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Some proponents of the multiregional hypothesis, including Wolpoff, argue that fossil evidence is more reliable than estimates based on genetic evidence and molecular clocks, which they contend are subject to genetic drift, bottlenecks and other complicating factors.
Some proponents of the multiregional hypothesis, including Wolpoff, argue that fossil evidence is more reliable than estimates based on genetic evidence and molecular clocks, which they contend are subject to genetic drift, bottlenecks and other complicating factors.


===Neanderthals===
===Neanderthals ===
Com.:Abrigo do Lagar Velho is clasified as EEMH with nenderthal traits perhaps title Nendrthals is not sholuld reflect this niuans

Multiregionalists claimed that the discovery of a possible hybrid ''Homo sapiens X neanderthalensis'' fossil child at the [[Abrigo do Lagar Velho]] rock-shelter site in Portugal in 1999 further supports the multiregional hypothesis, by reflecting the admixture of diverse human populations.<ref name=Duarte1999>''The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia'' ;Duarte C, 2. Maurício J, Pettitt P, Souto P, Trinkaus E, van der Plicht H, Zilhão J (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7604–7609,[http://www.pnas.org/content/96/13/7604.abstract?ijkey=9335ab52731624a02b5f7f426c4a8c2147934993&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]</ref> Two other archaeologists dispute this: "the analysis by Duarte ''et al.'' of the Lagar Velho child's skeleton is a brave and imaginative interpretation, of which it is unlikely that a majority of paleoanthropologists will consider proven."<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/13/7117 ''Chunky Gravettian child''; Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz ]</ref>
Multiregionalists claimed that the discovery of a possible hybrid ''Homo sapiens X neanderthalensis'' fossil child at the [[Abrigo do Lagar Velho]] rock-shelter site in Portugal in 1999 further supports the multiregional hypothesis, by reflecting the admixture of diverse human populations.<ref name=Duarte1999>''The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia'' ;Duarte C, 2. Maurício J, Pettitt P, Souto P, Trinkaus E, van der Plicht H, Zilhão J (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7604–7609,[http://www.pnas.org/content/96/13/7604.abstract?ijkey=9335ab52731624a02b5f7f426c4a8c2147934993&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha]</ref> Two other archaeologists dispute this: "the analysis by Duarte ''et al.'' of the Lagar Velho child's skeleton is a brave and imaginative interpretation, of which it is unlikely that a majority of paleoanthropologists will consider proven."<ref>[http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/96/13/7117 ''Chunky Gravettian child''; Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz ]</ref>


Revision as of 10:14, 24 September 2009

cite tools

Wikipedia:Citation tools —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.16.183.158 (talk) 07:47, 14 September 2009 (UTC)[reply]

Multiregional Evolution

draft { {Expert-subject-multiple|Evolutionary biology|Anthropology|Human Genetic History|date=June 2009}} (where are experts?)

A graph detailing the evolution to modern humans using the Multiregional theory of human evolution. The horizontal lines represent 'multiregional evolution' gene flow between regional lineages.

The multiregional hypothesis or orginally multiregional evolution is a model to account for the pattern of human evolution, proposed by Milford H. Wolpoff[1] in 1988[2]. The multiregional evolution holds that the evolution of humanity from the beginning of the Pleistocene 2.5 million years BP to the present day has been within a single, continuous human species, evolving worldwide to modern Homo sapiens.

Proponents of the multiregional evolution point to fossil and genomic data[3] as support for their hypothesis. The gene flow and sexual reproduction between modern and ancestral human population has not been ruled out,[4][5] and what is more importantant has not been statistically rejected. Recent African replacement postulate (akaRAO/OOA/noah ark theory/ eden/ eve..e.t.c (why so many catchy names?)) has been statistically rejected by 'nested clade analysis NCPA'

2009 statistical analysis over available NIH data find evidence for ancient admixture, suggesting this may be a general feature of recent human evolution.[6]

The most popular theory on human evolution is recent African origin of modern humans (RAO) - also known as "Out of Africa".

