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| publisher = [[Jews Against Circumcision]]
| publisher = [[Jews Against Circumcision]]
}}</ref> However, many view circumcision as an important religious ritual, involving only minor pain.
}}</ref> However, many view circumcision as an important religious ritual, involving only minor pain.
==Historical accuracy of religious texts==
:See also [[The Bible and history#Hebrew bible|Historicity of Hebrew bible]], [[Documentary Hypothesis]]
Judaism's historical foundations - particularly some of the narratives of the [[Torah]] - are claimed to be historically inaccurate, including the events surrounding [[the Exodus]], the narrative of [[Noah's Ark]], the [[Book of Genesis|account of the earth's creation]], the tradition that [[Mosaic authorship|the Torah was written]] by [[Moses]], and the events surrounding the [[battle of Jericho]].<ref>{{cite book
|title=The tenacity of unreasonable beliefs: fundamentalism and the fear of truth
|first=Solomon
|last=Schimmel
|publisher=Oxford University Press US
|year=2008
|ISBN= 0195188268
|page=39,56,61,240
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=20th Century Jewish Religious Thought
|first=Paul
|last=Mendes-Flohr
|publisher= Jewish Publication Society
|year= 2009
|ISBN= 0827608926,
|page=681
}}</ref><ref>John Van Seters (2004) "Historicity of Moses", in ''The Biblical World (vol 2)'', John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. pp 194-207.</ref><ref>Thomas M. Bolin (2004) "Warfare and the Hebrew Bible", in ''The Biblical World (vol 2)'', John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. p. 45.</ref><ref>David Novak (1993) "The Election of Israel: Outline of a Philosphical analysis", in ''A People apart: chosenness and ritual in Jewish philosophical thought'' Daniel H. Frank (Ed.) SUNY Press, 1993; p. 22</ref> However, some branches of Judaism do not interpret these narratives literally, and many Jews consider those narratives to be metaphorical or allegorical.


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 14:47, 5 March 2010

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For theological views antagonistic toward Judaism, see Anti-Judaism. For persecution of ethnic Jews, see Antisemitism.

Criticism of Judaism has existed since Judaism's formative stages, as with many other religions, on theological grounds.

Rejection of concept of a personal God

See also: Personal God and Philosophy of Spinoza

Critics, such as Baruch Spinoza, criticize Judaism because its theology and religious texts describe a personal God which is interested in human affairs and has relationships with human beings.[1] Spinoza instead believed God exists only philosophically and that God is abstract and impersonal. This criticism of Judaism is also made by some pantheists and nontheists who object to all theistic religions.[2]

Rejection of concept of Chosen People

See also: Jews as a chosen people

Many people, such as Baruch Spinoza,[3] Moses Mendelssohn, [4] and Mordecai Kaplan,[5][6] have criticized Judaism because its religious texts describe Jews as the Chosen People.[7] Many secular and Christian critics, in particular, have made this criticism because of implied favoritism or superiority.[8] However, most modern branches of the Jewish faith interpret "chosen people" to mean that Jews have special role to "preserve God's revelations"[9] and to "affirm our common humanity",[10] such as reflected in the policy statement of Reform Judaism that the role of chosen people means that Jews have a special responsibility to "cooperate with all men in the establishment of the kingdom of God, of universal brotherhood, Justice, truth and peace on earth."[11]

Criticism from Christianity

See also: Supersessionism and Marcionism

Paul criticizes Jews for their failure to believe in Jesus (Romans 9:30-10:13) and for their view about their favored status and lack of equality with gentiles (Roman 3:27).[12]

