White people: Difference between revisions
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Skin color is a quantitative trait in that it is varies continuously on a gradient from dark to light, as it is a [[polygenic]] trait, under the influence of several genes. Many of these genes have yet to be identified, however two genes are known that do contribute to skin color, they are the ''[[MC1R]]'' and the ''[[SLC24A5]]'' genes.<ref name="humans_fur"/> |
Skin color is a quantitative trait in that it is varies continuously on a gradient from dark to light, as it is a [[polygenic]] trait, under the influence of several genes. Many of these genes have yet to be identified, however two genes are known that do contribute to skin color, they are the ''[[MC1R]]'' and the ''[[SLC24A5]]'' genes.<ref name="humans_fur"/> |
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Mixed ancestry people of African-European descent who possess one or two copies of the European allele of the ''SLC24A5'' gene have skin color that is significantly lighter than mixed ancestry people who possess only the African allele. It is estimated, based on this observation, that the ''SLC24A5'' locus "explains between 25-38% of the European-African difference in skin melanin index".<ref>[http://www.hmc.psu.edu/pathology/residency/experimental/cheng%20pdf%20files/SciencePaper&Suppl.pdf SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans]</ref><ref name="convergent">Heather L. Norton, Rick A. Kittles, Esteban Parra, Paul McKeigue, Xianyun Mao, Keith Cheng, Victor A. Canfield, Daniel G. Bradley, Brian McEvoy and Mark D. Shriver (December 11, 2006) Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians ''Oxford Journals'' [http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~eparra/profile/PDF%20files/Norton%20et%20al.,%202007.pdf]</ref><ref name= "washpost">{{cite journal | author=Lamason RL, Mohideen MA, Mest JR, Wong AC, Norton HL, Aros MC, Jurynec MJ, Mao X, Humphreville VR, Humbert JE, Sinha S, Moore JL, Jagadeeswaran P, Zhao W, Ning G, Makalowska I, McKeigue PM, O'donnell D, Kittles R, Parra EJ, Mangini NJ, Grunwald DJ, Shriver MD, Canfield VA, Cheng KC | title=SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans | journal=Science | year=2005 | pages=1782-6 | volume=310 | issue=5755 | id=PMID 16357253}}</ref><ref name= "washpost2"> [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728.html Scientists Find A DNA Change That Accounts For White Skin], Washington Post</ref>. |
Mixed ancestry people of African-European descent who possess one or two copies of the European allele of the ''SLC24A5'' gene have skin color that is significantly lighter than mixed ancestry people who possess only the African allele. It is estimated, based on this observation, that the ''SLC24A5'' locus "explains between 25-38% of the European-African difference in skin melanin index".<ref>[http://www.hmc.psu.edu/pathology/residency/experimental/cheng%20pdf%20files/SciencePaper&Suppl.pdf SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans]</ref><ref name="convergent">Heather L. Norton, Rick A. Kittles, Esteban Parra, Paul McKeigue, Xianyun Mao, Keith Cheng, Victor A. Canfield, Daniel G. Bradley, Brian McEvoy and Mark D. Shriver (December 11, 2006) Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians ''Oxford Journals'' [http://www.erin.utoronto.ca/~eparra/profile/PDF%20files/Norton%20et%20al.,%202007.pdf]</ref><ref name= "washpost">{{cite journal | author=Lamason RL, Mohideen MA, Mest JR, Wong AC, Norton HL, Aros MC, Jurynec MJ, Mao X, Humphreville VR, Humbert JE, Sinha S, Moore JL, Jagadeeswaran P, Zhao W, Ning G, Makalowska I, McKeigue PM, O'donnell D, Kittles R, Parra EJ, Mangini NJ, Grunwald DJ, Shriver MD, Canfield VA, Cheng KC | title=SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans | journal=Science | year=2005 | pages=1782-6 | volume=310 | issue=5755 | id=PMID 16357253}}</ref><ref name= "washpost2"> [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728.html Scientists Find A DNA Change That Accounts For White Skin], Washington Post</ref>. |
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===Hair and eye color polymorphism=== |
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{{main|Hair color|Eye color}} |
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{{see|Blonde|Red hair}} |
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[[Image:Hair color.png|thumb|right|250px|Hair color map according to Frost <ref>http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Frost 06.html</ref>. The yellow represents 80%+ light hair, orange is 50-79% light hair, tan is 20-49% light hair, dark brown is 1-19% light hair.]] |
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[[Image:Eye-color.png|thumb|right|250px|Eye color map according to Frost <ref>http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Frost 06.html</ref>. The purple represents 80%+ light eyes, green is 50-79% light eye, pink is 20-49% light eye, dark brown is 1-19% light eyes. Grey area omitted by Frost.]] |
