Electric car

For electric vehicles other than battery powered passenger automobiles, see electric vehicle.

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The Toyota RAV4 EV was powered by twenty-four 12 volt batteries, with an operational cost equivalent of over 165 miles per gallon at 2005 US gasoline prices.

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The Canadian Dynasty EV 4 door sedan neighborhood electric vehicle

Citroën Berlingo Electrique vans of the ELCIDIS goods distribution service in La Rochelle, France

Electric Micro-vans produced by Micro-Vett as a conversion of a Piaggio (rebranded Isuzu) vehicle by installing electric components, Seen in in Rome Italy. Image courtesy greenfleet.info

The electric car, EV, or simply electric vehicle is a battery electric vehicle (BEV) that utilizes chemical energy stored in rechargeable battery packs. Electric vehicles use electric motors and motor controllers instead of internal combustion engines (ICEs). Vehicles using both electric motors and ICEs are examples of hybrid vehicles, and are not considered pure BEVs because they operate in a charge-sustaining mode. Hybrid vehicles with batteries that can be charged externally to displace some or all of their ICE power and gasoline fuel are called plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), and are pure BEVs during their charge-depleting mode. BEVs are usually automobiles, light trucks, neighborhood electric vehicles, motorcycles, motorized bicycles, electric scooters, golf carts, forklifts and similar vehicles.

BEVs were among the earliest automobiles, and are more energy-efficient than internal combustion, fuel cell, and most other types of vehicles. BEVs produce no exhaust fumes, and minimal pollution if charged from most forms of renewable energy. Many are capable of acceleration exceeding that of conventional vehicles, are quiet, and do not produce noxious fumes. It has been suggested that, because BEVs reduce dependence on petroleum, they enhance national security, and mitigate global warming by alleviating the greenhouse effect.

Historically, BEVs and PHEVs have had issues with high battery costs, limited travel distance between battery recharging, charging time, and battery lifespan, which have limited widespread adoption. Ongoing battery technology advancements have addressed many of these problems; many models have recently been prototyped, and a handful of future production models have been announced. Toyota, Honda, Ford and General Motors all produced BEVs in the 90s in order to comply with the California Air Resources Board's Zero Emission Vehicle Mandate, which was later defeated by the manufacturers and the federal government. The major US automobile manufacturers have been accused of deliberately sabotaging their electric vehicle production efforts.

History

Main article: History of the electric vehicle

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1912 Detroit Electric advertisement

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Thomas Edison and an electric car in 1913 (courtesy of the National Museum of American History)

Camille Jenatzy in electric car La Jamais Contente, 1899

BEVs were among some of the earliest automobiles — electric vehicles predate gasoline and diesel. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Scottish businessman Robert Anderson invented the first crude electric carriage. Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen, the Netherlands, designed the small-scale electric car, built by his assistant Christopher Becker in 1835.

The improvement of the storage battery, by Frenchmen Gaston Plante in 1865 and Camille Faure in 1881, paved the way for electric vehicles to flourish. France and Great Britain were the first nations to support the widespread development of electric vehicles.

Just prior to 1900, before the pre-eminence of powerful but polluting internal combustion engines, electric automobiles held many speed and distance records. Among the most notable of these records was the breaking of the 100 km/h (60 mph) speed barrier, by Camille Jenatzy on April 29, 1899 in his 'rocket-shaped' vehicle Jamais Contente, which reached a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph).

BEVs, produced in the USA by Anthony Electric, Baker, Detroit, Edison, Studebaker, and others during the early 20th Century for a time out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. Due to technological limitations and the lack of transistor-based electric technology, the top speed of these early electric vehicles was limited to about 32 km/h (20 mph). These vehicles were successfully sold as town cars to upper-class customers and were often marketed as suitable vehicles for women drivers due to their clean, quiet and easy operation. Electrics did not require hand-cranking to start.

The introduction of the electric starter by Cadillac in 1913 simplified the task of starting the internal combustion engine, formerly difficult and sometimes dangerous. This innovation contributed to the downfall of the electric vehicle, as did the mass-produced and relatively inexpensive Ford Model-T, which had been produced for four years, since 1908. Internal-combustion vehicles advanced technologically, ultimately becoming more practical than — and out-performing — their electric-powered competitors.

Another blow to BEVs in the USA was the loss of Edison's direct current (DC) electric power transmission system in the War of Currents. This deprived BEV users of a convenient source of DC electricity to recharge their batteries. As the technology of rectifiers was still in its infancy, changing alternating current to DC required a costly rotary converter.

Battery electric vehicles became popular for some limited range applications. Forklifts were BEVs when they were introduced in 1923 by Yale[2] and some battery electric fork lifts are still produced. BEV golf carts have been available for many years, including early models by Lektra in 1954.[3] Their popularity led to their use as neighborhood electric vehicles and expanded versions became available which were partially "street legal".