Criticism from Islam

A prominent place in the Qur'anic polemic against the Jews is given to the conception of the religion of Abraham. The Qur'an presents Muslims as neither Jews nor Christians but followers of Abraham who was in a physical sense the father of the Jews and the Arabs and lived before the revelation of Torah. In order to show that the religion practiced by the Jews is not the pure religion of Abraham, the Qur'an mentions the incident of worshiping of the calf, argues that Jews do not believe in part of the revelation given to them, and that their taking of usury shows their worldliness and disobedience of God. Furthermore, the Quran claim they attribute to God what he has not revealed. According to the Qur'an, the Jews exalted Ezra as the "son of God." (See the Quranic statements about perceived Jewish exaltation). This however, has no historical basis, is not mentioned in any Jewish text or oral tradition, and is not practiced by modern Jews (nor is there evidence to show that it ever was practiced).[citation needed] The character of Ezra became important in the works of the later Andalusian Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm who explicitly accused Ezra of being a liar and a heretic who falsified and added interpolations into the Biblical text. In his polemic against Judaism, Ibn Hazm provided a polemical list of what he considered "chronological and geographical inaccuracies and contradictions; theological impossibilities (anthropomorphic expressions, stories of fornication and whoredom, and the attributing of sins to prophets), as well as lack of reliable transmission (tawatur) of the text".[13][14]

Kosher slaughter

See also: Kashrut § Kashrut and animal welfare

Kosher slaughter as a practice has attracted widespread criticism from animal welfare groups who claim that the absence of any form of anesthesia or stunning prior to the severance of the animal’s jugular vein entails prolonged and unnecessary pain. The British Farm Animal Welfare Council (FAWC), an independent body which advises the British Government in matters of animal welfare, has demanded that kosher slaughter no longer be exempted under relevant legislation, demanding that animals be subjected to stunning before slaughter. FAWC Chairwoman, Dr Judy MacArthur (herself a farmer and qualified veterinarian) has defended the organisation’s stance, criticising her detractors by claiming that "(kosher slaughter involves) a major incision into the animal and to say that it doesn't suffer is quite ridiculous." [15] This claim is contrary to those made by supporters of kosher slaughter, who claim that the extreme blood loss caused in the process results in a rapid loss of consciousness and therefore an absence of pain.[16]

Criticism specific to Conservative Judaism

Main article: Criticism of Conservative Judaism

Conservative Judaism is criticized by some leaders of Orthodox Judaism for not properly following Halakha (Jewish religious law).[17] It is also criticized by some leaders of Reform Judaism for being at odds with the principles of its young adult members on issues such as intermarriage, patrilineal descent, and the ordination of lesbians and gay men—all issues that Conservative Judaism opposes and Reform Judaism supports.[18] (The Conservative movement has since moved in the direction of allowing for gay rabbis and the "celebration of same-sex commitment ceremonies."[19])

Discrimination against non-Jews

Judaism has been criticized because its religious laws contain several provisions that discriminate against non-Jews, such as the rule that there is no need to return lost property belonging to non-Jews, and the asymmetry in compensation rules following ox-goring incidents.[20][21][22] However, religious authorities point out that those religious dicta must be interpreted within the context that they were created, and that non-Jews in that context were idolaters.[23] In addition, arguments against such discrimination were posited by leading rabbis starting in the middle ages, and the rules are no longer enforced.[24]

Women

See also: Jewish Feminism

Divorce and agunah

See also: agunah

Judaism, particularly the Orthodox formulation, has been criticized because its religious laws can sometimes result in women being trapped in abusive relationships, and for tolerating the status of agunah.[25] Many criticisms focus on the fact that women may be trapped in a marriage, because divorce cannot be granted without the husband's consent, and some husbands refuse to grant the consent.[26] However, the Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism formulations permit women to obtain divorces without the consent of husbands.

Excluded from role of rabbi

See also: rabbi § Women

Judaism, particularly the Orthodox formulation, has been criticized for forbidding women to become ordained as rabbis.[27][28] However, Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism permit women to be ordained as Rabbis.

Excluded from rituals and practicies

See also: Ritual objects

Judiasm has been criticized because its religious laws forbid women to participate in some important rituals and ceremonies. Author Haviva Ner-David described one woman who said "[Women] are viewed in Jewish law and practice as peripheral Jews ... Members of this category are exempt from all positive commandments which occur within time limits. These commandments would include hearing the shofar on Rosh Hashanah, eating in the sukkah, praying with a lulav, praying the three daily services, wearing talit and tefillin, and saying Shema. Members of this category have been 'excused' from most of the positive symbols which, for the male Jew, hallow time, hallow his physical being, and inform both his myth and his philosophy."[29] However, the Reform Judaism formulation does permit women to participate in nearly all ceremonies and rituals.