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White people exhibit greater [[polymorphism]] in [[hair color|hair]] and [[eye color]] than other populations. Geographically, such polymorphism is most prevalent in [[Europe]], more specifically the [[Baltic region]]. |
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Eye color experts Sturm and Frudakis note, "The common occurrence of lighter iris colours is found almost exclusively in Europeans (i.e. recent monophyletic, non-East Asian, non-Native American and non-African lineages) and individuals of European admixture."<ref>Sturm RA, Frudakis TN. "Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry," ''Trends in Genetics'', 2004 Aug;20(8):327-32.</ref> |
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Anthropologist Peter Frost geographically locates the variation as follows, "This diversity reaches a maximum in an area centered on the East Baltic and covering northern and eastern Europe." He speculates that this diversity may be because "sexual selection was much stronger among ancestral Europeans than in other human populations." <ref>Why Do Europeans Have So Many Hair and Eye Colors? by Peter Frost Université Laval (Canada) and St. Andrews University (Scotland) [http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Frost_06.html]</ref> <ref>European hair and eye colorA case of frequency-dependent sexual selection? [http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1090513805000590]</ref> |
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==Census and social definitions in different regions== |
==Census and social definitions in different regions== |
Revision as of 19:17, 6 September 2007
The term "white people" (also "whites" or "white race") has been defined as "being a member of a group or race characterized by light pigmentation of the skin" and "to a human group having light-coloured skin, especially of European ancestry." [1][2]
The term white people functions as a color terminology for race;[3] one that emerged from a racialized, European historical context.[4][5]
Physical appearance
Although there is no single universal definition of whiteness, some traits that are associated with Europeans are associated with whites. The most notable trait describing people who identify as white is light skin. People who are white lack epicanthic folds[6]. Other physical features sometimes associated with white people include a variety of hair and eye colors.
Light skin
White people are archetypically distinguished by high skin reflectance. In Jablonski and Chaplin's (2000) study, The evolution of human skin coloration, Europeans, on average, have lighter skin (as measured by population average skin reflectance read by spectrophotometer at A685) than any other group that was measured (not all human groups were sampled for the study), and women have lighter skin than men in all human groups. [7] While all mean values of skin reflectance of non-European populations are lower than Europeans for the groups represented in this study, there is significant overlap between populations.[8] This observation has been noted by the Supreme Court of the United States, which stated in a 1923 lawsuit over whiteness that the "swarthy brunette[s] ... are darker than some of the lighter hued persons of the brown or yellow races".[9]
The epidermis of light skinned people is not actually white. The underlying layers of collagen and adipose tissue are white in people of all races. In lightly pigmented people , the epidermis is an almost transparent layer of film. Consequently the epidermis allows the underlying white tissues to become visible[10]. Blood vessels interlaced between the adipose tissue produce the pale pink color associated with light skin. Pigments known as Carotenes found in the fat produce a more yellow effect. In darker skinned people the epidermis is filled with melanosomes that obscure the underlying layers.[11][12][13]
Most mammals have a thick layer of body hair that protects the skin from the sun's rays and also keeps the body warm at night. Chimpanzees are the closest living relatives to humans. Since they have light skin covered by hair, it is likely that our shared common ancestor would also have lacked pigmentation and been covered by hair.[14]. As human brain size increased the increase in its energy requirements would have required finer thermoregulation to avoid overheating.[15] This may be one reason why humans have more sweat glands than other mammals, especially on the face. The additional loss of body hair would have increased the effectiveness of evaporation of sweat, and produced better cooling.[15] Though naked skin is advantageous for thermoregulation, it exposes the epidermis to destructive levels of UV radiation that can cause sunburn, skin cancer and birth defects resulting from the destruction of the essential vitamin B folate.[15] Consequently strong natural selection favored increased levels of melanin in the skin and humans lost their light skin.[15]