By the late 1930s, the electric automobile industry had completely disappeared, with battery-electric traction being limited to niche applications, such as certain industrial vehicles.

The 1947 invention of the point-contact transistor marked the beginning of a new era for BEV technology. Within a decade, Henney Coachworks had joined forces with National Union Electric Company, the makers of Exide batteries, to produce the first modern electric car based on transistor technology, the Henney Kilowatt, produced in 36-volt and 72-volt configurations. The 72-volt models had a top speed approaching 96 km/h (60 mph) and could travel nearly an hour on a single charge. Despite the improved practicality of the Henney Kilowatt over previous electric cars, it was too expensive, and production was terminated in 1961. Even though the Henney Kilowatt never reached mass production volume, their transistor-based electric technology paved the way for modern EVs.

After California indicated that it would kill its ZEV Mandate, Toyota offered the last 328 RAV4-EV for sale to the general public during six months (ending on Nov. 22, 2002). All the rest were only leased, and with minor exceptions those models were withdrawn from the market and destroyed by manufacturers (other than Toyota). Toyota not only supports the 328 Toyota RAV4-EV in the hands of the general public, still all running at this date, but also supports hundreds in fleet usage. From time to time, Toyota RAV4-EV come up for sale on the used market, at prices that have ranged up to the mid 60 thousands of dollars. These are highly prized by solar homeowners who wish to charge their cars from their solar electric rooftop systems.

As of July, 2006, there are between 60,000 and 76,000 low-speed, battery powered vehicles in use in the US, up from about 56,000 in 2004 according to Electric Drive Transportation Association estimates.

Regulation in California

Since the late 1980s, electric vehicles have been promoted in the US through the use of tax credits. BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero emission vehicle (ZEV) passenger automobiles, because they produce no emissions while being driven. The CARB had set a minimum quota for the use of ZEVs, but it was withdrawn after complaints by auto manufacturers that it was economically infeasible due to an alleged "lack of consumer demand".

The California program was designed by the CARB to reduce air pollution and not specifically to promote electric vehicles. So the zero emissions requirement in California was replaced by a combined requirement of a very small number of ZEVs to promote research and development, and a much larger number of partial zero-emissions vehicles (PZEVs), an administrative designation for a super ultra low emissions vehicle (SULEV), which emit about ten percent of the pollution of ordinary low emissions vehicles and are also certified for zero evaporative emissions.

Selected production vehicles

Further information: Category:Production electric vehicles

and List of production battery electric vehicles

Selected list of battery electric vehicles include (in chronological order):

Name	Comments	Production years	Number produced	Top Speed (mph or km/h)	Cost	Range (m or km)
Baker Electric	The first electric car and it was reputedly easy to drive, and could cruise a distance of 50 miles when fully charged	1899-1915	?	14 mph (22.5 km/h)	US $2300 (1,727 €)
Detroit Electric	Sold mainly to women and physicians.	1907-39	<5000	20 mph (32.2 km/h)	>US $3,000 or 2,253 € depending on options	80 miles (typical) to 221.3 (max)
Henney Kilowatt	The first modern (transistor-based) electric car and outfitted with modern hydraulic brakes.	1958–60	<100	60 mph (97 km/h)	?	?
General Motors EV1	For lease only, all recovered from customers by General Motors and most destroyed	1996-2003	>1000	80 mph (129 km/h)	~ US $40K or 30,047€ , without subsidies	?
Honda EV Plus	First BEV from a major automaker without lead acid batteries. 80–110 mile range (130–180 km); 24 twelve volt NiMH batteries	1997–99	~300	80+ mph (129+ km/h)	US $455 or 341.84€/month for 36 month lease; or $53,000 or 39,822 € without subsidies	?
Toyota RAV4 EV	Some leased and sold on US east and west coasts, supported. Toyota agreed to stop crushing.	1997–2002	1249	78 mph (125 km/h)	US $40K or 30,051.23 € without subsidies	?
Ford Ranger EV	Some sold, most leased; almost all recovered and most destroyed. Ford allowed reconditioning and sale of a limited quantity to former leaseholders by lottery.	1998-2002	1500, perhaps 200 surviving		~ US $50K or 37,565.40 €; subsidized down to $20K or 15,026.16€
Nissan Altra EV	Mid-sized station wagon designed from the ground up as the first BEV to use Li-ion batteries, 193 km or 120 mile range, 160,934 km or 100,000 + mile battery lifetime	1998–2000	~133	75+ mph (120+ km/h)	US $470/month lease only
TH!NK City	Two seat, 85 km (52 mile) range, Nickel-cadmium batteries. Next generation vehicle production planned for fall 2007.	1999-2002	1005	56 mph (90 km/h)
Citroën Berlingo Electrique/Peugeot Partner Electric	French-built van of which several thousand have been built by PSA and sold under the Citroën and Peugeot brands. Fitted with Nickel-Cadmium batteries.	1996-2004	ca. 5000	60 mph or 100 km/h	€ 15,000 New (without batteries, leased at € 120/month). Available second hand in UK (some without battery lease)	97 km (60 miles @ 40 mph)
REVA	Indian-built city car (sold in England as the "G-Wiz").	2001-	>1800	45 mph or 72 km/h	~ £8K, US $15K or 11,871.05 €	80 km (50 miles)
ZAP Xebra	Chinese built sedan and truck	2006-	500+	40 mph or 64 km/h	$10,000 or 7,513.60 €	65 km (40 miles)

