yu- lu in 599
599: Emperor Wen of Sui marries another Sui princess, Princess Yicheng (义成公主), the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman, to Yami, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. After his death in 609, Princess Yicheng, in accordance with the Göktürk custom of levirate marriage, remarried to Yami Qaghan's successor and son (by another wife), Shibi Qaghan. After Shibi Qaghan's death in 619, Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan's successor and younger brother, Chuluo. After the khagan's death in 621, Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to his successor and younger brother, Illig Qaghan, who revolted against Tang China and was captured and killed in 630
Emperor Yang of Sui married Princess Xinyi (信义公主), a Sui "princess", to Heshana Khan, Khagan of the Western Turkish Khaganate.
Emperor Yang of Sui married his youngest daughter, Princess Huainan (淮南公主), to the new heir, Shibi's eldest son, Tuli.
596: Emperor Wen of Sui marries Princess Guanghua (光化公主), a Sui "princess", to Murong Shifu, khagan of Tuyuhun. After Murong Shifu's assassination in 597, Princess Guanghua remarried Murong Shifu's successor and younger brother, Murong Fuyun.
Emperor Yang of Sui married a Sui "princess" to Qu Boya, ruler of the oasis city of Gaochang in the Taklamakan Desert.

Tang Dynasty

During the Tang Dynasty, heqin marriage alliances were aimed primarily at five major states that bordered Tang China: Tuyuhun, the Tibetan Empire, the Khitans and the allied Kumo Xi, the Uyghur Khaganate, and Nanzhao.^[5]

There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:

640: Emperor Taizong of Tang marries Princess Honghua (弘化公主) to Murong Nuohebo, Khan of Tuyuhun.
641: Emperor Taizong of Tang marries Princess Wencheng to Emperor Songtsän Gampo of the Tibetan Empire.
642: Emperor Taizong proposed the marriage of his fifteenth daughter, Princess Xinxing (新兴公主), to Zhenzhu Khan, Khan of Xueyantuo. The heqin was called off.
664: Emperor Gaozong of Tang marries Lady Jincheng (金城县主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (会稽郡王李道恩), to Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子苏度摸末).
664: Emperor Gaozong marries Lady Jinming (金明县主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末).
698: A daughter of Qapaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate marries Wu Zetian's great-nephew Wu Chengsi, Prince of Huaiyang (淮阳王武延秀).
703: A daughter of Qapaghan Khagan marries Crown Prince Li Dan's eldest son Li Chengqi, Prince of Song.
709: Empress Wu Zetian marries her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandson Li Shouli, Prince of Bin, to Emperor Me Agtsom of Tibet
712: Emperor Ruizong of Tang marries his granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his son Li Chengqi, to Qapaghan Khagan
717: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yongle (永乐公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (杨元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (东平王李续, son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji , the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong), to Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the Khitans.
717: Princess Jianghe (交河公主), the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao, 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate, marries Sulu Khan, Khagan of Turgesh.
722: Emperor Xuanzong of Tang marries Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁于).
726: Emperor Xuanzong marries his niece, Princess Donghua (东华公主, surname Chen 陈), to Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固).
726: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Dongguang (东光公主), the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong's first cousin Li Jijiang, Princess Cheng'an (成安公主李季姜) (eighth daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Wei Jie (韦捷), to Li Lusu (李鲁苏), ruler of Kumo Xi.
744: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Heyi (和义公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城县令李参), to Axilan Dagan (阿悉烂达干), King of Ningyuan (宁远国王) in the Fergana Valley.
745: Emperor Xuanzong marries his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (静乐公主, daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明), to Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李怀秀).
745: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (长宁公主, daughter of Emperor Zhongzong of Tang) and Yang Shenjiao (杨慎交), to Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延宠)
756: Princess Pijia (毗伽公主), daughter of Bayanchur, Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, marries Li Chengcai (李承采), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of Li Shouli, Prince of Bin.

There were a total of seventeen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty.

640—690: five instances, to Tuyuhun, and one instance to the Tibetan Empire

710—745: four instances to Khitans, three instances to the Kumo Xi and one instance to the Tibetan Empire

758—821: seven instances to Uyghur Khaganate, including two daughters of the Chinese Emperor, i.e. real princesses, and three of Tiele descent.

883: one occurrence to Nanzhao (second daughter of Emperor Yizong of Tang).

Ming dynasty

The Oirat leader Esen Taishi captured the Chinese Ming dynasty Zhengtong Emperor. Esen Taishi tried to force the Zhengtong Emperor to marry Esen's sister in a heqin marriage^[6] and then placing him back in Beijing with his new wife.^[7]^[8]^[9] The emperor rejected the marriage proposal.^[10]

A Mongol account in the Altan Tobchi said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with a Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner.^[11]

A Mongol girl was given in marriage by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong) to a Han Chinese, Datong Army officer Wang Duo's (Wang To) 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often received Mongol wives.^[12]

Non-Han dynasties and states

Xiongnu

The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General Zhao Xin, the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General Li Ling after he surrendered and defected.^[13]^[14]^[15]^[16] The Yenisei Kirghiz Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.^[17]^[18] Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was Li Guangli who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.^[19]

Northern Wei

The Xianbei Tuoba royal family of Northern Wei started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s.^[20] Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese Liu Song royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,^[21]^[22] Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of Jin dynasty (265–420) royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to Xiao Baoyin 萧宝夤, a member of Southern Qi royalty.^[23] Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei's sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The Liang dynasty ruler Emperor Wu of Liang's son Xiao Zong 蕭綜.^[24]

When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi 司馬楚之 as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong 司馬金龍. Northern Liang Xiongnu King Juqu Mujian's daughter married Sima Jinlong.^[25]

Rouran

The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui's daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei.^[26]^[27]

Turkic Khaganate

The Kingdom of Gaochang was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese^[28]^[29] Qu family which originated from Gansu.^[30] Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.^[31] The Qu family was linked by marriage allianes to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.^[32]^[33]

Uighur Ganzhou Kingdom

The Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.^[34]^[35]^[36]

Kingdom of Khotan

The Chinese Cao family ruling Guiyi Circuit established marriage alliances with the Saka Kingdom of Khotan, with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.^[37]

Liao dynasty

The Khitan Liao dynasty arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao.^[38]^[39]^[40]

Han Chinese Geng family intermarried with the Khitan and the Han 韓 clan provided two of their women as wives to Geng Yanyi and the second one was the mother of Geng Zhixin.^[41] Empress Rende's sister, a member of the Xiao clan, was the mother of Han Chinese General Geng Yanyi.^[42]

Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.^[43] His wife was also known as "Madame Han".^[44] The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.^[45]^[46]

Lý dynasty Vietnam

The Lý dynasty which ruled Dai Viet (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý princess (Lý Chiêu Hoàng) and a member of the Chinese Trần (Chen) clan (Trần Thái Tông), which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own Trần dynasty.^[47]^[48]

A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin and later established the Hồ dynasty which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members, Hồ Quý Ly.^[49]^[50]

Qing dynasty

The Manchu Imperial Aisin Gioro clan practiced marriage alliances with Han Chinese Ming Generals and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu side during the Manchu conquest of China. The Manchu leader Nurhaci married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General Li Yongfang 李永芳 after he surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto 岳托 (Prince Keqin) and Hongtaiji in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.^[51]^[52] Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克, Geng Jimao (Keng Chi-mao), Shang Kexi (Shang K'o-hsi), and Wu Sangui (Wu San-kuei).^[53]

Nurhaci's son Abatai's daughter was married to Li Yongfang.^[54]^[55]^[56]^[57] The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" (三等子爵; sān děng zǐjué) title.^[58] Li Yongfang was the great great great grandfather of Li Shiyao 李侍堯.^[59]^[60]

The "Dolo efu" 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses. Geng Zhongming, a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son Geng Jingmao managed to have both his sons Geng Jingzhong and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the Shunzhi Emperor and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with Prince Abatai's granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and Haoge's (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.^[61] A daughter 和硕柔嘉公主 of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo 岳樂 (Prince An) was wedded to Geng Juzhong 耿聚忠 who was another son of Geng Jingmao.^[62]

The 4th daughter of Kangxi (和硕悫靖公主) was wedded to the son (孫承恩) of the Han Chinese Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) 孫思克.^[63]

Imperial Duke Who Assists the State (宗室輔國公) Aisin Gioro Suyan's (蘇燕) daughter was married to Han Chinese Banner General Nian Gengyao.^[64]^[65]^[66]

Joseon Korea

After the Second Manchu invasion of Korea, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince Dorgon.^[67]^[68]^[69]^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73] In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean Princess Uisun (義順).^[74] She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).^[75] Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.^[76]

Nguyen Lords in Vietnam

The Cambodian King Chey Chettha II married the Vietnamese Nguyễn lord Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên, in 1618.^[77]^[78] In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now Bà Rịa), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially referred to as Sài Gòn, and which later became Ho Chi Minh City.^[79]^[80]

