Black Army of Hungary: Difference between revisions
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Revision as of 07:21, 26 June 2013
The factual accuracy of part of this article is disputed. The dispute is about Chart / Comparison of medieval armies. (September 2012) |
Black Army | |
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![]() Standard of the Black legion | |
Active | 1458–1494 AD[1] |
Disbanded | 1494,[1] causes:Financial (disbanded), elimination (due to mercenary uprising) |
Country | Kingdom of Hungary |
Allegiance | Hungarian, Czech (Bohemian, Moravian, Silesian), Slovak, Polish, Serbian, German-speaking (German, Austrian, Swiss) |
Branch | Army, Navy |
Type | Cavalry, infantry, artillery, siege weapons |
Size | approx. 28,000 |
Heraldry | This characteristic flag with a forked tail was reconstructed after a miniature in Philostratus Chronicle, one of the Corvinas, representing the 1485 entry of János Corvinus, son of King Matthew, into Vienna. The black colour of the flag used to be white (argent), but the argent paint oxidized. The reconstruction preserves the original colour. |
Mascot(s) | Raven |
Engagements | Holy Roman Empire, Bohemia, Serbia, Bosnia, Moldavia, Wallachia, Italy |
Commanders | |
King | Matthias Corvinus |
Notable commanders | Pál Kinizsi, Balázs Magyar, Imre Zápolya, John Giskra, John Haugwitz, František Hag, Vuk Grgurević |
The Black Army (Hungarian: Fekete sereg, pronounced [ˈfɛkɛtɛ ˈʃɛrɛɡ]), "Black Legion" or "Regiment"—possibly named after their black armor panoply, see below) is, in historiography, the common name given to the military forces serving under the reign of King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary. The ancestor and core of this early standing mercenary army appeared in the era of his father (John Hunyadi) in the early 1440s. The idea of the professional standing mercenary army came from Matthias' juvenile readings about the life of Julius Caesar.[2]
Hungary's Black Army traditionally encompasses the years from 1458 to 1494.[1] The mercenary soldiers of other countries in the era were conscripted from the general population at times of crisis, and soldiers worked as bakers, farmers, brick-makers, etc. for most of the year. In contrast, the men of the Black Army fought as well-paid, full-time mercenaries and were purely devoted to the arts of warfare. It was a standing mercenary army that conquered parts of Austria, Vienna (1485) and parts of Moravia.
The core of the army originally consisted of 6–8 thousand mercenaries.[3][4] Later in the 1480s the number was between 15,000 and 20,000,[5] however the figures reached to 28,000 men (20,000 horsemen, 8000 infantry) in 1487.[5] The soldiers were mainly Bohemians, Germans, Serbs, Poles[6] and, from 1480, Hungarians. Every fifth soldier in the Black Army had an arquebus in the infantry, which was an unusual ratio at the time. The high price of medieval gunpowder prevented them from raising it any further.[7] The main troops of the army were the infantry, artillery and light and heavy cavalry. The function of the heavy cavalry was to protect the light armored infantry and artillery, while the other corps delivered random, surprise assaults on the enemy. One important victory of the Black Army of Hungary was at the Battle of Breadfield, where the Hungarians defeated the Ottomans. The death of Matthias Corvinus meant the end of the Black Army, since Vladislaus II was not able to cover the cost of the army.[3]
Development of a modern well-organized drafting
In the first years of Matthias' rule, the structure of enlisting troops was built on the legacy of his ancestor Sigismund of Luxembourg. The majority of his army consisted of noble banners[3] and the soldiers provided and regulated by the Militia Portalis (manor militia),[8] which outlined that for every twenty serf-lots (portae), a noble was ordered to raise and lend one archer to the king. Later, that obligation was reconsidered, and the limit was shifted to one archer per 33 manors and three mounted archers per 100 manors. Those who did not have serfs but owned manors as a noble had to join a regional count in state of war. No significant number of mercenaries were present in the Hungarian army during Matthias' early years. (In the 1463 Janus Pannonius' report of the siege of Jajce Castle, there is no mention of them.)