Regional continuity

The term "multiregional hypothesis" was first coined in the early 1980s by Milford H. Wolpoff and colleagues as an explanation for the apparent similarities seen in Homo erectus and Homo sapiens fossils from the same region, what they called regional continuity.[2]

Wolpoff rejected the earlier proposal by Coon of parallel evolution,[2] and proposed a theory based on clinal variation that would allow for the necessary balance between local selection and a global species. He proposed that Homo erectus, Neanderthals, Homo sapiens and other humans were a single species. This species arose in Africa two million years ago as H. erectus and then spread out over the world, developing adaptations to regional conditions. It was proposed that for periods of time some populations became isolated, developing in a different direction, but through continuous interbreeding, replacement, genetic drift and selection, adaptations that were an advantage anywhere on earth would spread, keeping the development of the species in the same overall direction, while maintaining adaptations to regional factors. Eventually, the more unusual local varieties of the species would have disappeared in favor of modern humans, retaining some regional adaptations, but with many common features.[2]

Fossil evidence

Some proponents of the multiregional hypothesis, including Wolpoff, argue that fossil evidence is more reliable than estimates based on genetic evidence and molecular clocks, which they contend are subject to genetic drift, bottlenecks and other complicating factors.

Neanderthals

Com.:Abrigo do Lagar Velho is clasified as EEMH with nenderthal traits perhaps title Nendrthals is not sholuld reflect this niuans

Multiregionalists claimed that the discovery of a possible hybrid Homo sapiens X neanderthalensis fossil child at the Abrigo do Lagar Velho rock-shelter site in Portugal in 1999 further supports the multiregional hypothesis, by reflecting the admixture of diverse human populations.[7] Two other archaeologists dispute this: "the analysis by Duarte et al. of the Lagar Velho child's skeleton is a brave and imaginative interpretation, of which it is unlikely that a majority of paleoanthropologists will consider proven."[8]

In an article appearing in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences[9] in 2007, Erik Trinkaus has brought together the available data, which shows that early modern humans did exhibit evidence of Neanderthal traits, saying, "When you look at all of the well dated and diagnostic early modern European fossils, there is a persistent presence of anatomical features that were present among the Neandertals but absent from the earlier African modern humans...Early modern Europeans reflect both their predominant African early modern human ancestry and a substantial degree of admixture between those early modern humans and the indigenous Neandertals."[10]

Peking man

Shang et al see continuity in skeletal remains of archaic people from east Asia.[11]

Early modern humans

Wolpoff and colleagues published an analysis in 2001 of character traits of the skulls of early modern human fossils, which failed to reject a theory of dual ancestry from Javan Homo erectus for Australian early modern humans and Neanderthals for Central European modern humans, and which they said ruled out a replacement model.[12] A subsequent analysis comparing differences of Neanderthal skulls to those of modern humans using 3D morphometric techniques showed a large difference between the two populations, such that Harvatti & al concluded that "we interpret the evidence presented here as supporting the view that Neanderthals represent an extinct human species and therefore refute the regional continuity model for Europe."[13] It has been argued that these differences are consistent with an evolving lineage, as ancestors are never identical to their descendants.[14]

New early modern human remains were unearthed in 2003 in Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian. 14C dated 42-39 ky Tianyuan 1 holotype is the oldest, directly dated EMH in eastern Eurasia. Tianyuan 1 exhibits a series of typical modern, derived modern human features and few archaic traits. Some late archaic human traits include a large hamulus length, anterior to posterior dental proportions and a broad and rounded distal phalangeal tuberosityhis. [15]

The oldest European EMH remains were discovered in 2002 in cave named Peştera cu Oase near the Iron Gates in the Danubian corridor. Oase 1 holotype revealed specific traits combining a variety of archaic Homo traits, derived early modern humans, and possibly Neanderthal features. Modern human attributes place it close to European early modern humans among Late Pleistocene samples. The fossil belongs to the few findings in Europe which could be directly dated and is considered the oldest known early modern human fossil from Europe. Two laboratories independently yielded microfiltrated collagen with 14C averaging to 34,950 B.P.[16] In Europe around 40-30 ka evolved latitudinal cline between intermixed Neanderthal traits on west and EEMH on east. The human population phenotypic continuity exist in subsequent generations.[7][16]

Genetic evidence

By analysing haplotype data, Alan Templeton found support for three waves of human migration out of Africa, the first being 1.9 million years ago, and concluded that it was impossible that existing Eurasian populations had not interbred with African migrants.[17]

Studies on past population bottlenecks that can be inferred from molecular data have led multiregionalists to conclude that the recent single-origin hypothesis is untenable because there are no population size bottlenecks affecting all genes that are more recent than 2 million years ago.