The skin of albinos is similar to Europeans and East Asians in that it is depigmented relative to other populations. However in whites and East Asians the enzymes that produce melanin are still active and produce relatively small amounts of melanin to provide some coloration to the skin. With albinos, the enzyme that produces melanin is defective, thus they produce virtually no melanin, which produces the palest skin of all humans[16]. Since melanin protects the skin from UV radiation, albinos have no natural protection and their skin is vulnerable to sunlight that can be tolerated by other light skinned peoples. Furthermore in the presence of more intense levels of UV radiation from the sun, the skin cells of whites and East Asians are able to produce additional amounts of melanin to tan the skin to a darker complexion, providing extra protection, while albinos lack the ability to tan.[17][18] Albinism is very rare. For example, one person in 17,000 in the U.S.A. has some type of albinism. [19]
Origins of light skin
Any mutation that produced lighter skin color would have been a severe disadvantage to those living under the bright African sun.[14] When humans left Africa for less sun intense regions of the world, the selective pressure militating against lighter skin would have relaxed, this probably explains the greater variety of skin color found outside sub-Saharan Africa[20]. Lighter skin colors may have been advantageous at higher latitudes since they allow greater penetration of the sun's UV radiation, a requirement for vitamin D synthesis. This may have led to selection for lightly pigmented skin.[14] Scientists have identified at least 100 genes associated with pigment processing. Though African populations are relatively dark, according to a recent study they possess a greater diversity in skin complexion than all other populations. It is therefore likely that many of the alleles associated with light pigmentation were already present in an ancestral population in Africa prior to their dispersal. When humans migrated out of Africa, the lighter skin causing alleles may have accumulated in one population, either by genetic drift, natural selection, sexual selection or a combination of these effects. Since their effects are additive it is possible light skin could arise over several generations without any new mutations taking place[21][22]
A 2006 study provides evidence that the light skin pigmentation observed in Europeans and East Asians arose independently. They concluded that light pigmentation in Europeans is at least partially due to the effects of positive directional and/or sexual selection. [23]
Molecular biology of light skin
Skin color is a quantitative trait in that it is varies continuously on a gradient from dark to light, as it is a polygenic trait, under the influence of several genes. Many of these genes have yet to be identified, however two genes are known that do contribute to skin color, they are the MC1R and the SLC24A5 genes.[14] Mixed ancestry people of African-European descent who possess one or two copies of the European allele of the SLC24A5 gene have skin color that is significantly lighter than mixed ancestry people who possess only the African allele. It is estimated, based on this observation, that the SLC24A5 locus "explains between 25-38% of the European-African difference in skin melanin index".[24][22][25][26].
Hair and eye color polymorphism
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Hair_color.png/250px-Hair_color.png)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Eye-color.png/250px-Eye-color.png)
White people exhibit greater polymorphism in hair and eye color than other populations. Geographically, such polymorphism is most prevalent in Europe, more specifically the Baltic region.
Eye color experts Sturm and Frudakis note, "The common occurrence of lighter iris colours is found almost exclusively in Europeans (i.e. recent monophyletic, non-East Asian, non-Native American and non-African lineages) and individuals of European admixture."[29]
Anthropologist Peter Frost geographically locates the variation as follows, "This diversity reaches a maximum in an area centered on the East Baltic and covering northern and eastern Europe." He speculates that this diversity may be because "sexual selection was much stronger among ancestral Europeans than in other human populations." [30] [31]
Census and social definitions in different regions
Definitions of white have changed over the years, including the official definitions used in many countries, such as the United States and Brazil.[32] Some defied official regulations through the phenomenon of "passing", many of them becoming white people, either temporarily or permanently. Through the mid- to late 20th century, numerous countries had formal legal standards or procedures defining racial categories (see cleanliness of blood, apartheid in South Africa, hypodescent). However, as critiques of racism, scientific arguments against the existence of race, and international prohibitions on state racial discrimination arose, a trend towards self-identification of racial status arose. Below are some census definitions of white, which may differ from the social definition of white within the same country. The social definition has also been added where possible.