References

Citations

^ ^a ^b Slobodník (2006), p. 268.
^ Di Cosmo (2004), p. 193.
^ ^a ^b Rui Chuanming (芮传明). 古代和亲利弊论 (PDF) (in Chinese). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Bulag (2002), p. 83.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Cui (2005), pp. 631–688.
^ Carlos Rojas (1 April 2011). The Great Wall. Harvard University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-0-674-05880-4.
^ Denis Crispin Twitchett; John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. pp. 326–. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.
^ Ph. De Heer (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. BRILL. pp. 24–. ISBN 90-04-07898-3.
^ History today. 1976. p. 460.
^ Central Asiatic Journal. O. Harrassowitz. 1983. p. 67.
^ Dmitriĭ Dmitrievich Pokotilov (1947). History of the eastern Mongols during the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1634, part. I, translation of the Russian text. Chinese Cultural Studies Research Institute, West China Union University. p. 51.
^ Henry Serruys (1959). Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century. C.I.C.M. p. 75.
^ [1], p. 31.
^ Qian Sima; Burton Watson (January 1993). Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty. Renditions-Columbia University Press. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-0-231-08166-5.
^ Monumenta Serica. H. Vetch. 2004. p. 81.
^ Frederic E. Wakeman (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.
^ Veronika Veit, ed. (2007). The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001. Vol. Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 61. ISBN 3447055375. Retrieved 8 February 2012. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
^ Michael Robert Drompp (2005). Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history. Vol. Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 9004141294. Retrieved 8 February 2012. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)
^ Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) (1992). 秦漢史 [History of Qin and Han]. Wunan Publishing. pp. 557–8. ISBN 978-957-11-0574-1.
^ Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press. pp. 80–. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.
^ Lee (2014).
^ Papers on Far Eastern History. Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. 1983. p. 86.
^ China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
^ Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four. BRILL. 22 September 2014. pp. 1566–. ISBN 978-90-04-27185-2.
^ China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. pp. 18–. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.
^ Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E. M.E. Sharpe. 2007. pp. 316–. ISBN 978-0-7656-4182-3.
^ Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou. After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife.
^ Baij Nath Puri (1987). Buddhism in Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-81-208-0372-5.
^ Charles Eliot; Sir Charles Eliot (1998). Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch. Psychology Press. pp. 206–. ISBN 978-0-7007-0679-2.
^ Marc S. Abramson (31 December 2011). Ethnic Identity in Tang China. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 119–. ISBN 0-8122-0101-9.
^ Roy Andrew Miller (1959). Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty [Chou Shu 50. 10b-17b]: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller. University of California Press. pp. 5–. GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY.
^ Jonathan Karam Skaff (1998). Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640-756). University of Michigan. p. 57.
^ Asia Major. Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica. 1998. p. 87.
^ Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang. BRILL. 7 June 2013. pp. 44–. ISBN 90-04-25233-9.
^ Lilla Russell-Smith (2005). Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. BRILL. pp. 63–. ISBN 90-04-14241-X.
^ Wenjie Duan; Chung Tan (1 January 1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. pp. 189–. ISBN 978-81-7017-313-7.
^ Lilla Russell-Smith (2005). Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. BRILL. pp. 23–. ISBN 90-04-14241-X.
^ Biran 2012, p. 88.
^ Biran 2012, p. 88.
^ Cha 2005, p. 51. [2][3][4]
^ Yang, Shao-yun (2014). "Fan and Han: The Origins and Uses of a Conceptual Dichotomy in Mid-Imperial China, ca. 500-1200". In Fiaschetti, Francesca; Schneider, Julia (eds.). Political Strategies of Identity Building in Non-Han Empires in China. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 22.
^ Orient. Maruzen Company. 2004. p. 41.
^ Orient. Maruzen Company. 2004. p. 41.
^ Hsueh-man Shen; Asia Society; Asia Society. Museum; Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst (Berlin, Germany), Museum Rietberg (1 September 2006). Gilded splendor: treasures of China's Liao Empire (907-1125). 5 continents. p. 106. ISBN 978-88-7439-332-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Jiayao An (1987). Early Chinese Glassware. Millennia. p. 12.
^ http://kt82.zhaoxinpeng.com/view/138019.htm^{[permanent dead link]} https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_
^ Kenneth R. Hall (2008). Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800. Lexington Books. pp. 159–. ISBN 978-0-7391-2835-0. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Ainslie Thomas Embree; Robin Jeanne Lewis (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history. Scribner. p. 190. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ K. W. Taylor (9 May 2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-0-521-87586-8.
^ Kenneth R. Hall (2008). Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800. Lexington Books. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-0-7391-2835-0.
^ Anne Walthall (2008). Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History. University of California Press. pp. 148–. ISBN 978-0-520-25444-2.
^ Frederic Wakeman (1 January 1977). Fall of Imperial China. Simon and Schuster. pp. 79–. ISBN 978-0-02-933680-9.
^ Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press. pp. 179–180. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.
^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-12-03. Retrieved 2018-04-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
^ http://www.fs7000.com/wap/?9179.html^{[permanent dead link]}
^ http://www.75800.com.cn/lx2/pAjRqK/9N6KahmKbgWLa1mRb1iyc_.html
^ https://read01.com/aP055D.html
^ Evelyn S. Rawski (15 November 1998). The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions. University of California Press. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-0-520-92679-0.
^ http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/LI_SHIH-YAO.html
^ http://12103081.wenhua.danyy.com/library1210shtml30810106630060.html
^ FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 1017–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.
^ FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 1018–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.
^ Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.
^ 唐博 (2010). 清朝權臣回憶錄. 遠流出版. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-957-32-6691-4.
^ 施樹祿 (17 May 2012). 世界歷史戰事傳奇. 華志文化. pp. 198–. ISBN 978-986-5936-00-6.
^ "清代第一战神是谁? 年羹尧和岳钟琪谁的成就更高?". 历史网. 7 March 2016. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Frank W. Thackeray; John E. Findling (31 May 2012). Events That Formed the Modern World. ABC-CLIO. pp. 200–. ISBN 978-1-59884-901-1. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Arthur W. Hummel (1991). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644-1912. SMC publ. p. 217. ISBN 978-957-638-066-2. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Library of Congress. Orientalia Division (1943). 清代名人傳略: 1644-1912. 經文書局. p. 217. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 892–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Raymond Stanley Dawson (1972). Imperial China. Hutchinson. p. 275. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Raymond Stanley Dawson (1976). Imperial China. Penguin. p. 306.
^ DORGON
^ 梨大史苑. 梨大史學會. 1968. p. 105. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32
^ Li Ling (1995). Son of Heaven. Chinese Literature Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-7-5071-0288-8. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
^ Mai Thục, Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử, Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa - thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ, Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31-33; Helen Jarvis, Cambodia, Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii.
^ Nghia M. Vo; Chat V. Dang; Hien V. Ho (29 August 2008). The Women of Vietnam. Saigon Arts, Culture & Education Institute Forum. Outskirts Press. ISBN 1-4327-2208-5.
^ Henry Kamm (1998). Cambodia: report from a stricken land. Arcade Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 1-55970-433-0.
^ "Nguyễn Bặc and the Nguyễn". Archived from the original on 13 April 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

Bibliography

Bulag, Uradyn Erden (2002). The Mongols at China's Edge: History and the Politics of National Unity. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-1144-6. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Cui, Mingde (2005). 中国古代和亲史 [History of Heqin in Ancient China] (in Chinese). Beijing: Renmin Chubanshe. ISBN 978-7-01-004828-4. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Di Cosmo, Nicola (2004). Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54382-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Lee, Jen-der (2014), "Crime and Punishment: The Case of Liu Hui in the Wei Shu", Early Medieval China: A Sourcebook, New York: Columbia University Press, pp. 156–165, ISBN 978-0-231-15987-6 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |authormask= ignored (|author-mask= suggested) (help).
Slobodník, Martin (2006). "The Chinese Princess Wencheng in Tibet: A Cultural Intermediary between Facts and Myth". academia.edu. Retrieved 18 October 2014. {{cite web}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)

[FOOTNOTESlobodník2006268-1] Slobodník (2006), p. 268.

[FOOTNOTEDi_Cosmo2004193-2] Di Cosmo (2004), p. 193.

[rui-3] Rui Chuanming (芮传明). 古代和亲利弊论 (PDF) (in Chinese). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 18 October 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[FOOTNOTEBulag200283-4] Bulag (2002), p. 83.

[FOOTNOTECui2005631–688-5] Cui (2005), pp. 631–688.

[Rojas2011-6] Carlos Rojas (1 April 2011). The Great Wall. Harvard University Press. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-0-674-05880-4.

[TwitchettFairbank1978-7] Denis Crispin Twitchett; John King Fairbank (1978). The Cambridge History of China. Cambridge University Press. pp. 326–. ISBN 978-0-521-24332-2.

[Heer1986-8] Ph. De Heer (1986). The Care-taker Emperor: Aspects of the Imperial Institution in Fifteenth-century China as Reflected in the Political History of the Reign of Chu Chʾi-yü. BRILL. pp. 24–. ISBN 90-04-07898-3.

[9] History today. 1976. p. 460.

[10] Central Asiatic Journal. O. Harrassowitz. 1983. p. 67.

[Pokotilov1947-11] Dmitriĭ Dmitrievich Pokotilov (1947). History of the eastern Mongols during the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1634, part. I, translation of the Russian text. Chinese Cultural Studies Research Institute, West China Union University. p. 51.

[Serruys1959-12] Henry Serruys (1959). Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century. C.I.C.M. p. 75.

[13] [1], p. 31.

[SimaWatson1993-14] Qian Sima; Burton Watson (January 1993). Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty. Renditions-Columbia University Press. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-0-231-08166-5.

[15] Monumenta Serica. H. Vetch. 2004. p. 81.

[16] Frederic E. Wakeman (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.

[17] Veronika Veit, ed. (2007). The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001. Vol. Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen (illustrated ed.). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 61. ISBN 3447055375. Retrieved 8 February 2012. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)

[18] Michael Robert Drompp (2005). Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history. Vol. Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library (illustrated ed.). BRILL. p. 126. ISBN 9004141294. Retrieved 8 February 2012. {{cite book}}: |volume= has extra text (help)

[19] Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) (1992). 秦漢史 [History of Qin and Han]. Wunan Publishing. pp. 557–8. ISBN 978-957-11-0574-1.

[Watson1991-20] Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press. pp. 80–. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.

[SwartzCampany2013-21] Lee (2014).

[22] Papers on Far Eastern History. Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History. 1983. p. 86.

[23] China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. pp. 30–. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.