  • Microcephalin D allele introgressed into the modern human gene pool points to the Neanderthal lineage as possible source and compelling evidence of admixture among the human loci.[18][19][20]
  • RRM2P4[21] (ribonucleotide reductase M2 subunit pseudogene 4) [3]. Present day human population clades A and B have 2.3 Ma time to most recent common ancestor (TMRCA).[22] The gene tree branches of RRM2P4 point to eastern Asian ancestry.[23]
  • PDHA1 (pyruvate dehydrogenase) locus on X chromosome has estimated coalescent-time depth of 1.86 Ma.[23][24][25]
  • MAPT locus 17q21.3 split into deep genetic lineages H1 and H2 . H2 lineage in European population suggest inheritance from Neanderthals [26][27][28][29][30].
  • ASAH1. Related to mental activity N-Acylsphingosine Amidohydrolase gene two V and M deep genetic lineages[31] have TMRCA 2.4±.4 Ma.[32] Linkage disequilibrium 62% and small nucleotide diversity 0.05% indicate a signature of positive Darwinian selection for the V lineage. The M lineage is attributed to ancient population structure of humans in Africa.[33]
  • X-chromosome genes DMD44, APXL, AMELX, TNFSF5 show S-N heterogeneous patterns of variation and may play role in diversity-reducing selection in non-africans[34].
  • CMAH CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid hydroxylase pseudogene show 2.9 Ma genetic history [35].
  • NAT2 [36] SNPs cluster predictably with linages originating in sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and East Asia.[37] NAT1*11A 0.29 Ma suggest ancient structured population with gene tree rooted in Eurasia. [38][39].
  • ALMS1 suggest ancient and complex evolutionary history.[40]
  • Genome polymorphism: Inversion polymorphism: known 5-million-base pair (Mbp) 8p23.1, 1-Mbp on 17q21.3 and novel 1.2-Mbp on 15q24, 2.1-Mbp 15q13, 1.7-Mbp 17q12 [11] . In the sample of 8 gnomes from worldwide sample including Yuruba Kidd&al group found 4 million SNPs and 796,273 small indels (1−100 bp in size); 15 large regions of excess nucleotide variation 500 kbp to 3 Mbp. Two of variable sites are described detailed above. [41]

Proponents of the multiregional hypothesis show genetic sequences of several loci in the human genome with million year old genealogy[42][43][44][45][46][47]. Those data of deep genetic lineages are explained in the multiregional theory framework as a result of heredity from structured ancestral population[48]. The data are not interpreted in light of the RAO hypothesis postulating recent replacement where separated million years ago genetic lineages are at best unpredicted. [49][50]

Criticism of the multiregional hypothesis

A competing theory, the recent African origin of modern humans (also known as "Out of Africa"), has emerged as the near consensus view since the 1990s,[51][52][53] proposing that modern humans arose in Africa around 100-200,000 years ago, moving out of Africa around 50-60,000 years ago to replace existing human species such as Homo erectus and the Neanderthals.[54]

Genetic data from Monophyletic hapologrups gave strong support to the recent African replacement scenario. However, this is where the near consensus on human settlement history ended, and considerable uncertainty clouded any more detailed aspects.[52] Progres in genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans [55], when genetic data are used in a hypothesis-testing framework, the out-of-Africa replacement hypothesis is strongly rejected.[56] Nested clade analysis

Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1007/978-3-540-33761-4_20, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-33761-4_20 instead.