Australia
From the late 19th century through 1973, the Government of Australia restricted all permanent immigration to the country by non-Europeans under the White Australia policy, which was enabled by the Immigration Restriction Act 1901,[33] but not formally codified. Immigration inspectors were empowered to ask immigrants to take dictation from any European language as a test for admittance, a test used in practice to exclude people from Asia, South America, Europe and Africa depending on the political climate. Under the policy, large numbers of Portuguese, Italian, Greek, South Slavic, German, Dutch and Polish immigrants were admitted following World War II, assimilating into the country's Anglo-Celtic population.[34] Immigration is no longer restricted to white people.
Brazil
Brazil's definition of whiteness is premised on racial mixture rather than hypodescent, producing a range of historical categories for race. As a term, white is more broadly applied than in North America.
Recent censuses in Brazil are conducted on the basis of self-identification. In the 2000 census, 53% of Brazilians (approximately 90 million people in 2000; around 100 million as of 2006) were white and 39% pardo or multiracial Brazilians. White is applied as a term to people of European, Jewish and Arab descent. The census shows a trend of fewer Brazilians of African descent (blacks and pardos) identifying as white people as their social status increases.[35]
Canada
In the results of Statistics Canada's 2001 Canadian Census, white is one category in the population groups data variable, derived from data collected in question 19 (the results of this question are also used to derive the visible minority groups variable). [36]
In the 1995 Employment Equity Act, '"members of visible minorities" means persons, other than Aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour'. In the 2001 Census, persons who marked-in Chinese, South Asian, African, Filipino, Latin American, Southeast Asian, Arab, West Asian, Japanese or Korean were included in the visible minority population.[37] A separate census question on "cultural or ethnic origin" (question 17) does not refer to skin colour.[38]
Norway
According to the Norwegian Social Science Data Service, white is a possible answer to ethnic/people group category question. After Norwegians, Sami, Kvens and other Nordics, it is mentioned as white/European. Other categories are Asian, Black/African/Caribbean and "other".[39] Statistics Norway considers Asia.[40]
United Kingdom
In the UK, the Office for National Statistics uses the term white as an ethnic category. The terms White British, White Irish and White Other are used. White British includes Welsh, English and Scottish peoples, as well as residents of Northern Ireland who identify as British. The category White Other includes all white people not from the British Isles.[41][42] Socially, in the UK white usually refers only to people of native British and European origin.[43] Even Turkey, which is on the periphery of Europe is seen as a non-white country.[44]
United States
The current U.S. Census definition includes white "people having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa.[45] The U.S. Department of Justice Federal Bureau of Investigation also categorizes white "people having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa through racial categories used in the UCR Program adopted from the Statistical Policy Handbook (1978) and published by the Office of Federal Statistical Policy and Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce.[46]
Raj Bhopal, MD, and Liam Donaldson MD, of the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, England, have criticized the broad inclusion as “white” in contemporary classifications such as those used by the US Census and British Census. In summarizing the qualities of most of the terms for nonminority populations in race, ethnicity and health research in US and UK found that white "in practice, refers to people of European origin with pale complexions". The authors concluded that white people are a heterogeneous group for the purpose of many studies. They also recommended that "white" as an epidemiological classification (for purposes of health research) be abandoned primarily because of its heterogeneity. [47]
The cultural boundaries separating Caucasian Americans from other racial or ethnic categories are contested and always changing. Among those not considered white at some time in American history have been the Irish, Germans, Ashkenazi Jews, Italians, Spaniards, Slavs, Greeks and other Mediterranean peoples.[48] Studies have found that Arab American teenagers may sometimes construct identities that distinguish themselves from "white society."[49]