Comparison with internal combustion vehicles

Tzero an older model electric vehicle on a drag race with a Dodge Viper left behind

BEVs have become much less common than internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV). Therefore, it is often helpful to consider many aspects of BEVs in comparison to ICEVs.

Cost

While it is a dream of gasoline powered vehicles to reach 75 or 100 mpg, electric vehicles naturally reach the equivalent of 200 mpg with their typical cost of two to four cents per mile. In contrast, gasoline-powered ICEVs currently cost about four to six times as much. The total cost of ownership for modern BEVs depends primarily on the cost of the batteries, the type and capacity of which determine several factors such as travel range, top speed, battery lifetime and recharging time; several trade-offs exist.

Batteries are usually the most expensive component of BEVs, though the price per kWh of charge has fallen rapidly in recent years .and batteries from old or wrecked electric cars can be bought for battery-to-grid mini-power plants. The cost of battery manufacture is substantial, but increasing returns to scale may serve to lower their cost when BEVs are manufactured on the scale of modern internal combustion vehicles. Since the late 1990s, advances in battery technologies have been driven by skyrocketing demand for laptop computers and mobile phones, with consumer demand for more features, larger, brighter displays, and longer battery time driving research and development in the field. The BEV marketplace has reaped the benefits of these advances.

Some batteries can be leased or rented instead of bought (see Think Nordic).

One article indicates that 10 kWh of battery power provides a range of about 20 miles in a Toyota Prius, but this is not a primary source, and does not fit with estimates elsewhere of about 5 miles per KWH. The Chevy Volt is expected to use 50 MPG when running on the auxiliary power unit (a small onboard generator) - at 33% thermodynamic efficiency (a theoretical maximum) that would mean 12 KWHs for 50 miles, or about 240 watt hours per mile. Teslamotors specified 215 WH/mile. For prices of a kWh of charge with various different battery technologies, see the "Energy/Consumer Price" column in the "Comparison of battery types" section in the rechargeable battery article.

Ownership costs

Ownership costs for battery electric cars are higher than for their petrol or diesel equivalents, primarily because their purchase price is higher to begin with. Typically for a new car, or a small van, the price is increased by up to 80%. Very often the batteries are not included within the purchase price because they are also expensive. Instead they are often leased for £60-£70 ($116-$135) a month. If the battery is purchased outright, the owner will also be required to replace it every 3 to 5 years, depending on the battery type.

In the UK other changes in ownership costs include vehicle excise duty or road tax. Electric vehicles are now exempt and so BEV owners will save around £100 per year compared with an average conventional car. There remains some uncertainty about annual depreciation rates and resale values for BEVs due to the unknown length of battery-life and the low demand for battery electrics compared to other green car types. As BEVs lose their value faster than conventional cars depreciation rates are likely to be higher than for a conventional car at this time.

In the UK, BEV users who install additional recharging equipment will face additional financial penalties. Costs per standard charge point are around £500-£2000, depending on the difficulty of installation. Fully installed fast-chargers will cost between £10,000 and £30,000 per point although this depends on whether an on-board or off-board fast-charging system is used.

Running costs

Some running costs are significantly less for BEVs than for conventional cars. In particular, fuel costs are very low due to the competitive price of electricity - fuel duty is zero-rated - and to the high efficiency of the vehicles themselves. Taking into account the high fuel economy of battery electric cars, the fuel costs can be as low as 1.0-2.5p per mile (depending on the tariff). For a typical annual mileage of around 10,000 miles per year, switching from a conventional car to a battery electric could save you around £800 in fuel costs. However if the battery hire is considered a running cost, then the saving on fuel is cancelled out by the monthly battery leasing cost.

Energy efficiency and carbon dioxide emissions

Production and conversion BEVs typically use 0.17 to 0.37 kilowatt-hours per mile (0.1–0.23 kWh/km). Nearly half of this power consumption is due to inefficiencies in charging the batteries. Tesla Motors indicates that the well to wheels power consumption of their li-ion powered vehicle is 0.215 kwh per mile. The US fleet average of 23 miles per gallon of gasoline is equivalent to 1.58 kWh per mile and the 70 MPG Honda Insight uses 0.52 kWh per mile (assuming 36.4 kWh per US gallon of gasoline), so hybrid electric vehicles are relatively energy efficient, and battery electric vehicles are much more energy efficient. A 2001 EPA estimate calculates a battery powered EV at 7 cents/kWh can be driven 43 miles for a dollar and at $1.25/gallon a gasoline vehicle will go 18 miles.