[24] Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four. BRILL. 22 September 2014. pp. 1566–. ISBN 978-90-04-27185-2.

[25] China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD. Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2004. pp. 18–. ISBN 978-1-58839-126-1.

[26] Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E. M.E. Sharpe. 2007. pp. 316–. ISBN 978-0-7656-4182-3.

[27] Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou. After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife.

[Puri1987-28] Baij Nath Puri (1987). Buddhism in Central Asia. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-81-208-0372-5.

[EliotEliot1998-29] Charles Eliot; Sir Charles Eliot (1998). Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch. Psychology Press. pp. 206–. ISBN 978-0-7007-0679-2.

[Abramson2011-30] Marc S. Abramson (31 December 2011). Ethnic Identity in Tang China. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 119–. ISBN 0-8122-0101-9.

[Miller1959-31] Roy Andrew Miller (1959). Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty [Chou Shu 50. 10b-17b]: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller. University of California Press. pp. 5–. GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY.

[Skaff1998-32] Jonathan Karam Skaff (1998). Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640-756). University of Michigan. p. 57.

[33] Asia Major. Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica. 1998. p. 87.

[34] Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang. BRILL. 7 June 2013. pp. 44–. ISBN 90-04-25233-9.

[Russell-Smith2005-35] Lilla Russell-Smith (2005). Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. BRILL. pp. 63–. ISBN 90-04-14241-X.

[DuanTan1994-36] Wenjie Duan; Chung Tan (1 January 1994). Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie. Abhinav Publications. pp. 189–. ISBN 978-81-7017-313-7.

[Russell-Smith2005_2-37] Lilla Russell-Smith (2005). Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries. BRILL. pp. 23–. ISBN 90-04-14241-X.

[38] Biran 2012, p. 88.

[39] Biran 2012, p. 88.

[40] Cha 2005, p. 51. [2][3][4]

[41] Yang, Shao-yun (2014). "Fan and Han: The Origins and Uses of a Conceptual Dichotomy in Mid-Imperial China, ca. 500-1200". In Fiaschetti, Francesca; Schneider, Julia (eds.). Political Strategies of Identity Building in Non-Han Empires in China. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 22.

[42] Orient. Maruzen Company. 2004. p. 41.

[43] Orient. Maruzen Company. 2004. p. 41.

[ShenSociety2006-44] Hsueh-man Shen; Asia Society; Asia Society. Museum; Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst (Berlin, Germany), Museum Rietberg (1 September 2006). Gilded splendor: treasures of China's Liao Empire (907-1125). 5 continents. p. 106. ISBN 978-88-7439-332-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

[An1987-45] Jiayao An (1987). Early Chinese Glassware. Millennia. p. 12.

[46] ttp://kt82.zhaoxinpeng.com/view/138019.htm^{[permanent dead link]} https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_

[Hall2008-47] Kenneth R. Hall (2008). Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800. Lexington Books. pp. 159–. ISBN 978-0-7391-2835-0. Archived from the original on 22 June 2015. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[EmbreeLewis1988-48] Ainslie Thomas Embree; Robin Jeanne Lewis (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history. Scribner. p. 190. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[Taylor2013-49] K. W. Taylor (9 May 2013). A History of the Vietnamese. Cambridge University Press. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-0-521-87586-8.

[Hall2008_2-50] Kenneth R. Hall (2008). Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800. Lexington Books. pp. 161–. ISBN 978-0-7391-2835-0.

[Walthall2008-51] Anne Walthall (2008). Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History. University of California Press. pp. 148–. ISBN 978-0-520-25444-2.

[Wakeman1977-52] Frederic Wakeman (1 January 1977). Fall of Imperial China. Simon and Schuster. pp. 79–. ISBN 978-0-02-933680-9.

[Watson1991_2-53] Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press. pp. 179–180. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.

[54] "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2017-12-03. Retrieved 2018-04-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)

[55] ttp://www.fs7000.com/wap/?9179.html^{[permanent dead link]}

[56] ttp://www.75800.com.cn/lx2/pAjRqK/9N6KahmKbgWLa1mRb1iyc_.html

[57] ttps://read01.com/aP055D.html

[Rawski1998-58] Evelyn S. Rawski (15 November 1998). The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions. University of California Press. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-0-520-92679-0.

[59] ttp://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/LI_SHIH-YAO.html

[60] ttp://12103081.wenhua.danyy.com/library1210shtml30810106630060.html

[JR.1985-61] FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 1017–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.

[JR.1985_2-62] FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 1018–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1.

[Watson1991_3-63] Rubie Sharon Watson (1991). Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society. University of California Press. pp. 179–. ISBN 978-0-520-07124-7.

[唐博2010-64] 唐博 (2010). 清朝權臣回憶錄. 遠流出版. pp. 108–. ISBN 978-957-32-6691-4.

[施樹祿2012-65] 施樹祿 (17 May 2012). 世界歷史戰事傳奇. 華志文化. pp. 198–. ISBN 978-986-5936-00-6.

[66] "清代第一战神是谁? 年羹尧和岳钟琪谁的成就更高?". 历史网. 7 March 2016. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |dead-url= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[ThackerayFindling2012-67] Frank W. Thackeray; John E. Findling (31 May 2012). Events That Formed the Modern World. ABC-CLIO. pp. 200–. ISBN 978-1-59884-901-1. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[Hummel1991-68] Arthur W. Hummel (1991). Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644-1912. SMC publ. p. 217. ISBN 978-957-638-066-2. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[Division1943-69] Library of Congress. Orientalia Division (1943). 清代名人傳略: 1644-1912. 經文書局. p. 217. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[JR.1985_3-70] FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. (1985). The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China. University of California Press. pp. 892–. ISBN 978-0-520-04804-1. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[Dawson1972-71] Raymond Stanley Dawson (1972). Imperial China. Hutchinson. p. 275. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[Dawson1976-72] Raymond Stanley Dawson (1976). Imperial China. Penguin. p. 306.

[73] DORGON

[74] 梨大史苑. 梨大史學會. 1968. p. 105. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[75] ttp://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32

[Ling1995-76] Li Ling (1995). Son of Heaven. Chinese Literature Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-7-5071-0288-8. Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[77] Mai Thục, Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử, Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa - thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ, Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31-33; Helen Jarvis, Cambodia, Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii.

[nghiamvo-1623-78] Nghia M. Vo; Chat V. Dang; Hien V. Ho (29 August 2008). The Women of Vietnam. Saigon Arts, Culture & Education Institute Forum. Outskirts Press. ISBN 1-4327-2208-5.

[kamm-79] Henry Kamm (1998). Cambodia: report from a stricken land. Arcade Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 1-55970-433-0.

[ngbac-80] "Nguyễn Bặc and the Nguyễn". Archived from the original on 13 April 2009. Retrieved 16 June 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]

[17]

[18]

[19]

[20]

[21]

[22]

[23]

[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]

[30]

[31]

[32]

[33]

[34]

[35]

[36]

[37]

[38]

[39]

[40]

[41]

[42]

[43]

[44]

[45]

[46]

[47]

[48]

[49]

[50]

[51]

[52]

[53]

[54]

[55]

[56]

[57]

[58]

[59]

[60]

[61]

[62]

[63]

[64]

[65]

[66]

[67]

[68]

[69]

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

[76]

[77]

[78]

[79]

[80]