Recent work in this area supports a view of several dispersions out of Africa, with the later two corresponding roughly to the appearance of the morphospecies Homo heidelbergensis and modern H. sapiens, but in both cases showing evidence of dispersions with admixture, rather than dispersions with replacement

Ancient mitochondrial DNA sequence, extracted from 37,000 years old Neanderthal specimen, and mitochondrial DNA from present day humans have different sequence. However, the largest example of sequenced Neanderthal nuclear DNA comprised 1 million base pairs compared to a human nuclear genome size of roughly 3 billion base pairs. This amounts to a comparison of only 0.033% of the genomes.

although there is not yet evidence for any extant 37,000 year or older mitohondrial aDNA still surviving up until today.[57]

See also

References

  1. ^ Wolpoff, MH (2000). "Multiregional, not multiple origins". Am J Phys Anthropol. 112 (1): 129–36. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |pdf= ignored (help)
  2. ^ a b c d Wolpoff, MH (1988). "Modern Human Origins". Science. 241 (4867): 772–4. doi:10.1126/science.3136545. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  3. ^ a b Cox, Mp; Mendez, Fl; Karafet, Tm; Pilkington, Mm; Kingan, Sb; Destro-Bisol, G; Strassmann, Bi; Hammer, Mf (2008). "Testing for archaic hominin admixture on the X chromosome: model likelihoods for the modern human RRM2P4 region from summaries of genealogical topology under the structured coalescent" (Free full text). Genetics. 178 (1): 427–37. doi:10.1534/genetics.107.080432. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 2206091. PMID 18202385. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Relethford, JH (2008). "Genetic evidence and the modern human origins debate". Heredity. 100 (6). Macmillan: 555–63. doi:10.1038/hdy.2008.14.
  5. ^ Wall, JD (2006). "Archaic admixture in the human genome". Curr Opin Genet Dev. 16 (6): 606–10. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2006.09.006. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ Wall, J. D. (2009). "Detecting Ancient Admixture and Estimating Demographic Parameters in Multiple Human Populations". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 26: 1823. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp096.
  7. ^ a b The early Upper Paleolithic human skeleton from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho (Portugal) and modern human emergence in Iberia ;Duarte C, 2. Maurício J, Pettitt P, Souto P, Trinkaus E, van der Plicht H, Zilhão J (1999) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96:7604–7609,[1]
  8. ^ Chunky Gravettian child; Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H. Schwartz
  9. ^ Trinkaus, E (2007). "European early modern humans and the fate of the Neandertals" (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (18): 7367–72. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702214104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1863481. PMID 17452632. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  10. ^ http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070423185434.htm The Emerging Fate Of The Neandertals
  11. ^ Shang; et al. (1999). "An early modern human from Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (16): 6573. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702169104. PMID 17416672. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  12. ^ Wolpoff, Milford H (2001). "Modern Human Ancestry at the Peripheries: A Test of the Replacement Theory". Science. 291. AAAS: 293–297. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ Harvati, Katerina (2004). "Neanderthal taxonomy reconsidered: Implications of 3D primate models of intra- and interspecific differences". PNAS. 101 (5): 1147–1152. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ Wolpoff, Milford (2004). "Why not the Neandertals?" (PDF). World Archaeology. 36: 527. doi:10.1080/0043824042000303700. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ Shang, H; Tong, H; Zhang, S; Chen, F; Trinkaus, E (2007). "An early modern human from Tianyuan Cave, Zhoukoudian, China" (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (16): 6573–8. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702169104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1871827. PMID 17416672. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  16. ^ a b Trinkaus, E; Moldovan, O; Milota, S; Bîlgăr, A; Sarcina, L; Athreya, S; Bailey, Se; Rodrigo, R; Mircea, G; Higham, T; Ramsey, Cb; Van, Der, Plicht, J (2003). "An early modern human from the Peştera cu Oase, Romania" (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (20): 11231–6. doi:10.1073/pnas.2035108100. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 208740. PMID 14504393. When multiple measurements are undertaken, the mean result can be determined through averaging the activity ratios. For Oase 1, this provides a weighted average activity ratio of 〈14a〉 = 1.29 ± 0.15%, resulting in a combined OxA-GrA 14C age of 34,950, +990, and –890 B.P. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Williams, Robyn (2004). "Are We Neanderthals?". The Science Show. ABC Radio. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