Sources of electricity in the U.S. 2005[1]

Generating electricity and providing liquid fuels for vehicles are different categories of the energy economy, with different inefficiencies and environmental harms. A 55 % to 99.9 % improvement in CO₂ emissions takes place when driving an EV over an ICE (gasoline, diesel) vehicle depending on the source of electricity. Comparing CO₂ emissions can be done by using the US national average of 1.28 lbs CO₂/kWh for electricity generation, giving a range for BEVs from zero up to 0.2 to 0.5 lbs CO₂/mi (0.06 kg/km to 0.13 kg/km). Since 1 gal of gasoline produces 19 lbs CO₂ the average US fleet produces 0.83 lbs/mi (0.23 kg/km) and the Insight 0.27 lbs/mi (0.08 kg/km). CO₂ and other greenhouse gases emissions do not exist for BEVs powered from sustainable electricity sources (e.g. solar energy), but are constant per gallon (or litre) for gasoline vehicles.

Model	Short tons CO2 (conventional, mostly fossil fuel electricity production)	Short tons CO2 (renewable electricity production, e.g., solar panel, or wind power)
2002 Toyota RAV4-EV (pure BEV)	3.8	0.0
2000 Toyota RAV4 2wd (gasoline)	7.2	7.2
Other battery electric vehicle(s)
2000 Nissan Altra EV	3.5	0.0
Hybrid vehicles
2001 Honda Insight	3.1	3.1
2005 Toyota Prius	3.5	3.5
2005 Ford Escape H 2x	5.8	5.8
2005 Ford Escape H 4x	6.2	6.2
Internal combustion engine vehicles
2005 Dodge Neon 2.0L	6.0	6.0
2005 Ford Escape 4x	8.0	8.0
2005 GMC Envoy XUV 4x	11.7	11.7

Aerodynamic drag has a large impact on energy efficiency as the speed of the vehicle increases. See drag coefficients for a list of cars.

Maintenance

EVs, particularly those using AC or brushless DC motors, have far fewer mechanical parts to wear out. An ICE vehicle on the other hand will have pistons, valves, camshafts, cambelts, gearbox and a clutch, all of which can wear out.

Both hybrids and EV's use regenerative braking, which greatly reduces wear and tear on friction brakes - Prius taxi drivers report far less frequent brake maintenance.

Acceleration performance

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Venturi Fetish - a limited production electric car capable of reaching 0-100 km/h in 4.5 seconds

Relatively few of today's BEVs are capable of acceleration performance which exceeds that of equivalent-class conventional gasoline powered vehicles. An early solution was American Motors’ experimental Amitron piggyback system of batteries with one type designed for sustained speeds while a different set boosted acceleration when needed.

Electric vehicles can utilize a direct motor-to-wheel configuration which increases the amount of available power. Having multiple motors connected directly to the wheels allows for each of the wheels to be used for both propulsion and as braking systems, thereby increasing traction. In some cases, the motor can be housed directly in the wheel, such as in the Whispering Wheel design, which lowers the vehicle's center of gravity and reduces the number of moving parts. When not fitted with an axle, differential, or transmission, electric vehicles have less drivetrain rotational inertia.

A gearless or single gear design in some BEVs eliminates the need for gear shifting, giving such vehicles both smoother acceleration and smoother braking. Because the torque of an electric motor is a function of current, not rotational speed, electric vehicles have a high torque over a larger range of speeds during acceleration, as compared to an internal combustion engine. As there is no delay in developing torque in an EV, EV drivers report generally high satisfaction with acceleration.

For example, the Venturi Fetish delivers supercar acceleration despite a relatively modest 300 horsepower, and a top speed of around 100 miles per hour. Some DC motor-equipped drag racer BEVs, have simple two-speed transmissions to improve top speed. Larger vehicles, such as electric trains and land speed record vehicles, overcome this speed barrier by dramatically increasing the wattage of their power system.

The Tesla Roadster prototype can reach 60 mph in 4 seconds.

Vehicles in Use in the United States per Year

Number of battery electric vehicles in use each year (red), and year-to-year percentage increase (blue), per table at left

Battery Electric Vehicles in the United States
Year	Number
1992	1,607
1993	1,690
1994	2,224
1995	2,860
1996	3,280
1997	4,453
1998	5,243
1999	6,964
2000	11,830
2001	17,847
2002	33,047
2003	45,656
2004	55,852
Average growth	39.1%

Estimated Data: Alternative Fueled Vehicles, 1992-2000

Batteries

75 watt-hour/kilogram lithium ion polymer battery prototypes. Newer Li-poly cells provide up to 130 Wh/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.