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 ==Han Dynasty==
-There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances where foreign rulers force Han Chinese kings to supply Chinese princesses and other Han Chinese women for marriage and filling foreign royal harems during the Han Dynasty.{{sfnb|Cui|2005|pages=631–688}}<ref name=rui/>
+There were a total of fifteen instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Han Dynasty.{{sfnb|Cui|2005|pages=631–688}}<ref name=rui/>
-*200{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Gaozu of Han]] marries off a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Modu Chanyu]].  This is the first recorded incidence of heqin marriage in Chinese history.
+*200{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Gaozu of Han]] marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Modu Chanyu]].  This is the first recorded incidence of heqin marriage in Chinese history.
-*192{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Hui of Han]] marries off another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Modu Chanyu]].
+*192{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Hui of Han]] marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Modu Chanyu]].
-*176{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries off a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Modu Chanyu]].
+*176{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Modu Chanyu]].
-*174{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries off a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Laoshang Chanyu]].  She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor.
+*174{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Laoshang Chanyu]].  She brings a Yan eunuch named Zhonghang Yue with her to be her tutor.
-*162{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries off another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Laoshang Chanyu]].
+*162{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Laoshang Chanyu]].
-*160{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries off a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
+*160{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wen of Han]] marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
-*156{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Jing of Han]] marries off another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
+*156{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Jing of Han]] marries another Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
-*155{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Jing of Han]] marries off a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
+*155{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Jing of Han]] marries a third Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
-*152{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Jing of Han]] marries off a fourth Han "princess"  to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
+*152{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Jing of Han]] marries a fourth Han "princess"  to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
-*140{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wu of Han]] marries off a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
+*140{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wu of Han]] marries a Han "princess" to Xiongnu chieftain [[Gunchen Chanyu]].
-*108{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wu of Han]] marries off Liu Xijun (刘细君) (130 BC–101 BC), daughter of Liu Jian (刘建), Prince of Jiangdu (江都王) (d.121 BC), granddaughter of [[Liu Fei, Prince of Jiangdu|Prince Yi of Jiangdu]], to Liejiaomi, King of [[Wusun]].
+*108{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wu of Han]] marries Liu Xijun (刘细君) (130 BC–101 BC), daughter of Liu Jian (刘建), Prince of Jiangdu (江都王) (d.121 BC), granddaughter of [[Liu Fei, Prince of Jiangdu|Prince Yi of Jiangdu]], to Liejiaomi, King of [[Wusun]].
-*103{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wu of Han]] marries off [[Liu Jieyou]] (刘解忧) (121 BC–49 BC) to non-Chinese King Junxumi of [[Wusun]] (Liejiaomi's grandson).  After Junxumi's death in 93{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}, Princess Jieyou, in accordance with [[Wusun]] tradition, married his successor (and younger brother), King Wengguimi.  After Wengguimi's death in 60{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}, Princess Jieyou again remarried his successor King Nimi (son of Junximi and a Xiongnu princess).
+*103{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Wu of Han]] marries [[Liu Jieyou]] (刘解忧) (121 BC–49 BC) to King Junxumi of [[Wusun]] (Liejiaomi's grandson).  After Junxumi's death in 93{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}, Princess Jieyou, in accordance with [[Wusun]] tradition, married his successor (and younger brother), King Wengguimi.  After Wengguimi's death in 60{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}, Princess Jieyou again remarried his successor King Nimi (son of Junximi and a Xiongnu princess).
-*33{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Yuan of Han]] marries off [[Wang Zhaojun|Wang Zhao Jun]] (王昭君) (52 BC–15), a lady of the imperial harem, to Xiongnu chieftain Huhanye.  After Huhanye's death in 31{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}, she remarried Huhanye's successor (his son by his first wife and thus her stepson) Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu.
+*33{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}: [[Emperor Yuan of Han]] marries [[Wang Zhaojun|Wang Zhao Jun]] (王昭君) (52 BC–15), a lady of the imperial harem, to Xiongnu chieftain Huhanye.  After Huhanye's death in 31{{nbsp}}{{sc|bc}}, she remarried Huhanye's successor (his son by his first wife and thus her stepson) Fuzhuleiruodi Chanyu.
 ==Sixteen Kingdoms Period==
 During the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period, there were a total of six recorded instances of heqin marriage. Heqin marriage alliances during the Sixteen Kingdoms period differed from those practiced during the [[Han dynasty]] in two main ways. First, they involved "real" princesses (ie daughters of emperors or rulers). Second, unlike during the Han Dynasty, when most heqin marriages were aimed at establishing peace with foreign nations, heqin marriages during the [[Sixteen Kingdoms]] period were made primarily to settle rivalries and maintain a balance of power between the various states in China at the time.{{sfnb|Cui|2005|pages=631–688}}
-*[[Fu Jian (337–385)]], Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin, married off one of his daughters to a non-Chinese royal named Yang Ding, ruler of the state of [[Chouchi]].
+*[[Fu Jian (337–385)]], Emperor Xuanzhao of Former Qin, married one of his daughters to Yang Ding, ruler of the state of [[Chouchi]].
-*[[Fu Deng]], Emperor Gao of Former Qin, married off his younger sister, Princess Dongping (东平公主) to [[Qifu Gangui|Qifu Gangui, Prince of Western Qi]].
+*[[Fu Deng]], Emperor Gao of Former Qin, married his younger sister, Princess Dongping (东平公主) to [[Qifu Gangui|Qifu Gangui, Prince of Western Qi]].
-*441: [[Feng Ba]], Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan, married off his daughter, Princess Lelang (乐浪公主), to non-Chinese man named Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran.
+*441: [[Feng Ba]], Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan, married his daughter, Princess Lelang (乐浪公主), to Yujiulü Hulü, Khan Aidougai of Rouran.
-*415: [[Yao Xing]], Emperor Wenhuan of Later Qin, married off his daughter, Princess Xiping (西平公主), to non-Chinese [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei]]. Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands, she was never formally empress, but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan's wife, [[Consort Yao]].
+*415: [[Yao Xing]], Emperor Wenhuan of Later Qin, married his daughter, Princess Xiping (西平公主), to [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei]]. Because she was unable to forge a golden statue with her own hands, she was never formally empress, but was nevertheless recognized and respected as Emperor Mingyuan's wife, [[Consort Yao]].
-*[[Qifu Chipan]], Prince Wenzhao of Western Qin, married off his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to non-Chinese [[Juqu Mengxun|Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang's]] son Juqu Xingguo.
+*[[Qifu Chipan]], Prince Wenzhao of Western Qin, married his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to [[Juqu Mengxun|Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang's]] son Juqu Xingguo.
-*433: Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang, marries off his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to non-Chinese [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei]]. She became foreign Emperor Taiwu's concubine.
+*433: Juqu Mengxun, Prince of Northern Liang, marries his daughter, Princess Xingping (兴平公主), to [[Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei]]. She became Emperor Taiwu's concubine.
 ==Southern and Northern Dynasties==
@@ Line 39: / Line 39: @@
 During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, there were five instances of heqin marriage.
-*428: [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei]] marries off his Chinese daughter, Princess Shiping (始平公主), to non-Chinese [[Helian Chang|Helian Chang, Emperor of Xia]].
+*428: [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei]] marries his daughter, Princess Shiping (始平公主), to [[Helian Chang|Helian Chang, Emperor of Xia]].
-*437: [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei]] marries off his daughter, Princess Wuwei (武威公主), to non-Chinese [[Juqu Mujian|Juqu Mujian, Prince Ai of Hexi]], last ruler of the state of [[Northern Liang]], whence she is known as [[Princess Tuoba]].
+*437: [[Emperor Mingyuan of Northern Wei]] marries his daughter, Princess Wuwei (武威公主), to [[Juqu Mujian|Juqu Mujian, Prince Ai of Hexi]], last ruler of the state of [[Northern Liang]], whence she is known as [[Princess Tuoba]].
 *Princess Lanling (兰陵公主), a "princess" of the imperial family of [[Northern Wei]], married the [[Khagan]] of the [[Rouran Khaganate]], [[Yujiulü Anagui]].
-*Princess Qianjin (千金公主), daughter of Yuwen Zhao, Prince of Zhao (赵王宇文招) and a member of the imperial family of [[Northern Zhou]], married a foreign man named [[Ishbara Qaghan|Ishbara]], Khagan of the [[Eastern Turkic Khaganate]].
+*Princess Qianjin (千金公主), daughter of Yuwen Zhao, Prince of Zhao (赵王宇文招) and a member of the imperial family of [[Northern Zhou]], married [[Ishbara Qaghan|Ishbara]], Khagan of the [[Eastern Turkic Khaganate]].
-*582: [[Emperor Ming of Western Liang]] marries off his daughter, Princess Xiao, to Yang Guang, Prince of Jin, the second son Emperor Ming's overlord, [[Emperor Wen of Sui]]. She is known as [[Empress Xiao (Sui dynasty)|Empress Xiao of Sui]] after his accession to the throne as [[Emperor Yang of Sui]].