Professor David R. Roediger of the University of Illinois, suggests that the construction of the white race in the United States was an effort to mentally distance slave owners from slaves.[50] By the 18th century, white had become well established as a racial term. The process of officially being defined as white by law often came about in court disputes over pursuit of citizenship. The Immigration Act of 1790 offered naturalization only to "any alien, being a free white person". In at least 52 cases, people denied the status of white by immigration officials sued in court for status as white people. By 1923, courts had vindicated a "common-knowledge" standard, concluding that "scientific evidence" was incoherent. Legal scholar John Tehranian argues that in reality this was a "performance-based" standard, relating to religious practices, education, intermarriage and a community's role in the United States.[51]
Relations with blacks
The one drop rule is a historical term in the United States that holds that a person with any trace of non-white ancestry (however small or invisible) cannot be considered white. The one drop rule is virtually unique to the United States.[52] The one drop rule created a bifurcated system of either black or either white regardless of a person's physical appearance. This contrasts with the more flexible social structures present in Latin America where there are no clear cut divisions between the various ethnicities.[53]
During the transatlantic slave trade approximately 600,000 Africans were brought to the United States.[54] Today there are 37 million African Americans.[55] The first Africans arrived on what is now the United states in 1619.[56] As a result four hundred years of living alongside whites the majority of African Americans have white admixture. Due to "passing for white" many white people also have African ancestry. It has even been suggested that the majority of the descendants of African slaves are actually white.[57] Despite the shared ancestry that blacks and whites have in the US, the one drop rule has served to polarize the US into two racial groups. According to recent studies white Americans rank non-Americans as closer in social distance to them than their fellow black citizens.[58]
However many are questioning the legitimacy of the one drop rule. Debra Dickerson writes:
"easily one-third of blacks have white DNA" she wonders why, in light of this, so much of the focus on tracing ancestry in the black community has focused on finding a link back to a region in Africa. She holds that in ignoring their white ancestors African Americans are denying their fully articulated multi-racial identities.[59]
The peculiarity of the one drop rule may be illustrated by the case of Mariah Carey.[60] She was publicly called "another white girl trying to sing black".[61] [62] In an interview with Larry King Mariah said despite her physical appearance and the fact the she was raised primarily by her white mother she does not feel that she is white because of the effects of the one drop rule.[63]
History of the term
The definition of white people has varied in different time periods and locations. Any definition has implications for areas as diverse as national identity, consanguinity, public policy, religion, population statistics, racial segregation, affirmative action, eugenics, racial marginalization and racial quotas. The term has been applied with varying degrees of formality and consistency in many disciplines. Such disciplines include sociology, political science, genetics, biology, medicine, biomedicine, human languages, cultural analysis, and legal analysis.
Ancient Greece and Rome used the term white as one description of skin color. Its light appearance was distinguished, for example, in a comparison of white-skinned Persian soldiers from the sun-tanned skin of Greek troops in Xenophon's Agesilaus.[64] One early use of the term appears in the Amherst Papyri, which were scrolls written in ancient Ptolemaic Greek. It contained the use of black and white in reference to human skin color.[65] In an analysis of the rise of the term, classicist James Dee found that, "the Greeks and Romans do not describe themselves as "white people" —or as anything else because they had no regular word in their color vocabulary for themselves—and we can see that the concept of a distinct 'white race' was not present in the ancient world."[66]
Assignment of positive and negative connotations of white and black date to the classical period in a number of European languages, but these differences were not applied to skin color per se. Although differences in skin color between southern Europeans and Moors were nearly nonexistent and on occasion, religious conversion was described figuratively as a change in skin color.[67]
The term white race or white people entered dictionaries of the major European languages in the 1600s.[67] Winthrop Jordan, author of Black Over White, argues that race emerged with the inherited status of slavery. He says the shift from Christian, free, and English to white happened in approximately 1680.[68] Theodore W. Allen notes in The Invention of the White Race that white identity emerged in the colonies with slavery, and says that "seventeenth-century commentator, Morgan Godwyn, found it necessary to explain to the English at home that, in Barbados, 'white' was 'the general name for Europeans."[69] White quickly became a legal category, encoded in a variety of laws and conferring different status.