Main article: Rechargeable batteries

Rechargeable batteries used in electric vehicles include lead-acid ("flooded" and VRLA), NiCd, nickel metal hydride, lithium ion, Li-ion polymer, and, less commonly, zinc-air and molten salt batteries. The amount of electricity stored in batteries is measured in kWh.

Charging

Batteries in BEVs must be periodically recharged (see also Replacing, below). BEVs most commonly charge from the power grid (at home or using a street or shop recharging point), which is in turn generated from a variety of domestic resources; such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear and others. Home power such as roof top photovoltaic solar cell panels, microhydro or wind may also be used and are promoted because of global warming.

Charging time is limited primarily by the capacity of the grid connection. A normal household outlet is between 1.5 kilowatts (in the US, Canada, Japan, and other countries with 110 Volt supply) to 3 kilowatts (in countries with 240 V supply). The main connection to a house might be able to sustain 10 kilowatts, and special wiring can be installed to use this. At this higher power level charging even a small, 7 kilowatt-hour (14–28 mi) pack, would probably require one hour. This is small compared to the effective power delivery rate of an average petrol pump, about 5,000 kilowatts. Even if the supply power can be increased, most batteries do not accept charge at greater than their charge rate ("C1".)

In 1995, some charging stations charged BEVs in one hour. In November 1997, Ford purchased a fast-charge system produced by AeroVironment called "PosiCharge" for testing its fleets of Ranger EVs, which charged their lead-acid batteries in between six and fifteen minutes. In February 1998, General Motors announced a version of its "Magne Charge" system which could recharge NiMH batteries in about ten minutes, providing a range of sixty to one hundred miles.

In 2005, handheld device battery designs by Toshiba were claimed to be able to accept an 80% charge in as little as 60 seconds. Scaling this specific power characteristic up to the same 7 kilowatt-hour EV pack would result in the need for a peak of 336 kilowatts of power from some source for those 60 seconds. It is not clear that such batteries will work directly in BEVs as heat build-up may make them unsafe.

In 2007, Altairnano's NanoSafe batteries are rechargeable in a few minutes, versus hours required for other rechargeable batteries. A NanoSafe cell can be charged to over 80% charge capacity in about one minute. Also Nanotechnology enables increased battery energy density .

Most people do not always require fast recharging because they have enough time, six to eight hours, during the work day or overnight to recharge. As the charging does not require attention it takes a few seconds for an owner to plug in and unplug their vehicle. Many BEV drivers prefer refueling at home, avoiding the inconvenience of visiting a fuel station. Some workplaces provide special parking bays for electric vehicles with charging equipment provided. In colder areas such as Minnesota and Canada there exists some infrastructure for public power outlets, in parking garages and at parking meters, for engine pre-heating.

Connectors

The charging power can be connected to the car in two ways (electric coupling). The first is a direct electrical connection known as conductive coupling. This might be as simple as a mains lead into a weatherproof socket through special high capacity cables with connectors to protect the user from high voltages. The second approach is known as inductive coupling. A special 'paddle' is inserted into a slot on the car. The paddle is one winding of a transformer, while the other is built into the car. When the paddle is inserted it completes a magnetic circuit which provides power to the battery pack.

The major advantage of the inductive approach is that there is no possibility of electrocution as there are no exposed conductors, although interlocks can make conductive coupling nearly as safe. Conductive coupling equipment is lower in cost and much more efficient due to a vastly lower component count.

Travel range before recharging and trailers

The General Motors EV1 had a range of 75 to 150 miles with NiMH batteries in 1999.

The range of a BEV depends on the number and type of batteries used, and the performance demands of the driver. The weight and type of vehicle also have an impact just as they do on the mileage of traditional vehicles. Electric vehicle conversions depends on the battery type:

• Lead-acid batteries are the most available and inexpensive. Such conversions generally have a range of 30 to 80 km (20 to 50 miles). Production EVs with lead-acid batteries are capable of up to 130 km (80 miles) per charge.

• NiMH batteries have higher energy density and may deliver up to 200 km (120 miles) of range.

• New lithium-ion battery-equipped EVs provide 400-500 km (250-300 miles) of range per charge. Lithium is also less expensive than nickel.

Finding the economic balance of range versus performance, battery capacity versus weight, and battery type versus cost challenges every EV manufacturer.

With an AC system regenerative braking can extend range by up to 50% under extreme traffic conditions without complete stopping. Otherwise, the range is extended by about 10 to 15% in city driving, and only negligibly in highway driving, depending upon terrain.

BEVs (including buses and trucks) can also use genset trailers and pusher trailers in order to extended their range when desired without the additional weight during normal short range use. Discharged baset trailers can be replaced by recharged ones in a route point. If rented then maintenance costs can be deferred to the agency.