+*582: [[Emperor Ming of Western Liang]] marries his daughter, Princess Xiao, to Yang Guang, Prince of Jin, the second son Emperor Ming's overlord, [[Emperor Wen of Sui]]. She is known as [[Empress Xiao (Sui dynasty)|Empress Xiao of Sui]] after his accession to the throne as [[Emperor Yang of Sui]].
 ==Sui Dynasty==
-With the establishment of the [[Sui dynasty]] in 581, China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage of Han Chinese women to northern foreigners during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.{{sfnb|Cui |2005|pages=631–688}}
+With the establishment of the [[Sui dynasty]] in 581, China was once again unified under one dynasty. Heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty therefore returned to its original purpose of trying to appease barbarian tribes on China's borders.{{sfnb|Cui |2005|pages=631–688}}
 There were a total of seven instances of heqin marriage during the Sui Dynasty.
-*597: [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] marries off Princess Anyi (安义公主), a Han Chinese Sui "princess", to non-Chinese [[Yami Qaghan|Yami Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate]]. She was assassinated by Yung Yu- lu in 599
+*597: [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] marries Princess Anyi (安义公主), a Sui "princess", to [[Yami Qaghan|Yami Qaghan, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate]]. She was assassinated by Yung Yu- lu in 599
-*599: [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] marries off another Han Chinese Sui princess, Princess Yicheng (义成公主), the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman, to [[Yami Qaghan|Yami, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate]]. After his death in 609, Princess Yicheng, in accordance with the Göktürk custom of [[levirate marriage]], remarried to Yami Qaghan's successor and son (by another wife), [[Shibi Qaghan]]. After Shibi Qaghan's death in 619, Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan's successor and younger brother, [[Ashina Xichun|Chuluo]]. After the khagan's death in 621, Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to his successor and younger brother, [[Illig Qaghan]], who revolted against Tang China and was captured and killed in 630
+*599: [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] marries another Sui princess, Princess Yicheng (义成公主), the daughter of a Sui imperial clansman, to [[Yami Qaghan|Yami, Khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate]]. After his death in 609, Princess Yicheng, in accordance with the Göktürk custom of [[levirate marriage]], remarried to Yami Qaghan's successor and son (by another wife), [[Shibi Qaghan]]. After Shibi Qaghan's death in 619, Princess Yicheng again remarried to Shibi Qaghan's successor and younger brother, [[Ashina Xichun|Chuluo]]. After the khagan's death in 621, Princess Yicheng remarried for the fourth and final time to his successor and younger brother, [[Illig Qaghan]], who revolted against Tang China and was captured and killed in 630
-*[[Emperor Yang of Sui]] marries off Princess Xinyi (信义公主), a Sui "princess", to [[Heshana Khan]], non-Chinese Khagan of the Western Turkish Khaganate.
+*[[Emperor Yang of Sui]] married Princess Xinyi (信义公主), a Sui "princess", to [[Heshana Khan]], Khagan of the Western Turkish Khaganate.
-*[[Emperor Yang of Sui]] marries off his youngest daughter, Princess Huainan (淮南公主), to the new heir, Shibi's eldest son, Tuli.
+*[[Emperor Yang of Sui]] married his youngest daughter, Princess Huainan (淮南公主), to the new heir, Shibi's eldest son, Tuli.
-*596: [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] marries off Han Chinese Princess Guanghua (光化公主), a Sui "princess", to marry the royal Mongolian [[Murong Shifu]], khagan of [[Tuyuhun]]. After Murong Shifu's assassination in 597, Princess Guanghua remarried Murong Shifu's successor and younger brother, [[Murong Fuyun]].
+*596: [[Emperor Wen of Sui]] marries Princess Guanghua (光化公主), a Sui "princess", to [[Murong Shifu]], khagan of [[Tuyuhun]]. After Murong Shifu's assassination in 597, Princess Guanghua remarried Murong Shifu's successor and younger brother, [[Murong Fuyun]].
-*[[Emperor Yang of Sui]] marries off a Sui "princess" to non-Chinese Qu Boya, ruler of the oasis city of [[Gaochang]] in the [[Taklamakan Desert]].
+*[[Emperor Yang of Sui]] married a Sui "princess" to Qu Boya, ruler of the oasis city of [[Gaochang]] in the [[Taklamakan Desert]].
 ==Tang Dynasty==
@@ Line 60: / Line 60: @@
 There were a total of twenty-one instances of heqin marriage alliances during the Tang Dynasty:
-*640: [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] marries off Han Chinese [[Princess Honghua]] (弘化公主) to non-Chinese [[Murong Nuohebo|Murong Nuohebo, Khan of Tuyuhun]].
+*640: [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] marries [[Princess Honghua]] (弘化公主) to [[Murong Nuohebo|Murong Nuohebo, Khan of Tuyuhun]].
-*641: [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] marries off Han Chinese [[Princess Wencheng]] to non-Chinese Emperor [[Songtsän Gampo]] of the Tibetan Empire.
+*641: [[Emperor Taizong of Tang]] marries [[Princess Wencheng]] to Emperor [[Songtsän Gampo]] of the Tibetan Empire.
 *642: Emperor Taizong proposed the marriage of his fifteenth daughter, Princess Xinxing (新兴公主), to [[Zhenzhu Khan]], Khan of Xueyantuo. The heqin was called off.
-*664: [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang]] marries off Han Chinese Lady Jincheng (金城县主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (会稽郡王李道恩), to non-Chinese Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子苏度摸末).
+*664: [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang]] marries Lady Jincheng (金城县主), the third daughter of Li Dao'en, Prince of Guiji (会稽郡王李道恩), to Prince Sudumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子苏度摸末).
-*664: Emperor Gaozong marries off Han Chinese Lady Jinming (金明县主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to a non-Chinese Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末).
+*664: Emperor Gaozong marries Lady Jinming (金明县主), the daughter of a Tang imperial clansman, to Prince Talumomo of Tuyuhun (吐谷浑王子闼卢摸末).
-*698: A daughter of [[Qapaghan Qaghan|Qapaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate]] marries [[Empress Wu Zetian]]'s great-nephew Wu Chengsi, Prince of Huaiyang (淮阳王武延秀).
+*698: A daughter of [[Qapaghan Qaghan|Qapaghan, Khagan of the Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate]] marries [[Wu Zetian]]'s great-nephew Wu Chengsi, Prince of Huaiyang (淮阳王武延秀).
 *703: A daughter of Qapaghan Khagan marries [[Emperor Ruizong of Tang|Crown Prince Li Dan]]'s eldest son [[Li Chengqi|Li Chengqi, Prince of Song]].
-*709: Empress Wu Zetian marries off her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandson [[Li Shouli|Li Shouli, Prince of Bin]], to Emperor [[Me Agtsom]] of Tibet
+*709: Empress Wu Zetian marries her great-granddaughter Princess Jincheng (金城公主), the daughter of her grandson [[Li Shouli|Li Shouli, Prince of Bin]], to Emperor [[Me Agtsom]] of Tibet
-*712: [[Emperor Ruizong of Tang]] marries off his Han Chinese granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his son [[Li Chengqi]], to non-Chinese Turkic Qapaghan Khagan
+*712: [[Emperor Ruizong of Tang]] marries his granddaughter, Princess Jinshan (金山公主), the daughter of his son [[Li Chengqi]], to Qapaghan Khagan
-*717: [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang]] marries off Han Chinese Princess Yongle (永乐公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (杨元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (东平王李续, son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji , the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong), to non-Chinese groom Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the Khitans (a proto Mongol-Manchu-Korean people).
+*717: [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang]] marries Princess Yongle (永乐公主), the daughter of Yang Yuansi (杨元嗣) and a daughter of Li Xu, Prince of Dongping (东平王李续, son of Li Shen, Prince of Ji , the seventeenth son of Emperor Taizong), to Li Shihuo (李失活), leader of the Khitans.
 *717: Princess Jianghe (交河公主), the daughter of Ashina Nahuaidao, 10th Khagan of the Western Turkic Khaganate, marries Sulu Khan, Khagan of [[Turgesh]].
-*722: [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang]] marries off Han Chinese Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁于).
+*722: [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang]] marries Princess Yanjun (燕郡公主) (surname Murong (慕容)), a Tang "princess", to Khitan prince Li Yuyu (李郁于).
-*726: Emperor Xuanzong marries off his Han Chinese niece, Princess Donghua (东华公主, surname Chen 陈), to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固).
+*726: Emperor Xuanzong marries his niece, Princess Donghua (东华公主, surname Chen 陈), to Khitan prince Li Shaogu (李邵固).
 *726: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Dongguang (东光公主), the daughter of Emperor Xuanzong's first cousin Li Jijiang, Princess Cheng'an (成安公主李季姜) (eighth daughter of [[Emperor Zhongzong of Tang]]) and Wei Jie (韦捷), to Li Lusu (李鲁苏), ruler of [[Kumo Xi]].
-*744: Emperor Xuanzong marries off Han Chinese Princess Heyi (和义公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城县令李参), to a Mongolian-Turkic royal named Axilan Dagan (阿悉烂达干), King of Ningyuan (宁远国王) in the [[Fergana Valley]].
+*744: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Heyi (和义公主), a daughter of Li Can, Magistrate of Gaocheng (告城县令李参), to Axilan Dagan (阿悉烂达干), King of Ningyuan (宁远国王) in the [[Fergana Valley]].
-*745: Emperor Xuanzong marries off his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (静乐公主, daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明), to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李怀秀).
+*745: Emperor Xuanzong marries his granddaughter, Princess Jingle (静乐公主, daughter of his fifteenth daughter Princess Xincheng 信成公主 and Dugu Ming 独孤明), to Khitan prince Li Huaixiu (李怀秀).
-*745: Emperor Xuanzong marries off Han Chinese Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (长宁公主, daughter of [[Emperor Zhongzong of Tang]]) and Yang Shenjiao (杨慎交), to non-Chinese Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延宠)
+*745: Emperor Xuanzong marries Princess Yifang (宜芳公主), daughter of Princess Changning (长宁公主, daughter of [[Emperor Zhongzong of Tang]]) and Yang Shenjiao (杨慎交), to Khitan prince Li Yanchong (李延宠)
 *756: Princess Pijia (毗伽公主), daughter of [[Bayanchur Khan|Bayanchur]], Khagan of the Uyghur Khaganate, marries Li Chengcai ([[w:zh:李承采|李承采]]), Prince of Dunhuang (敦煌王李承采), son of [[Li Shouli|Li Shouli, Prince of Bin]].
@@ Line 91: / Line 91: @@
 A Mongol account in the [[Altan Tobchi]] said that Zhengtong Emperor had a son with a Mongol woman he married while he was prisoner.<ref name="Pokotilov1947">{{cite book|author=Dmitriĭ Dmitrievich Pokotilov|title=History of the eastern Mongols during the Ming dynasty from 1368 to 1634, part. I, translation of the Russian text|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pH3SAAAAMAAJ&q=Esen+wanted+to+marry+Son+of+Heaven+sister++Mongol+lady+son&dq=Esen+wanted+to+marry+Son+of+Heaven+sister++Mongol+lady+son&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwixoJHXktHaAhUEElAKHdc3CnMQ6AEIJzAA|year=1947|publisher=Chinese Cultural Studies Research Institute, West China Union University|pages=51}}</ref>
