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Bubonic plague
Bubonic plague
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Bubonic plague is the best known manifestation of the Plague, a zoonotic disease, circulating mainly among small rodents and their fleas,^[1] and is one of three types of infections caused by Yersinia pestis (formerly known as Pasteurella pestis), which belongs to the family Enterobacteriaceae. Without treatment, the bubonic plague kills about two out of three infected humans within 6 days.

The term bubonic plague is derived from the Greek word bubo, meaning "swollen gland". Swollen lymph nodes (buboes) especially occur in the armpit and groin in persons suffering from bubonic plague. Bubonic plague was often used synonymously for plague, but it does in fact refer specifically to an infection that enters through the skin and travels through the lymphatics, as is often seen in flea-borne infections.

Bubonic plague is generally believed to be the cause of the Black Death that swept through Europe in the 14th century and killed an estimated 75 million people, 30-60% of the European population.^[2] Because the plague killed so many of the working population, wages rose and some historians have seen this as a turning point in European economic development.^[3]^[4]

Signs and symptoms

The most famous symptom of bubonic plague is painful, swollen lymph glands, called buboes. These are commonly found in the armpits, groin or neck. Due to its bite-based form of infection, the bubonic plague is often the first step of a progressive series of illnesses. Two other types are pneumonic and septicemic. However, pneumonic plague, unlike the bubonic or septicemic, induced coughing, and was also very infectious and allowed person-to-person spread. Bubonic plague symptoms appear suddenly, usually 2–5 days after exposure to the bacteria. Symptoms include:

Chills
General ill feeling (malaise)
High fever (102 degrees fahrenheit / 39 degrees celsius)
Seizures
Smooth, painful lymph gland swelling called a bubo, commonly found in the groin, but may occur in the armpits or neck, most often at the site of the initial infection (bite or scratch)
Pain may occur in the area before the swelling appears

Other symptoms include heavy breathing, continuous blood vomiting, urination of blood^{[citation needed]}, aching limbs, coughing, and extreme pain. The pain is usually caused by the decaying or decomposing of the skin while the person is still alive. Additional symptoms include extreme fatigue, gastrointestinal problems, lenticulae (black dots scattered throughout the body), delirium and coma.

Pathophysiology

Bubonic plague is an infection of the lymphatic system, usually resulting from the bite of an infected flea, Xenopsylla cheopis (the rat flea). The fleas are often found on rodents such as rats and mice, and seek out other prey when their rodent hosts die. The bacteria form aggregates in the gut of infected fleas and this results in the flea regurgitating ingested blood, which is now infected, into the bite site of a rodent or human host. Once established, bacteria rapidly spread to the lymph nodes and multiply. Y. pestis bacilli can resist phagocytosis and even reproduce inside phagocytes and kill them. As the disease progresses, the lymph nodes can haemorrhage and become swollen and necrotic. Bubonic plague can progress to lethal septicemic plague in some cases. The plague is also known to spread to the lungs and become the disease known as the pneumonic plague. This form of the disease is highly communicable as the bacteria can be transmitted in droplets emitted when coughing or sneezing, as well as physical contact with victims of the plague or flea-bearing rodents that carry the plague.

Treatment

Several classes of antibiotics are effective in treating bubonic plague. These include aminoglycosides such as streptomycin and gentamicin, tetracyclines (especially doxycycline), and the fluoroquinolone ciprofloxacin. Mortality associated with treated cases of bubonic plague is about 1-15%, compared to a mortality rate of 50-90% in untreated cases.^[5]

Laboratory testing

Laboratory testing is required, in order to diagnose and confirm plague. Ideally, confirmation is through the identification of Y. pestis culture from a patient sample. Confirmation of infection can be done by examining serum taken during the early and late stages of infection. To quickly screen for the Y. pestis antigen in patients, rapid dipstick tests have been developed for field use.^[6]

History

Bubonic plague is believed to have claimed nearly 200 million lives in total, although there is some debate as to whether all of the plagues attributed to it are in fact the same disease.