Such BEVs can become Hybrid vehicles depending on the trailer and car types of energy and powertrain.

Replacing

An alternative to recharging is to exchange drained or nearly drained batteries (or battery range extender modules) with fully charged batteries.

Re-filling

Zinc-bromine flow batteries can be re-filled, instead of recharged, saving time.

Uploading and grid buffering

Main article: Vehicle-to-grid

Smart grid allows BEVs to provide power to the grid, to provide energy during peak load periods, when the selling price of electricity can be very high.These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. Here the vehicles serve as a distributed battery storage system to buffer power.

Lifespan

Individual batteries are usually arranged into large battery packs of various voltage and ampere-hour capacity products to give the required energy capacity. Battery life should be considered when calculating the extended cost of ownership, as all batteries eventually wear out and must be replaced. The rate at which they expire depends on a number of factors.

The depth of discharge (DOD) is the recommended proportion of the total available energy storage for which that battery will achieve its rated cycles. Deep cycle lead-acid batteries generally should not be discharged below 80% capacity. More modern formulations can survive deeper cycles.

In real world use, some fleet Toyota RAV4 EVs, using NiMH batteries, have exceeded 100,000 miles (160,000 km) with little degradation in their daily range. Quoting that report's concluding assessment:

"The five-vehicle test is demonstrating the long-term durability of Nickel Metal Hydride batteries and electric drive trains. Only slight performance degradation has been observed to-date on four out of five vehicles.... EVTC test data provide strong evidence that all five vehicles will exceed the 100,000-mile mark. SCE’s positive experience points to the very strong likelihood of a 130,000 to 150,000-mile Nickel Metal Hydride battery and drive-train operational life. EVs can therefore match or exceed the lifecycle miles of comparable internal combustion engine vehicles.

"In June 2003 the 320 RAV4 EVs of the SCE fleet were used primarily by meter readers, service managers, field representatives, service planners and mail handlers, and for security patrols and carpools. In five years of operation, the RAV4 EV fleet had logged more than 6.9 million miles, eliminating about 830 tons of air pollutants, and preventing more than 3,700 tons of tailpipe carbon dioxide emissions. Given the successful operation of its EVs to-date, SCE plans to continue using them well after they all log 100,000-miles."

Jay Leno's 1909 Baker Electric (see Baker Motor Vehicle) still operates on its original Edison cells. Battery replacement costs of BEVs may be partially or fully offset by the lack of regular maintenance such as oil and filter changes required for ICEVs, and by the greater reliability of BEVs due to their fewer moving parts. They also do away with many other parts that normally require servicing and maintenance in a regular car, such as on the gearbox, cooling system, and engine tuning. And by the time batteries do finally need definitive replacement, they can be replaced with later generation ones which may offer better performance characteristics, in the same way as you might replace old batteries from a digital camera with improved ones.

Ron Lewis, a hybrid specialist in Fort Collins said:

"...a single Prius battery has yet to die. If one did, and it was outside Toyota's eight-year, 100,000-mile warranty, it would be less than $2,000 to replace"

Safety

The safety issues of battery electric vehicles are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues:

• On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery
• Functional safety means and protection against failures
• Protection of persons against electrical hazards.

Firefighters and rescue personnel receive special training to deal with the higher voltages and chemicals encountered in electric and hybrid electric vehicle accidents. While BEV accidents may present unusual problems, such as fires and fumes resulting from rapid battery discharge, there is apparently no available information regarding whether they are inherently more or less dangerous than gasoline or diesel internal combustion vehicles which carry flammable fuels.

Future

The future of battery electric vehicles depends primarily upon the cost and availability of batteries with high energy densities, power density, and long life, as all other aspects such as motors, motor controllers, and chargers are fairly mature and cost-competitive with internal combustion engine components. Li-ion, Li-poly and zinc-air batteries have demonstrated energy densities high enough to deliver range and recharge times comparable to conventional vehicles.

Bolloré a French automative parts group developed a concept car the "Bluecar" using Lithium metal polymer batteries developed by a subsidiary Batscap. It had a range of 250 km and top speed of 125 km/h."Bluecar"

The cathodes of early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is pricey, and can release oxygen if its cell is overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. The price premium for early 2007 hybrids is about US $5000, some $3000 of which is for their NiMH battery packs. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, that would break even after six to ten years of operation. The hybrid premium could fall to $2000 in five years, with $1200 or more of that being cost of lithium-ion batteries, providing a three-year payback.

Hobbyists, conversions, and racing

Bob Schneeveis demonstrates his Silver Sofa hobbyist BEV at the 2005 33rd annual Silicon Valley Electric Automobile Association's Stanford Electric Car Rally.