-A Han Chinese named Rinong was allowed to marry a Mongol woman by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong). This Han Chinese was Datong Army officer Wang Duo's (Wang To) 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often received Mongol wives.<ref name="Serruys1959">{{cite book|author=Henry Serruys|title=Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=IlohAQAAMAAJ&dq=mongol+wives+foreign+prisoners+high+standing+captured+officers+carpenters&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=jinong|year=1959|publisher=C.I.C.M.|page=75}}</ref>
+A Mongol girl was given in marriage by the Gün-bilig-mergen Mongol Ordos leader Rinong (Jinong) to a Han Chinese, Datong Army officer Wang Duo's (Wang To) 王鐸 son Wang San 王三 because Rinong wanted to hold on to Wang San and make him stay with the Mongols. The Ming arrested and executed Wang San in 1544 because Mongol soldiers were being guided by Wang San. Builders, carpenters, officers, and important prisoners such as the Ming Zhengtong Emperor often received Mongol wives.<ref name="Serruys1959">{{cite book|author=Henry Serruys|title=Chinese in Southern Mongolia During the Sixteenth Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=IlohAQAAMAAJ&dq=mongol+wives+foreign+prisoners+high+standing+captured+officers+carpenters&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=jinong|year=1959|publisher=C.I.C.M.|page=75}}</ref>
+==Non-Han dynasties and states==
-==Qing dynasty==
+===Xiongnu===
-The preferred marriage partners for imperial daughters in Qing dynasty was Mongols rather than Chinese. More than 58 percent of imperial son-in-law were Mongols.The Manchus considered Mongols as their "brother state" since they shared similar values. In early period of Qing, a large amount of intermarriage between the two groups happened, and the Manchu rulers used this tie to gain the military support of Mongolia. The marriage also benefited the Qing Dynasty in expanding its empire to the best during the first decades. The marriage between Manchu princesses and Mongol princes continued to the end of Qing Dynasty, although becoming less prominent after the 18th century due to the decline of Mongolia's political and military influence.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History|last=|first=|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=149-150}}</ref>
-Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu in early Qing were sometimes married to imperial daughters, although this is much less frequent than the case where Aisin Giroro women married to Mongolian aristocrats or other Manchu elite. Unlike the marriage between Manchu and Mongolians that lasted throughout the Qing Dynasty, the relatively rare marriage between Manchu princesses and Han Generals ceased before 1750. Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses might also married to Han Chinese official's sons. The 4th daughter of Kangxi ([[和硕悫靖公主]]) was wedded to the son ([[孫承恩]]) of the Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) [[孫思克]]. There were some other Aisin Gioro women who married the sons of the Han Chinese Generals [[Geng Jimao]] (Keng Chi-mao), [[Shang Kexi]] (Shang K'o-hsi), and [[Wu Sangui]] (Wu San-kuei). However after the rebellion of some of these generals the Qing court became even less likely to use marriage to strengthen its ruling.
-==Xiongnu==
 The Xiongnu practiced marriage alliances with Han dynasty officers and officials who defected to their side. The older sister of the Chanyu (the Xiongnu ruler) was married to the Xiongnu General [[Zhao Xin]], the Marquis of Xi who was serving the Han dynasty. The daughter of the Chanyu was married to the Han Chinese General [[Li Ling]] after he surrendered and defected.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/5147439/Aristocratic_elites_in_the_Xiongnu_empire], p. 31.</ref><ref name="SimaWatson1993">{{cite book|author1=Qian Sima|author2=Burton Watson|title=Records of the Grand Historian: Han dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YNlgKEVYdHEC&pg=PA161&dq=li+guangli+daughter&hl=en&sa=X&ei=4gmXVIyxD8uxggSl-oLYDQ&ved=0CB8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=li%20guangli%20daughter&f=false|date=January 1993|publisher=Renditions-Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-08166-5|pages=161–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Monumenta Serica|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8-1wAAAAMAAJ&q=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu&dq=li+guangli+daughter+chanyu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=3wiXVOTEOMehgwTc8IPwBw&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA|year=2004|publisher=H. Vetch|page=81}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Frederic E. Wakeman|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA41|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=41–}}</ref> The [[Yenisei Kirghiz]] Khagans claimed descent from Li Ling.<ref>{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012|title=The role of women in the Altaic world: Permanent International Altaistic Conference, 44th meeting, Walberberg, 26-31 August 2001|editor=Veronika Veit|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA61&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 152 of Asiatische Forschungen|series= |year=2007|location=|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|language=|isbn=3447055375|page=61|pages= }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |accessdate= 8 February 2012 |title=Tang China and the collapse of the Uighur Empire: a documentary history |author=Michael Robert Drompp   |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NB6DEdAxLOsC&pg=PA126&f=false|edition=illustrated|volume=Volume 13 of Brill's Inner Asian library|series=|year=2005|location= |publisher=BRILL|language=|isbn=9004141294|page=126|pages= }}</ref> Another Han Chinese General who defected to the Xiongnu was [[Li Guangli]] who also married a daughter of the Chanyu.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lin Jianming (林剑鸣) |title=秦漢史 |trans-title=History of Qin and Han |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lqfrEY8UW1UC&pg=PA557 |year=1992 |publisher=Wunan Publishing |isbn=978-957-11-0574-1 |pages=557–8}}</ref>
-==Northern Wei==
+===Northern Wei===
 The [[Xianbei]] [[Tuoba]] royal family of [[Northern Wei]] started to arrange for Han Chinese elites to marry daughters of the royal family in the 480s.<ref name="Watson1991">{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=80–}}</ref> Some Han Chinese exiled royalty fled from southern China and defected to the Xianbei. Several daughters of the Xianbei [[Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei]] were married to Han Chinese elites, the Han Chinese [[Liu Song]] royal Liu Hui 刘辉, married Princess Lanling 蘭陵公主 of the Northern Wei,<ref name="SwartzCampany2013">{{harvp|Lee|2014}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Papers on Far Eastern History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BdtBAAAAYAAJ&q=liu+hui+wei+princess&dq=liu+hui+wei+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjB-ZTVz7fNAhXEVD4KHYfgAzwQ6AEIJzAC|year=1983|publisher=Australian National University, Department of Far Eastern History.|page=86}}</ref> Princess Huayang 華陽公主 to Sima Fei 司馬朏, a descendant of [[Jin dynasty (265–420)]] royalty, Princess Jinan 濟南公主 to Lu Daoqian 盧道虔, Princess Nanyang 南阳长公主 to [[Xiao Baoyin]] 萧宝夤, a member of [[Southern Qi]] royalty.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA30&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEILTAD#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=30–}}</ref> [[Emperor Xiaozhuang of Northern Wei]]'s sister the Shouyang Princess was wedded to The [[Liang dynasty]] ruler [[Emperor Wu of Liang]]'s son Xiao Zong [[w:zh:蕭綜|蕭綜]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature (vol.3 & 4): A Reference Guide, Part Three & Four|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWLPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1566&dq=Xiao+Baoyin&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj5mom6zbfNAhXC2D4KHQMrBEoQ6AEIKTAC#v=onepage&q=Xiao%20Baoyin&f=false|date=22 September 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-27185-2|pages=1566–}}</ref>
 When the Eastern Jin dynasty ended Northern Wei received the Jin prince Sima Chuzhi [[w:zh:司馬楚之|司馬楚之]] as a refugee. A Northern Wei Princess married Sima Chuzhi, giving birth to Sima Jinlong [[w:zh:司馬金龍|司馬金龍]]. [[Northern Liang]] Xiongnu King [[Juqu Mujian]]'s daughter married Sima Jinlong.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Dawn of a Golden Age, 200-750 AD|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbdS-R3y72MC&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q=sima&f=false|year=2004|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn=978-1-58839-126-1|pages=18–}}</ref>
-==Rouran==
+===Rouran===
 The [[Rouran Khaganate]] arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan [[Yujiulü Anagui]]'s daughter Princess Ruru 蠕蠕公主 to be married to the Han Chinese ruler [[Gao Huan]] of the [[Eastern Wei]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women: Antiquity Through Sui, 1600 B.C.E.-618 C.E.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u7mLql4TAxoC&pg=PA316#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2007|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|isbn=978-0-7656-4182-3|pages=316–}}</ref><ref>Gao Huan, as demanded by Yujiulü Anagui as one of the peace terms between Eastern Wei and Rouran, married the Princess Ruru in 545, and had her take the place of Princess Lou as his wife, but never formally divorced Princess Lou.  After Gao Huan's death, pursuant to Rouran customs, the Princess Ruru became married to Gao Huan's son Gao Cheng, who also, however, did not formally divorce his wife.</ref>
-==Turkic Khaganate==
+===Turkic Khaganate===