Inequality

See also: Patriarchy

Judaism has been criticized because some of its religious laws and religious texts are alleged to treat women with a status inferior to men, sometimes leading women to feel helpless, powerless, and like outsiders.[30][31][32] Some critics blame Judaism and its religious texts for being the source of widespread patriarchal attitudes in the modern world.[33] Author Naomi Gaetz addresses the fact that some feminists blame the Judaism for being the source of many sexist beliefs, and quotes Tikva Frymer-Kensky "Israel was neither the creator of patriarchy, nor the worst perpetrator in the ancient world.... Nevertheless, we make a profound statement when we acknowledge that the Bible is patriarchical. We are brought to the realization that the Bible contains a fundamental moral flaw: it does not treat all humans as equals."[34] Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism generally provide women with privileges comparable to men.

Menstruation (niddah)

See also: niddah

Judaism has been criticized because the religious rules governing menstruation (generally known as niddah) are claimed to cause some women to view their bodies as damaged, and to cause some women to feel oppressed.[35][36] Tova Hartman wrote "The rules that govern religious women's bodies are often criticized as oppressive methods of domination".[37] However, one commentator noted that "Rabbinic commentary did not unilaterally focus on the menstruating woman as pariah. For every statement stressing defilement, danger, and impurity, exists a counter-statement emphasizing respect toward women, the holiness of sexual intimacy, and the incidental benefits of sexual regulation and restraint." [38]

Homosexuality

See also: Homosexuality and Judaism

Judaism has been criticized because its religious texts condemn homosexual activity, and because some formulations, such as Orthodox Judaism, prohibit homosexual activity.[39][40][41] However, Reform Judaism accepts gay and lesbian members and rabbis. Orthodox Judaism does not exclude homosexuals, but does require that they not engage in homosexual sexual activities.

Circumcision (brit milah)

See also: Brit milah

Judaism has been criticized for encouraging or requiring brit milah, a circumcision ritual performed on young boys, because the ritual is alleged to be painful, cruel, tantamount to genital mutilation, and without the boy's consent.[42][43][44][45] An anti-circumcision movement is active in some branches of Judaism.[46][47] However, many view circumcision as an important religious ritual, involving only minor pain.

Historical accuracy of religious texts

See also Historicity of Hebrew bible, Documentary Hypothesis

Judaism's historical foundations - particularly some of the narratives of the Torah - are claimed to be historically inaccurate, including the events surrounding the Exodus, the narrative of Noah's Ark, the account of the earth's creation, the tradition that the Torah was written by Moses, and the events surrounding the battle of Jericho.[48][49][50][51][52] However, some branches of Judaism do not interpret these narratives literally, and many Jews consider those narratives to be metaphorical or allegorical.