The Silver Sofa can spin in place and is charged by solar panels. It is intended for use at off–road events such as Burning Man

Hobbyists often build their own EVs by converting existing production cars to run solely on electricity. There is a cottage industry supporting the conversion and construction of BEVs by hobbyists. Universities such as the University of California, Irvine even build their own custom electric or hybrid-electric cars from scratch.

Short-range battery electric vehicles offer the hobbyist comfort, utility, and quickness, sacrificing only range. Short-range BEVs may be built using high-performance lead–acid batteries, using about half the mass needed for a 60 to 80 mile (100 to 130 km) range; the result is a vehicle with about a thirty mile (50 km) range, which when designed with appropriate weight distribution (40/60 front to rear) does not require power steering, offers exceptional acceleration in the lower end of its operating range, is freeway capable and legal, but are expensive due to the higher cost for these higher-performance batteries. By including a manual transmission, short-range BEVs can obtain both better performance and greater efficiency than the single-speed BEVs developed by major manufactures. Unlike the converted golf carts used for neighborhood electric vehicles, short-range BEVs may be operated on typical suburban throughways (40 to 45 mph or 60 or 70 km/h speed limits are typical) and can keep up with traffic typical on such roads and the short "slow-lane" on-and-off segments of freeways common in suburban areas.

Some drag race such conversions as members of National Electric Drag Racing Association (NEDRA). Battery electric vehicles are also very popular in quarter mile (400 m) racing. The NEDRA regularly holds electric car races and often competes them successfully against exotics such as the Dodge Viper or Saleen S7.

Japanese Professor Hiroshi Shimizu from Faculty of Environmental Information of the Keio University created the limousine of the future: the Eliica (Electric Lithium Ion Car) has eight wheels with electric 55 kilowatt hub motors (8WD) with an output of 470 kilowatts and zero emissions. With a top speed of 370 kilometers per hour, and a maximum reach of 320 kilometers provided by lithium-ion-batteries. (video at eliica.com) However, current models cost approximately $300,000 US, about half of which is the cost of the batteries.

Eliica prototype

Controversy

File:Evcrushed.jpg

EV1s crushed by General Motors shortly after their leases expired

The three major US automobile manufacturers, General Motors, Chrysler Corporation and Ford Motor Company have been accused by a variety of consumer advocates, activists, commentators, journalists, and documentary makers of deliberately sabotaging their companies' BEV efforts through several methods: failing to market, failing to produce appropriate vehicles, failing to satisfy demand, and using lease-only programs with prohibitions against end of lease purchase. By these actions they have managed to terminate their BEV development and marketing programs despite operators' offers of purchase and assumption of maintenance liabilities. The Chrysler "golf cart" program has seemed to some as an insult to the marketplace and to government mandates; Chrysler has been accused of intentionally failing to produce a vehicle usable in mixed traffic conditions. Moreover, the three major American motor companies have almost exclusively promoted their electric cars in the American market, where gas has been comparatively cheap, and virtually ignored the European market, where gas is significantly more expensive.

The manufacturers, in their defense, have responded that they only make what the public wants. At the end of their programs GM destroyed its BEV fleet, despite offers to purchase from drivers. Ford's Norwegian-built "Th!nk" fleet was covered by a three-year exemption to the standard US motor vehicle safety laws, after which time Ford had planned to dismantle and recycle its fleet. However, Ford was persuaded by activists to refrain from destroying its fleet and return them to Norway and sell them as used vehicles. Ford also sold a few lead-acid battery Ranger EVs, and some fleet purchase Chevrolet S-10 EV pickups are being refurbished and sold on the secondary market.

Critics have pointed out that General Motors' customer survey highlights the company's efforts to lower demand. GM called interested customers and emphasized negative characteristics disputed by EV1 drivers. CARB removed their zero emission regulations in part because such surveys purported to show that no demand existed for the EV1s.

Both Honda and Toyota also manufactured BEVs. Honda followed the lead of the other majors and terminated their lease-only programs, completely destroying their fleet and its components by shredding. Toyota offered vehicles for both sale and lease. While Toyota has terminated manufacture of new vehicles, it continues to support those manufactured. A small number of Toyota RAV4 EVs are still on the road.

Oil companies have been accused of using patent protection to keep modern battery technology from use in BEVs[4].

A film on the subject, directed by former EV1 owner and activist Chris Paine, entitled Who Killed the Electric Car? premiered at the Sundance Film Festival and at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2006, and was released July 2006.