 The Kingdom of [[Gaochang]] was made out of Han Chinese colonists and ruled by the Han Chinese<ref name="Puri1987">{{cite book|author=Baij Nath Puri|title=Buddhism in Central Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA78#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1987|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0372-5|pages=78–}}</ref><ref name="EliotEliot1998">{{cite book|author1=Charles Eliot|author2=Sir Charles Eliot|title=Hinduism and Buddhism: An Historical Sketch|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KbPgG6ondlUC&pg=PA206#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7007-0679-2|pages=206–}}</ref> Qu family which originated from Gansu.<ref name="Abramson2011">{{cite book|author=Marc S. Abramson|title=Ethnic Identity in Tang China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-GLGnRspmcAC&pg=PA119&dq=gaochang+chu&hl=en&sa=X&ei=8GzYUt_vK8i3sATA54CgBQ&ved=0CDMQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=gaochang%20chu&f=false|date=31 December 2011|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=0-8122-0101-9|pages=119–}}</ref> Jincheng commandery 金城 (Lanzhou), district of Yuzhong 榆中 was the home of the Qu Jia.<ref name="Miller1959">{{cite book|author=Roy Andrew Miller|title=Accounts of Western Nations in the History of the Northern Chou Dynasty &#91;Chou Shu 50. 10b-17b&#93;: Translated and Annotated by Roy Andrew Miller|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5z04Q046UgC&pg=PA5&dq=kao+ch%27ang&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjF_ou32v3MAhWJFh4KHYcRDEgQ6AEIVjAH#v=onepage&q=kao%20ch%27ang&f=false|year=1959|publisher=University of California Press|pages=5–|id=GGKEY:SXHP29BAXQY}}</ref> The Qu family was linked by marriage allianes to the Turks, with a Turk being the grandmother of King Qu Boya's.<ref name="Skaff1998">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Karam Skaff|title=Straddling steppe and town: Tang China's relations with the nomads of inner Asia (640-756).|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDgfAQAAMAAJ&q=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&dq=The+most+striking+example+of+this+phenomena+occurred+in+the+Kingdom+of+Gaochang+when+Qu+Boya+Hffi?%C2%A7%3D+came+to+power+after+the+death+of+his+father+Qu+Jian.+As+mentioned+before,+Qu+Jian%27s+mother+had+been+a+Turk,+so+he+was+half+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=H8OoVMHvJ8adNoCLhOgI&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAA|year=1998|publisher=University of Michigan.|page=57}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Asia Major|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O8VAQAAMAAJ&q=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&dq=kao+ch%27ang+turkic&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjluKiu2v3MAhXCJB4KHdhLAmgQ6AEIMjAB|year=1998|publisher=Institute of History and Philology of the Academia Sinica|page=87}}</ref>
-==Uighur Ganzhou Kingdom==
+===Uighur Ganzhou Kingdom===
 The Chinese Cao family ruling [[Guiyi Circuit]] established marriage alliances with the Uighurs of the Ganzhou Kingdom, with both the Cao rulers marrying Uighur princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Uighur rulers. The Ganzhou Uighur Khagan's daughter was married to Cao Yijin in 916.<ref>{{cite book|title=Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HvIa9sere_8C&pg=PA44#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=7 June 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-25233-9|pages=44–}}</ref><ref name="Russell-Smith2005">{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA63#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=63–}}</ref><ref name="DuanTan1994">{{cite book|author1=Wenjie Duan|author2=Chung Tan|title=Dunhuang Art: Through the Eyes of Duan Wenjie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0SdXEVaFTJ0C&pg=PA189&dq=Cao+Yijin+Shengtian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=xMo9VIbFM67lsAT-4YKgCA&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yijin%20Shengtian&f=false|date=1 January 1994|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-313-7|pages=189–}}</ref>
-==Kingdom of Khotan==
+===Kingdom of Khotan===
 [[File:Dunhuang Mogao cave Cao donor figures.jpg|thumb|right|A daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler of [[Dunhuang]], Cao Yanlu, is here shown wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces. Mural in [[Mogao Caves|Mogao Cave]] 61, [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period|Five Dynasties]].]]
 The Chinese Cao family ruling [[Guiyi Circuit]] established marriage alliances with the Saka [[Kingdom of Khotan]], with both the Cao rulers marrying Khotanese princesses and with Cao princesses marrying Khotanese rulers. A Khotanese princess who was the daughter of the King of Khotan married Cao Yanlu.<ref name="Russell-Smith2005 2">{{cite book|author=Lilla Russell-Smith|title=Uygur Patronage In Dunhuang: Regional Art Centres On The Northern Silk Road In The Tenth and Eleventh Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hzsnT67gykkC&pg=PA23&dq=Cao+Yanlu+Khotan&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Xz_FVNuqNsuqggTok4LIBA&ved=0CCIQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Cao%20Yanlu%20Khotan&f=false|year=2005|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-14241-X|pages=23–}}</ref>
-==Liao dynasty==
+===Liao dynasty===
 The [[Khitan people|Khitan]] [[Liao dynasty]] arranged for women from the Khitan royal consort Xiao clan to marry members of the Han Chinese Han 韓 clan, which originated in Jizhou 冀州 before being abducted by the Khitan and becoming part of the Han Chinese elite of the Liao.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/3806884/Michal_Biran._Khitan_Migrations_in_Inner_Asia_Central_Eurasian_Studies_3_2012_85-108 Biran 2012, p. 88.]</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140414060414/http://cces.snu.ac.kr/article/jces3_4biran.pdf Biran 2012, p. 88.]</ref><ref>[http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/bitstream/10150/195429/1/azu_etd_1292_sip1_m.pdf Cha 2005], p. 51. [http://arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/195429][http://sunzi.lib.hku.hk/ER/detail/hkul/3631975][https://www.amazon.co.uk/lives-907-1125-aristocratic-women-China/dp/0542321823]</ref>
@@ Line 130: / Line 126: @@
 Han Durang (Yelu Longyun) was the father of Queen dowager of State Chen, who was the wife of General Geng Yanyi and buried with him in his tomb in Zhaoyang in Liaoning.<ref>{{cite book|title=Orient|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SWttAAAAMAAJ&q=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&dq=2+in+Zhaoyang,+Liaoning+According+to+the+epitaph,+this+tomb+is+the+burial+place+of+General+Geng+Yanyi+and+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen.+General+Geng+Yanyi%27s+...+Queen+dowager+of+State+Chen%27s+father+was+Han+Durang+%28Yelu+Longyun%29+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMIjbqFi-7bxwIViVQ-Ch1kRAXx|year=2004|publisher=Maruzen Company|page=41}}</ref> His wife was also known as "Madame Han".<ref name="ShenSociety2006">{{cite book|author1=Hsueh-man Shen|author2=Asia Society|author3=Asia Society. Museum|author4=Museum für Ostasiatische Kunst (Berlin, Germany), Museum Rietberg|title=Gilded splendor: treasures of China's Liao Empire (907-1125)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WX8YAAAAYAAJ&q=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&dq=...+like+this+example.+but+made+from+gray+and+green+sandstone+were+excavated+from+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+and+his+wife.1+Geng+Yanyi+was+a+highly+decorated+Chinese+official+who+served+the+Liao+government,+and+his+wife,+Madame+Han,+was+...&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAGoVChMI7s-BiO7bxwIVgQg-Ch1a0Qoz|date=1 September 2006|publisher=5 continents|isbn=978-88-7439-332-9|page=106}}</ref> The Geng's tomb is located in Liaoning at Guyingzi in Chaoying.<ref name="An1987">{{cite book|author=Jiayao An|title=Early Chinese Glassware|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnzrAAAAMAAJ&q=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&dq=27%29+Glass+handled+cup+%28excavated+from+the+tomb+of+the+Geng+family+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning%29+[pi.+V11.6]+...+27%29+was+found+in+the+tomb+of+Geng+Yanyi+of+the+Liao+period,+at+Guyingzi,+Chaoyang,+Liaoning+province.1391+It+is+of+transparent+dark+green+glass+containing+...+29%29+Glass+eared+cup+%28excavated+from+Han+tomb+no.&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAGoVChMIjfiLmO7bxwIVSBw-Ch3a-gHQ|year=1987|publisher=Millennia|page=12}}</ref><ref>http://kt82.zhaoxinpeng.com/view/138019.htm{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} https://www.academia.edu/4954295/La_Steppe_et_l_Empire_la_formation_de_la_dynastie_Khitan_Liao_</ref>
-==Lý dynasty Vietnam==
+===Lý dynasty Vietnam===
 The [[Lý dynasty]] which ruled [[Dai Viet]] (Vietnam) married its princesses off to regional rivals to establish alliances with them. One of these marriages was between a Lý princess ([[Lý Chiêu Hoàng]]) and a member of the Chinese Trần (Chen) clan ([[Trần Thái Tông]]), which enabled the Trần to then topple the Lý and established their own [[Trần dynasty]].<ref name="Hall2008">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall |title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150622232838/https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false |archivedate=22 June 2015 |year=2008 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0 |pages=159– |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref><ref name="EmbreeLewis1988">{{cite book|author1=Ainslie Thomas Embree |author2=Robin Jeanne Lewis |title=Encyclopedia of Asian history |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022122029/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran+fujian&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=1iPNVKSgKoS4ggTd6oDgCw&ved=0CCIQ6AEwATge |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1988 |publisher=Scribner |page=190 |df= }}</ref>
 A Lý princess also married into the Hồ family, which was also of Chinese origin and later established the [[Hồ dynasty]] which also took power after having a Tran princess marry one of their members, [[Hồ Quý Ly]].<ref name="Taylor2013">{{cite book|author=K. W. Taylor|title=A History of the Vietnamese|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P2HP31kOSA4C&pg=PA166#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=9 May 2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-87586-8|pages=166–}}</ref><ref name="Hall2008 2">{{cite book|author=Kenneth R. Hall|title=Secondary Cities and Urban Networking in the Indian Ocean Realm, C. 1400-1800|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA161#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=2008|publisher=Lexington Books|isbn=978-0-7391-2835-0|pages=161–}}</ref>
-==Joseon Korea==
+===Qing dynasty===
+The [[Manchu people|Manchu]] Imperial [[Aisin Gioro]] clan practiced marriage alliances with Han Chinese Ming Generals and Mongol princes. Aisin Gioro women were married to Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu side during the [[Manchu conquest of China]]. The Manchu leader [[Nurhaci]] married one of his granddaughters to the Ming General [[Li Yongfang]] [[w:zh:李永芳|李永芳]] after he surrendered [[Fushun]] in [[Liaoning]] to the Manchu in 1618 and a mass marriage of Han Chinese officers and officials to Manchu women numbering 1,000 couples was arranged by Prince Yoto [[w:zh:岳托|岳托]] ([[Prince Keqin]]) and [[Hongtaiji]] in 1632 to promote harmony between the two ethnic groups.<ref name="Walthall2008">{{cite book|author=Anne Walthall|title=Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148&dq=To+win+the+support+and+cooperation+of+Ming+generals+in+Liaodong,+Nurhaci+gave+them+Aisin+Gioro+women+as+wives.+In+1618,+before+he+attacked+Fushun+city,+he+promised+the+Ming+general+defending+the+city+a+woman+from+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan&hl=en&ei=O-ChToi7Jsn20gHW4ayvCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=To%20win%20the%20support%20and%20cooperation%20of%20Ming%20generals%20in%20Liaodong%2C%20Nurhaci%20gave%20them%20Aisin%20Gioro%20women%20as%20wives.%20In%201618%2C%20before%20he%20attacked%20Fushun%20city%2C%20he%20promised%20the%20Ming%20general%20defending%20the%20city%20a%20woman%20from%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan&f=false|year=2008|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-25444-2|pages=148–}}</ref><ref name="Wakeman1977">{{cite book|author=Frederic Wakeman|title=Fall of Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&pg=PA79&dq=Li+was+made+a+banner+general,+was+given+gifts+of+slaves+and+serfs,+and+was+betrothed+to+a+young+woman+of+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan.+Although+Li%27s+surrender+at+the+time+was+exceptional,+his+integration+into+the+Manchu+elite+was+only+the+first&hl=en&ei=WuGhTtyJO6Lx0gHC16WfBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Li%20was%20made%20a%20banner%20general%2C%20was%20given%20gifts%20of%20slaves%20and%20serfs%2C%20and%20was%20betrothed%20to%20a%20young%20woman%20of%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan.%20Although%20Li%27s%20surrender%20at%20the%20time%20was%20exceptional%2C%20his%20integration%20into%20the%20Manchu%20elite%20was%20only%20the%20first&f=false|date=1 January 1977|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-02-933680-9|pages=79–}}</ref> Aisin Gioro women were married to the sons of the Han Chinese Generals [[Sun Sike]] (Sun Ssu-k'o) [[w:zh:孫思克|孫思克]], [[Geng Jimao]] (Keng Chi-mao), [[Shang Kexi]] (Shang K'o-hsi), and [[Wu Sangui]] (Wu San-kuei).<ref name="Watson1991 2">{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–180}}</ref>