  18. ^ Evans, Pd; Mekel-Bobrov, N; Vallender, Ej; Hudson, Rr; Lahn, Bt (2006). "Evidence that the adaptive allele of the brain size gene microcephalin introgressed into Homo sapiens from an archaic Homo lineage" (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 103 (48): 18178–83. doi:10.1073/pnas.0606966103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1635020. PMID 17090677. ... As such, microcephalin shows by far the most compelling evidence of admixture among the human loci examined thus far. Speculation about the identity of the archaic Homo population from which the microcephalin D allele introgressed into the modern human gene pool points to the Neanderthal lineage as a potential (although by no means only) candidate. Anatomically modern humans and Neanderthals shared a long period of coexistence, from as early as 130,000 years ago in the Middle East (39) to as late as 35,000 years ago in Europe (40), consistent with the estimated introgression time of the microcephalin D allele at or sometime before (approx)37,000 years ago. Furthermore, the worldwide frequency distribution of the D allele, exceptionally high outside of Africa but low in sub-Saharan Africa (29), suggests, but does not necessitate, admixture with an archaic Eurasian population. ... {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Trinkaus, E (2007). "European early modern humans and the fate of the Neandertals" (Free full text). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (18): 7367–72. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702214104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1863481. PMID 17452632. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  20. ^ Evans, Pd; Gilbert, Sl; Mekel-Bobrov, N; Vallender, Ej; Anderson, Jr; Vaez-Azizi, Lm; Tishkoff, Sa; Hudson, Rr; Lahn, Bt (2005). "Microcephalin, a gene regulating brain size, continues to evolve adaptively in humans". Science (New York, N.Y.). 309 (5741): 1717–20. doi:10.1126/science.1113722. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 16151009. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ sequence and gene tree for RRM2P4 haplotypes oxfordjournals.org
  22. ^ Time-scaled gene tree of the RRM2P4. TMRCA between A, B clades 2.3 Mya jpeg
  23. ^ a b Garrigan, D; Mobasher, Z; Severson, T; Wilder, Ja; Hammer, Mf (2005). "Evidence for archaic Asian ancestry on the human X chromosome" (Free full text). Molecular biology and evolution. 22 (2): 189–92. doi:10.1093/molbev/msi013. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 15483323. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Rosalind M. Harding (March 16, 1999). "More on the X files". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (6): 2582–2584. the pattern of diversity at the PDHA1 locus unexpected is that this extreme structure is observed in a polymorphism with an estimated total coalescent-time depth of 1.86 million years {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |vol= ignored (|volume= suggested) (help)
  25. ^ Harris, E. E. ;Jody Hey (1999). [pdf "X chromosome evidence for ancient human histories"]. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 96: 3320. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.6.3320. {{cite journal}}: Check |url= value (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  26. ^ J. Hardy, A. Pittman, A. Myers, K. Gwinn-Hardy, H.C. Fung, R. de Silva, M. Hutton and J. Duckworth (2005). "Evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens". Biochemical Society Transactions. 33, part 4, . We suggest that the H2 haplotype is derived from Homo neanderthalensis and entered H. sapiens populations during the coexistence of these species in Europe from approx. 45 000 to 18 000 years ago and that the H2 haplotype has been under selection pressure since that time, possibly because of the role of this H1 haplotype in neurodegenerative disease."..."The tau (MAPT ) locus is very unusual. Over a region of approx. 1.8 Mb, there are two haplotype clades in European populations, H1 and H2 [6,7]. In other populations, only the H1 occurs and shows a normal pattern of recombination{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Shaw-Smith, C; Pittman, Am; Willatt, L; Martin, H; Rickman, L; Gribble, S; Curley, R; Cumming, S; Dunn, C; Kalaitzopoulos, D; Porter, K; Prigmore, E; Krepischi-Santos, Ac; Varela, Mc; Koiffmann, Cp; Lees, Aj; Rosenberg, C; Firth, Hv; De, Silva, R; Carter, Np (2006). "Microdeletion encompassing MAPT at chromosome 17q21.3 is associated with developmental delay and learning disability". Nature genetics. 38 (9): 1032–7. doi:10.1038/ng1858. ISSN 1061-4036. PMID 16906163. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  28. ^ Zody, Mc; Jiang, Z; Fung, Hc; Antonacci, F; Hillier, Lw; Cardone, Mf; Graves, Ta; Kidd, Jm; Cheng, Z; Abouelleil, A; Chen, L; Wallis, J; Glasscock, J; Wilson, Rk; Reily, Ad; Duckworth, J; Ventura, M; Hardy, J; Warren, Wc; Eichler, Ee (2008). "Evolutionary toggling of the MAPT 17q21.31 inversion region". Nature genetics. doi:10.1038/ng.193. ISSN 1061-4036. PMID 18690220. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Introgression and microcephalin FAQ John Hawks [2]