In 1758, Carolus Linnaeus proposed what he considered to be natural taxonomic categories of the human species. He distinguished between Homo sapiens and Homo sapiens europaeus, and he later added four geographical subdivisions of humans: white Europeans, red Americans, yellow Asians and black Africans. Although Linnaeus intended them as objective classifications, he used both taxonomical and cultural data in his subdivision descriptions. [70]
In 1775, Blumenbach categorized humans into five races, which largely corresponded with Linnaeus' classifications, except for the addition of Oceanians (whom he called Malay).[70] Immanuel Kant used the term weiß (white) in Von den verschiedenen Rassen den Menschen (About The Different Races of Men - 1775).
According to Gregory Jay, an English professor at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,
Before the age of exploration, group differences were largely based on language, religion, and geography. ...the European had always reacted a bit hysterically to the differences of skin color and facial structure between themselves and the populations encountered in Africa, Asia, and the Americas (see, for example, Shakespeare's dramatization of racial conflict in Othello and The Tempest). Beginning in the 1500s, Europeans began to develop what became known as "scientific racism," the attempt to construct a biological rather than cultural definition of race ... Whiteness, then, emerged as what we now call a "pan-ethnic" category, as a way of merging a variety of European ethnic populations into a single "race"...[5]
See also
- Caucasian race
- Angry white male
- First white child
- Genetic history of Europe
- Human skin color
- White African
- White American
- Stereotypes of White Americans and Europeans
- White Anglo-Saxon Protestant
- White Australia policy
- White flight
- White guilt
- White Hispanic
- White Latin American
- White male
- White nationalism
- White pride
- White privilege (sociology)
- White separatism
- Whiteness studies
- White supremacy
- Whiteness studies
Footnotes
- ^ White, from Merriam-Webster online.
- ^ White, from the Compact Oxford English Dictionary.
- ^ "Referring to races by colors, such as White, Black, and Brown, tends to obscure the fact that skin color and race are not the same." Frank F. Montalvo, "Surviving Race: Skin Color and the Socialization and Acculturation of Latinas," Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work, 13:3, 2004.
- ^ For extensive discussion on skin color as a metaphor for race (and not just in encounter with Japan), see Rotem Kowner, "Skin as a Metaphor: Early European Racial Views on Japan, 1548–1853," Ethnohistory 51.4 (2004) 751-778. See also, Christine Ward Gailey Politics, Colonialism and the Mutable Color of South Pacific Peoples," Transforming Anthropology 5.1&2 (1994). On historical antecedents during the European medieval period, see James H. Dee, "Black Odysseus, White Caesar: When Did 'White People' Become 'White,'?" The Classical Journal, Vol. 99, No. 2. (Dec., 2003 - Jan., 2004), p. 162ff.
- ^ a b Gregory Jay, [Who Invented White People? http://www.uwm.edu/~gjay/Whiteness/Whitenesstalk.html], 1998. Cite error: The named reference "GJay" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE
- ^ Jablonski NG, Chaplin G. 2000. The evolution of skin coloration, p. 19.
- ^ American Anthropological Association, "The Human Spectrum", Race: Are we so different? website.
- ^ John Tehranian, "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America," The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 109, No. 4. (Jan., 2000), p. 827.