+Nurhaci's son [[Abatai]]'s daughter was married to Li Yongfang.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2018-04-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203055230/http://www.lishiquwen.com/news/7356.html |archive-date=2017-12-03 |dead-url=yes |df= }}</ref><ref>http://www.fs7000.com/wap/?9179.html{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>http://www.75800.com.cn/lx2/pAjRqK/9N6KahmKbgWLa1mRb1iyc_.html</ref><ref>https://read01.com/aP055D.html</ref> The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" ({{zh|c=三等子爵|p=sān děng zǐjué|labels=no}}) title.<ref name="Rawski1998">{{cite book|author=Evelyn S. Rawski|title=The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=15 November 1998|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-92679-0|pages=72–}}</ref> Li Yongfang was the great great great grandfather of Li Shiyao [[w:zh:李侍堯|李侍堯]].<ref>http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/LI_SHIH-YAO.html</ref><ref>http://12103081.wenhua.danyy.com/library1210shtml30810106630060.html</ref>
+The "Dolo efu" 和碩額駙 rank was given to husbands of Qing princesses. [[Geng Zhongming]], a Han bannerman, was awarded the title of Prince Jingnan, and his son [[Geng Jingmao]] managed to have both his sons [[Geng Jingzhong]] and Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 become court attendants under the [[Shunzhi Emperor]] and get married to Aisin Gioro women, with Prince [[Abatai]]'s granddaughter marrying Geng Zhaozhong 耿昭忠 and [[Hooge (prince)|Haoge]]'s (a son of Hong Taiji) daughter marrying Geng Jingzhong.<ref name="JR.1985">{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1017#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1017–}}</ref> A daughter [[w:zh:和硕柔嘉公主|和硕柔嘉公主]] of the Manchu Aisin Gioro Prince Yolo [[w:zh:岳樂|岳樂]] ([[Prince An]]) was wedded to Geng Juzhong [[w:zh:耿聚忠|耿聚忠]] who was another son of Geng Jingmao.<ref name="JR.1985 2">{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR.|title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA1018#v=onepage&q&f=false6|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04804-1|pages=1018–}}</ref>
+The 4th daughter of Kangxi ([[w:zh:和硕悫靖公主|和硕悫靖公主]]) was wedded to the son ([[w:zh:孫承恩|孫承恩]]) of the Han Chinese Sun Sike (Sun Ssu-k'o) [[w:zh:孫思克|孫思克]].<ref name="Watson1991 3">{{cite book|author=Rubie Sharon Watson|title=Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false|year=1991|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-07124-7|pages=179–}}</ref>
+Imperial Duke Who Assists the State (宗室輔國公) Aisin Gioro Suyan's (蘇燕) daughter was married to Han Chinese Banner General [[Nian Gengyao]].<ref name="唐博2010">{{cite book|author=唐博|title=清朝權臣回憶錄|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JSi4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108&dq=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_bLcwOLOAhUElR4KHZkXAq8Q6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&f=false|year=2010|publisher=遠流出版|isbn=978-957-32-6691-4|pages=108–}}</ref><ref name="施樹祿2012">{{cite book|author=施樹祿|title=世界歷史戰事傳奇|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ODdaBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA198&dq=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiE_bLcwOLOAhUElR4KHZkXAq8Q6AEILDAC#v=onepage&q=%E8%BC%94%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E8%98%87%E7%87%95&f=false|date=17 May 2012|publisher=華志文化|isbn=978-986-5936-00-6|pages=198–}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=|first=|date=7 March 2016|title=清代第一战神是谁? 年羹尧和岳钟琪谁的成就更高?|url=http://www.lishi.com/news/201603/7645.html|newspaper=历史网|location=|access-date=|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828192434/http://www.lishi.com/news/201603/7645.html|archive-date=28 August 2016|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
+===Joseon Korea===
 After the [[Second Manchu invasion of Korea]], [[Joseon]] Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince [[Dorgon]].<ref name="ThackerayFindling2012">{{cite book|author1=Frank W. Thackeray |author2=John E. Findling |title=Events That Formed the Modern World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924000057/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRl1sWYShpcC&pg=RA1-PA200&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CB4Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=24 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |date=31 May 2012 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-901-1 |pages=200– |df= }}</ref><ref name="Hummel1991">{{cite book|author=Arthur W. Hummel |title=Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing period: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022124057/https://books.google.com/books?id=YqNHAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1991 |publisher=SMC publ. |isbn=978-957-638-066-2 |page=217 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Division1943">{{cite book|author=Library of Congress. Orientalia Division |title=清代名人傳略: 1644-1912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022133653/https://books.google.com/books?id=Hs8LhXwRqPgC&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBA |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1943 |publisher=經文書局 |page=217 |df= }}</ref><ref name="JR.1985 3">{{cite book|author=FREDERIC WAKEMAN JR. |title=The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930140358/https://books.google.com/books?id=8nXLwSG2O8AC&pg=PA892&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CDkQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=dorgon%20korean%20princess&f=false |archivedate=30 September 2015 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |deadurl=no |year=1985 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04804-1 |pages=892– |df= }}</ref><ref name="Dawson1972">{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson |title=Imperial China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134507/https://books.google.com/books?id=H5AKAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBg |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1972 |publisher=Hutchinson |page=275 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Dawson1976">{{cite book|author=Raymond Stanley Dawson|title=Imperial China|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFtxAAAAMAAJ&q=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&dq=and+for+the+first+seven+years+of+his+young+nephew%27s+reign+Dorgon+exercised+supreme+power+and+laid+the+firm+foundations+...+Power+seems+to+have+gone+to+his+head,+for+he+ordered+the+King+of+Korea+to+send+princesses+to+be+his+concubines+and+...&hl=en&sa=X&ei=6aZsVdTuM4v3yQSQnoO4Dg&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAA|year=1976|publisher=Penguin|page=306}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dartmouth.edu/~qing/WEB/DORGON.html DORGON]</ref> In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean [[Princess Uisun]] (義順).<ref>{{cite book|title=梨大史苑 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022134944/https://books.google.com/books?id=IN42AAAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CCUQ6AEwAQ |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1968 |publisher=梨大史學會 |page=105 |df= }}</ref> She was a collateral branches of the Korean royal family, and daughter of Yi Gae-yun (李愷胤).<ref>http://www.gachonherald.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=32</ref> Dorgon married two Korean princesses at Lianshan.<ref name="Ling1995">{{cite book|author=Li Ling |title=Son of Heaven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |archiveurl=https://archive.is/20161022135113/https://books.google.com/books?id=ajcaAQAAIAAJ&q=dorgon+korean+princess&dq=dorgon+korean+princess&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KaNsVbuZC8KEsAXjy4HoDQ&ved=0CEQQ6AEwBw |deadurl=no |archivedate=22 October 2016 |accessdate=22 October 2016 |year=1995 |publisher=Chinese Literature Press |isbn=978-7-5071-0288-8 |page=217 |df= }}</ref>
-==Nguyen Lords in Vietnam==
+===Nguyen Lords in Vietnam===
 The Cambodian King [[Chey Chettha II]] married the Vietnamese [[Nguyễn lords|Nguyễn lord]] Princess Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Vạn, a daughter of Lord [[Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên]], in 1618.<ref>Mai Thục, ''Vương miện lưu đày: truyện lịch sử,'' Nhà xuất bản Văn hóa - thông tin, 2004, p.580; Giáo sư Hoàng Xuân Việt, Nguyễn Minh Tiến hiệu đính, ''Tìm hiểu lịch sử chữ quốc ngữ,'' Ho Chi Minh City, Công ty Văn hóa Hương Trang, pp.31-33; Helen Jarvis, ''Cambodia,'' Clio Press, 1997, p.xxiii.</ref><ref name="nghiamvo-1623">{{cite book|url=http://www.sacei07.org/women10.jsp|title=The Women of Vietnam|series=Saigon Arts, Culture & Education Institute Forum|author1=Nghia M. Vo |author2=Chat V. Dang |author3=Hien V. Ho |publisher=Outskirts Press|date=29 August 2008 |isbn=1-4327-2208-5}}</ref> In return, the king granted the Vietnamese the right to establish settlements in Mô Xoài (now [[Bà Rịa]]), in the region of Prey Nokor—which they colloquially [[Names of Ho Chi Minh City|referred to]] as ''Sài Gòn'', and which later became [[Ho Chi Minh City]].<ref name="kamm">{{cite book|title=Cambodia: report from a stricken land|author=Henry Kamm|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtBkD5CoIMkC&lpg=PA23&ots=Uv-qTIXI2z&dq=chey%20chettha%20II&pg=PA23#v=onepage&q=chey%20chettha%20II&f=false|year=1998|publisher=Arcade Publishing|isbn=1-55970-433-0|page=23}}</ref><ref name="ngbac">{{cite web|url=http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|title=Nguyễn Bặc and the Nguyễn|accessdate=16 June 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413074249/http://nguyenphuoctoc.net/doc/nguyen_bac_english.html|archivedate=13 April 2009|df=}}</ref>