  30. ^ Almos, Pz; Horváth, S; Czibula, A; Raskó, I; Sipos, B; Bihari, P; Béres, J; Juhász, A; Janka, Z; Kálmán, J (2008). "H1 tau haplotype-related genomic variation at 17q21.3 as an Asian heritage of the European Gypsy population". Heredity. 101 (5): 416–9. doi:10.1038/hdy.2008.70. ISSN 0018-067X. PMID 18648385. In this study, we examine the frequency of a 900 kb inversion at 17q21.3 in the Gypsy and Caucasian populations of Hungary, which may reflect the Asian origin of Gypsy populations. Of the two haplotypes (H1 and H2), H2 is thought to be exclusively of Caucasian origin, and its occurrence in other racial groups is likely to reflect admixture. In our sample, the H1 haplotype was significantly more frequent in the Gypsy population (89.8 vs 75.5%, P<0.001) and was in Hardy–Weinberg disequilibrium (P=0.017). The 17q21.3 region includes the gene of microtubule-associated protein tau, and this result might imply higher sensitivity to H1 haplotype-related multifactorial tauopathies among Gypsies. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ ASAH1 SL and ML region SNP DNA seguences jpeg
  32. ^ http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content-nw/full/178/3/1505/FIG4
  33. ^ Kim, Hl; Satta, Y (2008). "Population genetic analysis of the N-acylsphingosine amidohydrolase gene associated with mental activity in humans" (Free full text). Genetics. 178 (3): 1505–15. doi:10.1534/genetics.107.083691. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 2278054. PMID 18245333. ..heterozygosity with V and M .. observed value in the sample is 0.23, which is significantly lower..in both the African and non-African samples.. the V and M lineages have been maintained in a partially isolated subpopulation.. it should be noted that the pattern of genetic diversity of ASAH1 and other loci is compatible with the proposal that the human population was once geographically structured.. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  34. ^ Hammer, Mf; Garrigan, D; Wood, E; Wilder, Ja; Mobasher, Z; Bigham, A; Krenz, Jg; Nachman, Mw (2004). "Heterogeneous patterns of variation among multiple human x-linked Loci: the possible role of diversity-reducing selection in non-africans" (Free full text). Genetics. 167 (4): 1841–53. doi:10.1534/genetics.103.025361. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 1470985. PMID 15342522. ...results indicate that a simple out-of-Africa bottleneck model is not sufficient to explain the observed patterns of sequence variation and that diversity-reducing selection acting at a subset of loci and/or a more complex neutral model must be invoked. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ Hayakawa, T; Aki, I; Varki, A; Satta, Y; Takahata, N (2006). "Fixation of the human-specific CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid hydroxylase pseudogene and implications of haplotype diversity for human evolution". Genetics. 172 (2): 1139–46. doi:10.1534/genetics.105.046995. ISSN 0016-6731. PMC 1456212. PMID 16272417. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Sabbagh, A; Langaney, A; Darlu, P; Gérard, N; Krishnamoorthy, R; Poloni, Es (2008). "Worldwide distribution of NAT2 diversity: implications for NAT2 evolutionary history" (Free full text). BMC genetics. 9: 21. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-9-21. PMC 2292740. PMID 18304320. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  37. ^ Multidimensional scaling of genetic distances indicating a very good fit of the projection to the original samples data from sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and East Asia map
  38. ^ Patin, E; Barreiro, Lb; Sabeti, Pc; Austerlitz, F; Luca, F; Sajantila, A; Behar, Dm; Semino, O; Sakuntabhai, A; Guiso, N; Gicquel, B; Mcelreavey, K; Harding, Rm; Heyer, E; Quintana-Murci, L (2006). "Deciphering the ancient and complex evolutionary history of human arylamine N-acetyltransferase genes". American journal of human genetics. 78 (3): 423–36. doi:10.1086/500614. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 1380286. PMID 16416399. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ johnhawks.net
  40. ^ Scheinfeldt, Lb; Biswas, S; Madeoy, J; Connelly, Cf; Schadt, Ee; Akey, Jm (2009). "Population genomic analysis of ALMS1 in humans reveals a surprisingly complex evolutionary history". Molecular biology and evolution. 26 (6): 1357–67. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp045. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 19279085. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  41. ^ Kidd, Jeffrey M. (2008). "Mapping and sequencing of structural variation from eight human genomes". Nature. 453: 56. doi:10.1038/nature06862.