See also

References

  1. ^ Nadler, Steven (2001). Spinoza: a life. Cambridge University Press. p. 135-136, 145-146, 274-281. ISBN 0521002931.
  2. ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 37. ISBN 0618680004.
  3. ^ Eliezer Schwied (2007) "Does the Idea of Jewish Election Have Any Meaning after the Holocaust?". In Wrestling with God: Jewish theological responses during and after the Holocaust, Steven T. Katz, Shlomo Biderman (Eds.); Oxford University Press, p 233.
  4. ^ Gürkan, S. Leyla (2008). The Jews as a Chosen People: Tradition and Transformation. Taylor & Francis. p. 49-55. ISBN 0415466075.
  5. ^ Hertzberg, Arthur (1998). Judaism. Simon and Schuster. p. 56. ISBN 0684852659.
  6. ^ Pasachoff, Naomi E. (2005). A concise history of the Jewish people. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 276. ISBN 0742543668.
  7. ^ Hertzberg, Arthur (1998). Judaism. Simon and Schuster. p. 56. ISBN 0684852659.
  8. ^ Wistrich, Robert S. Demonizing the other: antisemitism, racism & xenophobia. Taylor & Francis, 1999. p. 6. ISBN 9057024977.
  9. ^ Wilhoit, Francis M. (1979). The quest for equality in freedom. Transaction Publishers. p. 13. ISBN 0878552405.
  10. ^ Goodheart, Eugene. Confessions of a secular Jew: a memoir. Transaction Publishers year= 2004. pp. xv–xvi, 83. ISBN 0765805995. {{cite book}}: Missing pipe in: |publisher= (help); line feed character in |publisher= at position 23 (help)
  11. ^ "The Guiding Principles of Reform Judaism, Columbus, [[Ohio]], 1937". {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help)
  12. ^ E. P. Sanders, Paul the Law and Jewish People, Fortress Press, p.154
  13. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Uzayr
  14. ^ Hava Lazarus-Yafeh, Tahrif, Encyclopedia of Islam
  15. ^ [1]
  16. ^ [2]
  17. ^ Avi Shafran, "The Conservative Lie", Moment, February 2001.
  18. ^ Joe Berkofsky, "Death of Conservative Judaism? Reform leader’s swipe sparks angry rebuttals", j., March 5, 2004.
  19. ^ Laurie Goodstein, Conservative Jews Allow Gay Rabbis and Unions, The New York Times, 2006.
  20. ^ Fraade, Steven D. (1994). The Other in Jewish thought and history: constructions of Jewish culture and identity",. NYU Press. p. 145-165. ISBN 0814779905.
  21. ^ David Novak (1979) "Noahide Law: A Foundation for Jewish Philosophy (Elimination of the double standard)" in Tradition in the public square: a David Novak reader, (2008) Randi Rashkover (Ed.). p. 132-136, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
  22. ^ Shmueli, Ephraim (1990). Seven Jewish cultures: a reinterpretation of Jewish history and thought. Cambridge University Press. p. 261. ISBN 0521373816.
  23. ^ Tomson, Peter J. (1990). Paul and the Jewish law: halakha in the Letters of the Apostle to the Gentiles. Uitgeverij Van Gorcum. p. 151-163. ISBN 9023224906.
  24. ^ Schwarz, Sidney (2008). Judaism and Justice: The Jewish Passion to Repair the World. Jewish Lights Publishing. p. 74. ISBN 1580233538.
  25. ^ Goldschneider, Calvin (2002). Israel's changing society: population, ethnicity, and development. Westview Press. p. 179.
  26. ^ Plaskow, Judith (2005). The coming of Lilith. Beacon Press. p. 147-148.
    The author writes "The existence of agunah is a crime against women, a disgrace to the Jewish community, and a violation of human rights that demands immediate remedy. It is also a symptom of the systemic exclusion of women from power and authority in traditional Judaism. .. women's powerlessness is further magnified by a larger religious system that is also entirely under male control.... In cases where a woman's husband refuses her a 'get', she can find herself in a nightmare realm, bargaining away her means of survival and occasionally even custody of her children. .. the persistent exploitation of the inequalities of Jewish divorce law is also a more deliberate attempt to curtail women's power in a time of social change... elements within the Orthodox community are using the fundamental inequity of Jewish law to ensure women's powerlessness and to reinforce the status quo."
  27. ^ Zola, Gary Phillip (Ed.) (1996). Women rabbis: exploration & celebration. Hebrew Union College Press. p. 2-4.
  28. ^ Nadell, Pamela S. (1999). Women Who Would Be Rabbis: A History of Women's Ordination 1889-1985. Beacon Press. p. 30-31. {{cite book}}: Text "isbn 0807036498" ignored (help)
  29. ^ Haviva Ner-David (2009) "Feminism and Halakhah: The Jew Who (Still) Isn't There". In Elyse Goldstein (Ed.), New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future,p 313. Jewish Lights Publishing.