Early outbreaks

The first recorded epidemic ravaged the Byzantine Empire during the sixth century, and was named the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived through extensive treatment.^[7]^[8]

Black Death

It is generally held that the most infamous and devastating outbreak of bubonic plague was the Black Death, which killed a third of the population of Europe in the 14th century. In affected cities, proper burial rituals were abandoned and bodies were buried in mass graves, or abandoned in the street. The Black Death originated in or near China and spread by way of the Silk Road or by ship.Carried by the fleas on rats, it spread along trade routes and reached the Crimea in 1346. (It also spread eastward to the Yangtse river valley, and the resulting epidemic, ignored by the government, brought down the Yuan dynasty^{[citation needed]}.) In 1347 it spread to Constantinople and then Alexandria, killing thousands every day, and soon arrived in Western Europe.

Though bubonic plague is generally regarded as the probable pathogen responsible for the Black Death outbreak, there are significant differences between symptoms and spread of the Black Death and more recent bubonic plague outbreaks, and several alternate theories have been proposed involving other pathogens.

A popular folk etymology holds that the children's game of "Ring Around the Rosy" (or Ring a Ring o' Roses) is derived from the appearance of the bubonic plague. Proponents claim that "Ring around the rosy" refers to the rosy-red, rash-like ring that appeared as a symptom of the plague. "Pocket full of posy" referred to carrying flower petals as at the time it was believed the disease was spread through the ether of unhygene, and scent stopped the spread. "Ashes, ashes" referred to the burning of infected corpses (in the UK the words of the rhyme are "atishoo, atishoo" mimicking sneezing), and "we all fall down" referred to the virulent deaths attributed to the plague.^[9] Many folklorists however hold that the association of this rhyme with plague is baseless.^[10]^[11]

Later outbreaks

The next few centuries were marked by several local outbreaks of lesser severity. The Great Plague of Seville, 1649, the Great Plague of London, 1665–1666, the Great Plague of Vienna, 1679, and the Great Plague of Marseille, 1720, were the last major outbreaks of the bubonic plague in Europe.

The plague resurfaced in the mid-19th century; like the Black Death, the Third Pandemic began in Central Asia. The disease killed millions in China and India — then a British colony — and then spread worldwide. The outbreak continued into the early 20th century. In 1897, the city of Pune in India was severely affected by the outbreak. The government responded to the plague with a committee system that used the military to perpetrate repression and tyranny as it tackled the pandemic. Nationalists publicly berated the government. On 22 June 1897, two young brahmins, the Chapekar brothers, shot and killed two British officers, the Committee chairman and his military escort. This act has been considered a landmark event in India's struggle for freedom as well as the worst violence against political authority seen in the world during the third plague pandemic.^[12] The award winning Marathi film 22 June 1897 covers events prior to the assassination, the act and its aftermath.^[13]^[14]

In 1994 and 2010 there have been cases reported in Peru.^[15] In 2010 there was a case reported in Oregon, United States.^[16]

Biological warfare

Plague was used during the Second Sino-Japanese War as a bacteriological weapon by the Imperial Japanese Army. These weapons were provided by Shirō Ishii's units and used in experiments on humans before being used on the field. For example, in 1940, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service bombed Ningbo with fleas carrying the bubonic plague.^[17] During the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials, the accused, such as Major General Kiyashi Kawashima, testified that, in 1941, some 40 members of Unit 731 air-dropped plague-contaminated fleas on Changde. These operations caused epidemic plague outbreaks.^[18]