- ^ Introduction to Skin Histology
- ^ Skin Color Adaptation
- ^ [1]
- ^ The 3 skin layers: epidermis, dermis, subcutaneous fat
- ^ a b c d Why humans and their fur parted ways
- ^ a b c d Cite error: The named reference
jablonski
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ [2] Skin Care: How to Save Your Skin page 13 ISBN 0766838188
- ^ The skin we're in
- ^ [3]
- ^ http://www.albinism.org/publications/what_is_albinism.html
- ^ Rana; et al. "High Polymorphism at the Human Melanocortin 1 Receptor Locus" (PDF). doi:10.1034/j.1600-0749.2000.130303.x.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(help); Explicit use of et al. in:|author=
(help) - ^ Human skin color diversity is highest in sub-Saharan African populations
- ^ a b Heather L. Norton, Rick A. Kittles, Esteban Parra, Paul McKeigue, Xianyun Mao, Keith Cheng, Victor A. Canfield, Daniel G. Bradley, Brian McEvoy and Mark D. Shriver (December 11, 2006) Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians Oxford Journals [4]
- ^ Heather L. Norton, Rick A. Kittles, Esteban Parra, Paul McKeigue, Xianyun Mao, Keith Cheng, Victor A. Canfield, Daniel G. Bradley, Brian McEvoy and Mark D. Shriver (December 11, 2006) Genetic Evidence for the Convergent Evolution of Light Skin in Europeans and East Asians Oxford Journals [5]
- ^ SLC24A5, a Putative Cation Exchanger, Affects Pigmentation in Zebrafish and Humans
- ^ Lamason RL, Mohideen MA, Mest JR, Wong AC, Norton HL, Aros MC, Jurynec MJ, Mao X, Humphreville VR, Humbert JE, Sinha S, Moore JL, Jagadeeswaran P, Zhao W, Ning G, Makalowska I, McKeigue PM, O'donnell D, Kittles R, Parra EJ, Mangini NJ, Grunwald DJ, Shriver MD, Canfield VA, Cheng KC (2005). "SLC24A5, a putative cation exchanger, affects pigmentation in zebrafish and humans". Science. 310 (5755): 1782–6. PMID 16357253.
{{cite journal}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Scientists Find A DNA Change That Accounts For White Skin, Washington Post
- ^ http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Frost 06.html
- ^ http://cogweb.ucla.edu/ep/Frost 06.html
- ^ Sturm RA, Frudakis TN. "Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry," Trends in Genetics, 2004 Aug;20(8):327-32.
- ^ Why Do Europeans Have So Many Hair and Eye Colors? by Peter Frost Université Laval (Canada) and St. Andrews University (Scotland) [6]
- ^ European hair and eye colorA case of frequency-dependent sexual selection? [7]
- ^ Adams, J.Q. (2001). Dealing with Diversity. Chicago, IL: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. 0-7872-8145-X.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ Immigration Restriction Act 1901 [8]
- ^ Stephen Castles, "The Australian Model of Immigration and Multiculturalism: Is It Applicable to Europe?," International Migration Review, Vol. 26, No. 2, Special Issue: The New Europe and International Migration. (Summer, 1992), pp. 549-567.
- ^ Gregory Rodriguez, "Brazil Separates Into Black and White," LA Times, September 3, 2006. Note that the figures belie the title.
- ^ "Groups" in Statistics Canada, Sample 20001 Census form. Statistics Canada, 2001 Census Visible Minority and Population Group User Guide
- ^ Human Resources and Social Development Canada, 2001 Employment Equity Data Report
- ^ Census 2001: 2B (Long Form)
- ^ http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/
- ^ http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/02/01/10/innvbef_en/
- ^ Identity, Ethnicity and Identity, National Statistics online. Retrieved 03 November 2006.
- ^ Census 2001 - Ethnicity and religion in England and Wales, Ethnicity and religion. Retrieved 03 November 2001.
- ^ Kissoon, Priya. King's College of London. Asylum Seekers: National Problem or National Solution. 2005. November 7, 2006.
- ^ Turks in Europe: Why are we afraid? pg. 63 About the Foreign Policy Centre
- ^ The White Population: 2000, Census 2000 Brief C2KBR/01-4, U.S. Census Bureau, August 2001.
- ^ Uniform Crime Reporting Handbook, U.S. Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation. P. 97 (2004)
- ^ http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1509085&blobtype=pdf
- ^ John Tehranian, "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America," The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 109, No. 4. (Jan., 2000), pp. 825-827.
- ^ http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1525/sop.2004.47.4.371
- ^ Roediger, Wages of Whiteness, 186; Tony Horwitz, Confederates in the Attic: Dispatches from the Unfinished Civil War (New York, 1998).