  42. ^ Evidence for Archaic Asian Ancestry on the Human X Chromosome; Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Tesa Severson, Jason A. Wilder and Michael F. Hammer; Molecular Biology and Evolution 2005 22(2):189-192; doi:10.1093/molbev/msi013 [3]
  43. ^ Deep Haplotype Divergence and Long-Range Linkage Disequilibrium at Xp21.1 Provide Evidence That Humans Descend From a Structured Ancestral Population; Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Sarah B. Kingan, Jason A. Wilder and Michael F. Hammer; Genetics, Vol. 170, 1849-1856, August 2005, Copyright © 2005 doi:10.1534/genetics.105.041095 [4]
  44. ^ X chromosome evidence for ancient human histories; Eugene E. Harris and Jody Hey; PNAS March 16, 1999 vol. 96 no. 6 3320-3324 [5]
  45. ^ A common inversion under selection in Europeans; Stefansson H, Helgason A, Thorleifsson G, Steinthorsdottir V, Masson G, Barnard J, Baker A, Jonasdottir A, Ingason A, Gudnadottir VG, et al. Nature Genetics 37, 129 - 137 (2005) Published online: 16 January 2005; doi:10.1038/ng1508
  46. ^ Evidence that the adaptive allele of the brain size gene microcephalin introgressed into Homo sapiens from an archaic Homo lineage; Patrick D. Evans, Nitzan Mekel-Bobrov, Eric J. Vallender, Richard R. Hudson and Bruce T. Lahn; PNAS November 28, 2006 vol. 103 no. 48 18178-18183 [6]
  47. ^ Early modern human diversity suggests subdivided population structure and a complex out-of-Africa scenario Philipp Gunza, Fred L. Booksteina, Philipp Mitteroeckera, Andrea Stadlmayra, Horst Seidlera and Gerhard W. Webera; 10.1073/pnas.0808160106 [7]
  48. ^ [8]
  49. ^ Ancient lineages in the genome: A response to Fagundes et al; Daniel Garrigan and Michael F. Hammer; doi:10.1534/genetics.105.041095 [9]
  50. ^ Reply to Garrigan and Hammer: Ancient lineages and assimilation; Nelson J. R. Fagundes, Nicolas Ray, Mark Beaumont, Samuel Neuenschwande, Francisco M. Salzano†, Sandro L. Bonatto and Laurent Excoffier ;10.1073/pnas.0711261105 [10] quote:We must repeat that our results do not exclude the occurrence of some admixture events between modern and archaic humans,
  51. ^ Template:Cite pmc
  52. ^ a b Hua Liu, et al. A Geographically Explicit Genetic Model of Worldwide Human-Settlement History. American Journal of Human Genetics, volume 79 (2006), pages 230–237, quote: Currently available genetic and archaeological evidence is generally interpreted as supportive of a recent single origin of modern humans in East Africa. However, this is where the near consensus on human settlement history ends, and considerable uncertainty clouds any more detailed aspect of human colonization history.
  53. ^ Weaver, Timothy D (2008). "New developments in the genetic evidence for modern human origins". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 17 (1). Wiley-Liss: 69–80. doi:10.1002/evan.20161. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ Fagundes, NJ (2007). "Statistical evaluation of alternative models of human evolution". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 104 (45): 17614–9. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ Eswaran, V.; Harpending, H.; Rogers, A. (2005). "Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans". Journal of human evolution. 49 (1): 1–18. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.02.006. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 15878780. Ten years ago (in 1995), evidence from genetics gave strong support to the "recent African origin" view of the evolution of modern humans, which posits that Homo sapiens arose as a new species in Africa and subsequently spread, leading to the extinction of other archaic human species. Subsequent data from the nuclear genome not only fail to support this model, they do not support any simple model of human demographic history {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  56. ^ Templeton, A. (2007). "Genetics and recent human evolution". Evolution; international journal of organic evolution. 61 (7): 1507–1519. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00164.x. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 17598736. ... many of the genetic studies on recent human evolution have suffered from scientific flaws, including misrepresenting the models of recent human evolution, focusing upon hypothesis compatibility rather than hypothesis testing, committing the ecological fallacy, and failing to consider a broader array of alternative hypotheses. Once these flaws are corrected, there is actually little genetic support for the out-of-Africa replacement hypothesis. Indeed, when genetic data are used in a hypothesis-testing framework, the out-of-Africa replacement hypothesis is strongly rejected. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  57. ^ Hodgson, JA (2008). "No evidence of a Neanderthal contribution to modern human diversity". Genome Biology. 9 (2). BioMed Central: 206. doi:10.1186/gb-2008-9-2-206. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