  30. ^ Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE. 2007. {{cite book}}: |first= missing |last= (help); Missing pipe in: |first= (help); line feed character in |first= at position 5 (help)
  31. ^ Haviva Ner-David (2009). "Feminism and Halakhah: The Jew Who (Still) Isn't There". In Elyse Goldstein (Ed.), New Jewish feminism: probing the past, forging the future, pp 312-333. Jewish Lights Publishing.
  32. ^ Katharina von Kellenbach (2001). "Overcoming the teaching of contempt". In Athalya Brenner (Ed.), A feminist companion to reading the Bible: approaches, methods and strategies, pp 190-202. Taylor & Francis.
  33. ^ Vidal, Gore (2009). Selected Essays of Gore Vidal First Vintage International. Random House, Inc. p. 410. ISBN 0307388689. {{cite book}}: line feed character in |title= at position 30 (help)
  34. ^ Graetz, Naomi (2005). Unlocking the garden: a feminist Jewish look at the Bible, midrash and God. Gorgias Press. p. 15. ISBN 1593330588.
    Quoting from Frymer-Kensky, Tikva (2006). Studies in Bible and feminist criticism. Jewish Publication Society. p. 161.
  35. ^ Beth S. Wagner (2001). "Mitzvah and Medicine: Gender, Assimilation, and the Scientific Defense of Family Purity". In Susan Nadell (Ed.), Women and American Judaism: historical perspectives, pp.201-222. UPNE.
  36. ^ Kaye, Evelyn (1987). The hole in the sheet: a modern woman looks at Orthodox and Hasidic Judaism. L. Stuart. p. 147.
    This book quotes Rabbi Laura Geller: "Menstrual taboos are responsible for real damage to Jewish women's views of themselves and their bodies. I have met many women who learned nothing about the Torah except that they could not touch the Torah because they menstruate. . . . Their sense of themselves as 'inferior' Jews has already permeated their relationship to tradition and their own bodies."
  37. ^ Hartman, Tova (2007). Feminism encounters traditional Judaism: resistance and accommodation. UPNE. p. 84.
  38. ^ Beth S. Wagner (2001). "Mitzvah and Medicine: Gender, Assimilation, and the Scientific Defense of Family Purity". In Susan Nadell (Ed.), Women and American Judaism: historical perspectives, p. 204. UPNE.
  39. ^ Greenberg, Steven (2005). Wrestling with God and men: homosexuality in the Jewish tradition. Univ of Wisconsin Press. p. 3-40. ISBN 0299190943.
  40. ^ Raphael, Marc Lee (2005). Judaism in America. Columbia University Press. p. 121-123. {{cite book}}: Text "isbn 0231120613" ignored (help)
  41. ^ Denise L. Eger (2001), "Embracing Lesbians and Gay Men", in Contemporary debates in American reform Judaism: conflicting visions, Dana Evan Kaplan (Ed.), Routledge, p. 180-192
  42. ^ Cohen, Shaye J. D. (2005). Why aren't Jewish women circumcised?: gender and covenant in Judaism. University of California Press. p. 207-224. ISBN 0520212509.
  43. ^ Glick, Leonard B. (2005). Marked in your flesh: circumcision from ancient Judea to modern America. Oxford University Press. p. 115-148. ISBN 019517674X.
  44. ^ Mark, Elizabeth Wyner (2003). The covenant of circumcision: new perspectives on an ancient Jewish rite. UPNE. p. 157-160. ISBN 1584653078.
    See also Tabory and Erez, "Circumscribed Circumcision", pages 161-167, in this book.
  45. ^ Silverman, Eric Kline (2006). From Abraham to America: a history of Jewish circumcision. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 177-212. ISBN 0742516695.
  46. ^ Chernikoff, Helen (October 3, 2007). "Jewish "intactivists" in U.S. stop circumcising". Reuters. Retrieved 2007-11-03.
  47. ^ Goldman, PhD, Ron (2006). "Providers of Brit Shalom". Jews Against Circumcision. Retrieved 2007-10-03.
  48. ^ Schimmel, Solomon (2008). The tenacity of unreasonable beliefs: fundamentalism and the fear of truth. Oxford University Press US. p. 39,56,61,240. ISBN 0195188268.
  49. ^ Mendes-Flohr, Paul (2009). 20th Century Jewish Religious Thought. Jewish Publication Society. p. 681. ISBN 0827608926,. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  50. ^ John Van Seters (2004) "Historicity of Moses", in The Biblical World (vol 2), John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. pp 194-207.
  51. ^ Thomas M. Bolin (2004) "Warfare and the Hebrew Bible", in The Biblical World (vol 2), John Barton (Ed.); Taylor & Francis. p. 45.
  52. ^ David Novak (1993) "The Election of Israel: Outline of a Philosphical analysis", in A People apart: chosenness and ritual in Jewish philosophical thought Daniel H. Frank (Ed.) SUNY Press, 1993; p. 22
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