Footnotes

^ "Plague, Overview". Health Topics A to Z. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
^ Haensch, Stephanie (2010-09). Besansky, Nora J. (ed.). "Distinct Clones of Yersinia pestis Caused the Black Death". PLoS Pathogens. 6 (10): e1001134. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001134. PMC 2951374. PMID 20949072. Retrieved 2010-11-16. We confirm that Y. pestis caused the Black Death and later epidemics on the entire European continent over the course of four centuries. Furthermore, on the basis of 17 single nucleotide polymorphisms plus the absence of a deletion in glpD gene, our aDNA results identified two previously unknown but related clades of Y. pestis associated with distinct medieval mass graves. These findings suggest that plague was imported to Europe on two or more occasions, each following a distinct route. These two clades are ancestral to modern isolates of Y. pestis biovars Orientalis and Medievalis. Our results clarify the etiology of the Black Death and provide a paradigm for a detailed historical reconstruction of the infection routes followed by this disease. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Bowsky, William (1971). The Black Death: A Turning Point in History?. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 9780030850004.
^ Bridbury, A.R. (1983). Economic Growth: England in the Later Middle Ages. Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780313240669.
^ "Plague". Retrieved 25 February 2010.
^ "Plague, Laboratory testing". Health Topics A to Z. Retrieved 23 October 2010.
^ Little (2007), pp. 8-15.
^ McCormick (2007), pp. 290-312.
^ http://www.rhymes.org.uk/ring_around_the_rosy.htm
^ J. Simpson and S. Roud, A Dictionary of English Folklore (Oxford: OUP, 2000), 296.
^ Opie (1951), 365, citing Chants Populaire du Languedoc: 'Branle, calandre, La Fille d'Alexandre, La pêche bien mûre, Le rosier tout fleuri, Coucou toupi' — En disant 'coucou toupi', tous les enfants quie forment la ronde, s'accroupissent’.
^ Echenberg, Myron J. (2007). Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague, 1894–1901. New York: New York University Press. pp. 66–68. ISBN 0814722326.
^ 22 June 1897 at IMDb
^ Kailashnath, Koppikar; Chheda, Subhash. "22 June 1897, Celebrating 25 years". Retrieved 22 June 2009.
^ One Dead from Plague in Northern Peru
^ http://news.opb.org/article/14656-rare-case-bubonic-plague-shows-lake-county/ Rare Case Of Bubonic Plague Shows Up In Lake County
^ Japan triggered bubonic plague outbreak, doctor claims, [1], http://www.scaruffi.com/politics/wwii.html, A time-line of World War II, Scaruffi Piero. Prince Tsuneyoshi Takeda and Prince Mikasa received a special screening by Shirō Ishii of a film showing imperial planes loading germ bombs for bubonic dissemination over Ningbo in 1940. (Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity, 2004, p.32.)
^ Daniel Barenblatt, A Plague upon Humanity., 2004, pages 220–221.

References

Echenberg, Myron J. (2007). Plague Ports: The Global Urban Impact of Bubonic Plague, 1894-1901. New York, NY: New York University Press. ISBN 0814722326. OCLC 70292105.
Little, Lester K. (2007). "Life and Afterlife of the First Plague Pandemic." In: Little, Lester K. editor. (2007), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750. Cambridge University Press. (2007). ISBN 978-0-521-84639-4 (hardback); ISBN 978-0-521-71897-4 (paperback).
McCormick, Michael (2007). "Toward a Molecular History of the Justinian Pandemic." In: Little, Lester K. editor. (2007), Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541–750. Cambridge University Press. (2007). ISBN 978-0-521-84639-4 (hardback); ISBN 978-0-521-71897-4 (paperback).

@@ Line 56: / Line 56: @@
 ===Black Death===
-It is generally held that the most infamous and devastating outbreak of bubonic plague was the [[Black Death]], which killed a third of the population of [[Europe]] in the 14th century.  In affected cities, proper burial rituals were abandoned and bodies were buried in mass graves, or abandoned in the street.  The [[Black Death]] originated in or near China and spread by way of the Silk Road or by ship.[4] Carried by the fleas on rats, it spread along [[trade route]]s and reached the Crimea in 1346. (It also spread eastward to the [[Yangtse river]] valley, and the resulting epidemic, ignored by the government, brought down the [[Yuan dynasty]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}.)  In 1347 it spread to [[Constantinople]] and then [[Alexandria]], killing thousands every day, and soon arrived in [[Western Europe]].
+It is generally held that the most infamous and devastating outbreak of bubonic plague was the [[Black Death]], which killed a third of the population of [[Europe]] in the 14th century.  In affected cities, proper burial rituals were abandoned and bodies were buried in mass graves, or abandoned in the street.  The [[Black Death]] originated in or near China and spread by way of the Silk Road or by ship.Carried by the fleas on rats, it spread along [[trade route]]s and reached the Crimea in 1346. (It also spread eastward to the [[Yangtse river]] valley, and the resulting epidemic, ignored by the government, brought down the [[Yuan dynasty]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}.)  In 1347 it spread to [[Constantinople]] and then [[Alexandria]], killing thousands every day, and soon arrived in [[Western Europe]].
 Though bubonic plague is generally regarded as the probable pathogen responsible for the Black Death outbreak, there are significant differences between symptoms and spread of the Black Death and more recent bubonic plague outbreaks, and several alternate [[theories of the Black Death|theories]] have been proposed involving other pathogens.