Reviews

  • Templeton, AR (2002). "Out of Africa again and again". Nature. 416: 45–51.
  • Pearson, Osbjorn M (2004). "Has the Combination of Genetic and Fossil Evidence Solved the Riddle of Modern Human Origins?". Evolutionary Anthropology. 13: 145–159.
  • Adams, J (2008). "Human Evolutionary Tree". Nature Education. 1 (1). Macmillian.
  • Johanson, Donald C (May 2001). "Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa?". ActionBioscience. Retrieved 2009-05-30.
  • [12] - 'Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans' (pdf) Vinayak Eswaran, Henry Harpending, Alan R. Rogers, Journal of Human Evolution (2005)
  • [13] - 'Templeton tree'
  • [14] - 'The Hybrid Child from Portugal'
  • Biochem. Soc. Trans (2005) 33, 582-585 - J. Hardy and others - Molecular Mechanisms of Neurodegeneration (Evidence suggesting that Homo neanderthalensis contributed the H2 MAPT haplotype to Homo sapiens)
  • Kent Holsinger's web site - 'Drift and migration' (only 1 migrant per generation between populations of reasonable big sizes can prevent divergence in allelic frequencies)
  • Genetics - 'Deep Haplotype Divergence and Long-Range Linkage Disequilibrium at Xp21.1 Provide Evidence That Humans Descend From a Structured Ancestral Population' (first genetic evidence that statistically rejects the null hypothesis that our species descends from a single, historically panmictic population), Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Sarah B. Kingan, Jason A. Wilder, and Michael F. Hammer, University of Arizona, Tucson, Genetics, Vol. 170, 1849-1856, August 2005
  • Linfield.edu - 'The Origin of Modern Humans: Multiregional and Replacement Theories', Michael Roberts, Linfield College
  • [15] - 'Evidence for Archaic Asian Ancestry on the Human X Chromosome' (suggests ancient RRM2P4 lineage is remnant of introgressive hybrid of anatomically modern humans from Africa and archaic populations in Eurasia), Daniel Garrigan, Zahra Mobasher, Tesa Severson, Jason A. Wilder, Michael F. Hammer, University of Arizona, Tucson, Molecular Biology and Evolution, vol 22, no 2, p 189–192 (2005)
  • PNAS.org - 'Mitochondrial DNA sequences in ancient Australians: Implications for modern human origins', Gregory J. Adcock, Elizabeth S. Dennis, Simon Easteal, Gavin A. Huttley, Lars S. Jermiin, W. James Peacock, Alan Thorne, Australian National University, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol 98, no 2, p 537-542 (January 16, 2001)
  • StephenJayGould.org - 'Out of Africa vs. Multiregionalism', Tod Billings (December 7, 1999)
  • TalkOrigins.org - 'The evolution of modern humans: where are we now?' Christopher B. Stringer, General Anthropology, vol 7, no 2, p 1–5 (2001)
  • Selection, nuclear genetic variation, and mtDNA


[ [Category:Human evolution]] [ [Category:Recent single origin hypothesis]] [ [Category:Race]]

nl:Multiregionale model pl:Hipoteza multiregionalna pt:Evolução multirregional ru:Гипотеза мультирегионального происхождения человека sv:Multiregionala hypotesen för människans ursprung zh:多地起源說

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