Proponents' arguments

Supporters point out the following:

• BEVs reduce dependence on oil.
• BEVs reduce dependence on price manipulated oil markets.
• BEVs reduce vehicle energy costs by up to 90%
• BEVs are up to 75% energy efficient (with ReGen) VS as little as 15% for a petrol ICE powered car (inc. transmission losses)
• BEVs have much more torque than an ICE (for a given power rating) and a flat torque curve.
• BEVs mitigate global warming.
• BEVs are quieter than internal combustion engine vehicles (Though in the newest ICE vehicles engines only account for a small fraction of the noise; most noise is produced by tires and aerodynamics in an equal measure as BEVs).
• BEVs do not produce noxious fumes.
• BEVs can readily satisfy the needs for short trips and up to 500 km with Li-Ion and regeneration.
• Home recharging is more convenient than trips to gasoline stations. If combined with green home energy or devices like Honda's Home Energy Station (which uses hydrogen to produce electricity) BEVs can truly be considered emission-free.
• Regenerative braking can significantly improve vehicle efficiency.
• Recharging costs are more predictable than gas prices, and not subject to volatile international incidents.
• Maintenance such as oil changes, smog inspections (and their sometimes expensive consequences), cooling fluid replacement, and periodic repair and adjustments are reduced or completely eliminated, significantly reducing the cost of ownership.
• BEVs can be powered indirectly by home photovoltaics using net metering, which offers advantages to both power producers and other grid users through peak demand satisfaction and to the EV user through cost reduction and load balancing, especially with time of use net metering.
• BEVs can provide power to a home in the case of a power outage if specially equipped.
• Even if powered by electricity from polluting coal plants, they are still far more energy efficient than gasoline-powered cars.
• In case of an accident or during refueling no need to be worried about burning or exploding gasoline.
• BEVs are favorable to hydrogen vehicles because there is no need to invest in a large scale system of hydrogen distribution/storage, and BEVs have a significantly higher energy conversion efficiency than hydrogen electrolization cycles. The electricity distribution system is already in place.

Opponents' arguments

Skeptics of the viability of BEVs argue on conventional practicality grounds and in more general terms. Practicality grounds include:

• Electricity is produced using such methods as nuclear fission, with its attendant regulatory and waste issues, or (more often) by burning coal, the latter producing about 0.97 kg of CO₂ (2.1 pounds) per kilowatt-hour[5] plus other pollutants and strip-mining damages: electric vehicles are therefore not "zero emissions" in any real-world sense, except at their point of use unless renewable energy (solar, wind, wave, tidal, geothermal, or hydro power) is employed;
• Zero emission electrical sources such as solar panels must still be manufactured, producing various pollutants.
• Limited driving range available between recharging (using certain battery technologies)
• Expensive batteries, which may cost US$2,000 (lead acid) to $20,000 (li-ion) to replace;
• Poor cold weather performance of some kinds of batteries.
• Danger of electrocution and electromagnetic interference.
• Poor availability of public charging stations reduces practicality and may hinder initial take-up. People who live in flats or houses without private parking may not have an option to charge the vehicle at home.

Those arguing in more general terms ponder the future of the car as a transport solution for even more widespread global adoption, noting that the issues of traffic jams, noise pollution, total life-cycle pollution, land use, road fatalities, energy expenditure, as well as the health toll resulting from a sedentary lifestyle, will not be solved by zero-emission vehicles.

It can also be argued that the current state of the automobile industry is simply experiencing a shift due to superseding technologies, as was the case when the automobile drove the production of horse-drawn carriages, saddles, and buggy-whips into obscurity. Future automobiles will thus shift toward low-cost and low-maintenance items, compared to today.

See also

Electric scooter at the 2005 Vancouver EV gathering

• Car battery
• Electric boat
• Electric bus
• Electric Drive Transportation Association (EDTA)
• Electric motorcycles and scooters
• Electric vehicle conversion
• Electric vehicle production
• Electrocar
• Green tuning
• Hybrid vehicle
• NEDRA (national electric drag racing association)
• Neighborhood electric vehicle
• Plug-in hybrid (PHEV)
• Traction motor
• Vehicle-to-grid
• Zero-emissions vehicle
• Who Killed the Electric Car?
• Charger installations uk

External links

Patents

• U.S. patent 523,354, E. E. Keller, Electrically Propelled Preambulator
• U.S. patent 594,805, Hiram Stevens Maxim, Motor vehicle
• U.S. patent 772,571, H. S. Maxim, Electric motor vehicle

Organizations

• Open Source Electric Car
• US Electric Auto Association (EAA)
• Battery Vehicle Society (UK)
• EVCanada - Promoting the uptake of Electric Vehicles in Canada

News stories

• MINI Cooper EV starts production. Cost $60K, available in 2008 Jul 12, 2007
• Department of Energy (DOE) provides $19 million for research May 23, 2007
• Mitsubishi forms joint venture for lithium-ion battery production for MIEV May 8, 2007
• Test drive of Phoenix Electric Vehicle March 2, 2007
• GM Engineer discusses battery integration challenge - Jan 30, 2007
• GM does U-turn on electric car program, now says electric cars are the future 7 November 2006
• China will churn out 30 million electricity-driven bikes in 2010 May 2006