- ^ John Tehranian, "Performing Whiteness: Naturalization Litigation and the Construction of Racial Identity in America," The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 109, No. 4. (Jan., 2000), pp. 817-848.
- ^ One drop of blood
- ^ The triumph of the one drop rule
- ^ Stephen D. Behrendt, David Richardson, and David Eltis, W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research, Harvard University. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". Stephen Behrendt, "Transatlantic Slave Trade", Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 1999), ISBN 0-465-00071-1.
- ^ Census
- ^ History of slavery
- ^ The African ancestry of the white American population
- ^ The race myth page 90ISBN 0452286581 American blacks were ranked number 21 in social distance from white Americans out of 30 ethnicities. et
- ^ The End of Blackness by Debra Dickerson.
- ^ Carey Cites Bi-Racial Family for Insecurities American Renaissance News
- ^ Yahoo questions/answers/ Is Mariah Carey white?
- ^ Mariah Carey: 'Not another White girl trying to sing Black.'
- ^ Larry King interview with Mariah Carey
- ^ James H. Dee, "Black Odysseus, White Caesar: When Did 'White People' Become 'White,'?" The Classical Journal, Vol. 99, No. 2. (Dec., 2003 - Jan., 2004), p. 162.
- ^ Alan Cameron, Black and White: A Note on Ancient Nicknames, The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 119, No. 1 (Spring, 1998), pp. 113-117
- ^ James H. Dee, "Black Odysseus, White Caesar: When Did 'White People' Become 'White,'?" The Classical Journal, Vol. 99, No. 2. (Dec., 2003 - Jan., 2004), p. 163.
- ^ a b James H. Dee, "Black Odysseus, White Caesar: When Did 'White People' Become 'White,'?" The Classical Journal, Vol. 99, No. 2. (Dec., 2003 - Jan., 2004), p. 164.
- ^ Winthrop D. Jordan, The White Man's Burden, (condensed version of Black Over White), 1974, p. 52.
- ^ James Allen (1994). The Invention of the White Race: Racial Oppression and Social Control. Verso. ISBN 086091660X.
- ^ a b Sarah A Tishkoff & Kenneth K Kidd (2004) Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine Nature Genetics
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- Foley, Neil , The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997)
- Gossett, Thomas F. , Race: The History of an Idea in America, New ed. (New York: Oxford University, 1997)
- Guglielmo, Thomas A. , White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945, 2003, ISBN 0-19-515543-2
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- Jackson, F. L. C. (2004). Book chapter: Human genetic variation and health: new assessment approaches based on ethnogenetic layering British Medical Bulletin 2004; 69: 215–235 DOI: 10.1093/bmb/ldh012. Retrieved 29 December 2006.
- Jacobson, Matthew Frye , Whiteness of a Different Color: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race, Harvard, 1999, ISBN 0-674-95191-3.
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- Rosenberg NA, Pritchard JK, Weber JL, Cann HM, Kidd KK, et al. (2002) Genetic structure of human populations. Science 298: 2381–2385.Abstract
- Segal, Daniel A. , review of Racial Situations: Class Predicaments of Whiteness in Detroit American Ethnologist May 2002, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 470-473 doi:10.1525/ae.2002.29.2.470
- Smedley, Audrey , Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, 2nd ed. (Boulder: Westview, 1999).
- Sweet, Frank W. , Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise and Triumph of the One-Drop Rule, Backintyme, 2005, ISBN 0-939479-23-0.
- Tang, Hua., Tom Quertermous, Beatriz Rodriguez, Sharon L. R. Kardia, Xiaofeng Zhu, Andrew Brown,7 James S. Pankow,8 Michael A. Province,9 Steven C. Hunt, Eric Boerwinkle, Nicholas J. Schork, and Neil J. Risch (2005) Genetic Structure, Self-Identified Race/Ethnicity, and Confounding in Case-Control Association Studies Am. J. Hum. Genet. 76:268–275.
- "The United Independent Compensatory Code/System/Concept" A textbook/workbook for thought, speech and/or action for victims of racism (White supremacy) Neely Fuller Jr. 1984