In case of emergency, a last chance existed for the actual king in power to mobilize the population suddenly. Every noble, no matter his social class, had to participate in person with his weaponry and all of his personal guards made available. These were the estate armies.[3] Whenever they were called upon, they were not allowed to fight for over 15 days, and their field of operations was restricted within the borders of Hungary. The so-called insurrectio (noble insurrection) was nothing more than an obsolete form of drafting, but it was valid until the Battle of Raab in 1809, mainly because it relieved the participating nobles of paying their taxes; but generally, these enlisted armada played a minor role in the Black Army, since Matthias decreased their participation gradually and called them in in large numbers early in his reign.[9]
In the laws of 1459 of Szeged, he restored the basis of 20 serfs to induct an archer (this time it was based on the number of persons). The barons' militia portalis no longer counted in the local noble's banner but into the army of the country (led by a captain appointed by the king) and could have been sent abroad as well. He also lifted the insurrectio's time of service from 15 days to three months.[10]
From the first mercenaries to regularly paid soldiers
Country | Ruler | Size of army | Deployment | Year of military census | |
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Edward I | 28,700 | Falkirk campaign1 | 1298 | |
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Philip IV | 44,700 | Anglo‑Scottish wars2 | 1340 | |
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Doge Tommaso Mocenigo | 36,000 | peacetime garrison3 | 15th century | |
![]() |
Filippo Maria Visconti Duke of Milan | 30,000 | Battle of Maclodio4 | 1427 | |
![]() |
count John Hunyadi | 60,000 | Siege of Belgrade[11] | 1456 | |
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King Matthias Corvinus | 28,000 | Siege of Vienna5 | 1486 | |
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Sultan Mehmet II | 100,000 | Siege of Belgrade6 | 1456 | |
![]() |
Louis II of Hungary | 60,000 | Concentration of troops at Buda, to recapture Belgrade[12] | 1521 | |
![]() |
Count Amadeus | 3,000 | Gallipoli7 | 1366 | |
Taxonomy | |||||
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Table 1 :Largest Middle Age European armies
Comparison of 15th century armies in focus of their size[13]
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Though these efforts were sound, the way they were carried out was not in any way supervised. In 1458, Matthias borrowed as many as 500 heavy cavalry from George of Poděbrady to strengthen his situation at home against his rival landlords. This marks the turning point away from obsolete noble banners to skilled soldiers of fortune (in this case, they were remnants of the Hussites, whose battle tactics were later adapted by the Black Army).[9] He needed more seasoned veterans, so he chose to settle a group of rogue Czech army deserters led by John Jiskra who were already plundering the northern countryside seeking daily loot. Jiskra was promised royal pardon and two castles, Solymos and Lippa (now Şoimuş and Lipova), in the Peace Treaty of Wiener Neustadt of 1463, and his soldiers received a payment of 25,000 ducats. He was stationed in Bosnia to fight the Ottomans the next year.[18] Previously, in 1462, the king sent word to his equerry that he should hire 8,000 cavalry to start a holy war against the Ottoman Empire only if the Venetians – according to their promise – covered the expenses (unfortunately for the Hungarians, this financial aid was postponed from time to time). The first major and mass conscription of mercenaries appeared during the Bohemian Wars (1468–78), whereas the core of his royal infantry, a force of 6,000–8,000 armed men, were incorporated into the Black Army (the origins of the moniker could also come from this era).[19]
The term Black Army and its captains
Several speculations arose about the army's cognomen. The first recorded accounts using the "black" attribute appear in written memoranda immediately after his death, when the rest of the army was pillaging the Hungarian and later Austrian villages when they received no pay. One theory[weasel words] suggests that they wore a black stripe on their shoulder as a sign of mourning. The Italian Medieval historian, Bonfini, used the word only to describe the "toughness" of veterans serving in their lines. Others[weasel words] suppose that Captain Frantisek Hag's black breastplate inspired the name. A third idea is that they adopted the adjective from another captain, "Black" John Haugwitz, whose nickname already earned him enough recognition to be identified with the army as a whole.[3] Since no such name as the "Black Army" existed when Matthias' army was in service, all of his leaders, who were in charge of different army branches, count as Black Army generals.[clarification needed] Another noteworthy general was Pál Kinizsi, who helped Corvinus' successor, Vladislas II of Hungary, to dissolve what remained of the discontent Black Army.[9]
Funding the army to its greatest extent
After Matthias' income increased periodically, simultaneously, the number of mercenaries increased as well. Historical records vary when it comes to numbers, mainly because it changed from battle to battle and most soldiers were only employed for the duration of combat or a longer conflict. Reckoning the nobility's banners, the mercenaries, the soldiers of conquered Moravia and Silesia, and the troops of allied Moldovia and Wallachia, the king could have gathered an army of 90,000 men. (Despite the levies formed mainly by peasants and shepherds, Wallachia and Moldavia remained vassal countries of Hungary or Poland and, later, the Ottoman Empire.) The nobility's participation in the battlefield were ignored by the time their support could have been redeemed in gold later on. The cities were also relieved of paying war levies if they supplied the craftsmanship and weapon production to equip the military.
King Matthias increased the serf's taxes; he switched the basis of taxing from the portae to the households, and occasionally, they collected the royal dues twice a year during wartime. Counting the vassals' tribute, the Western contributions, the local nobility's war payment, the tithes, and the urban taxes, Matthias' annual income reached 650,000 florins; for comparison, the Ottoman Empire had 1,800,000 per year.[19] In contrast to popular belief, historians have speculated for decades that the actual sum altogether could circle around 800,000 florins in a good year at the peak of Matthias' reign, but never surpassed the financial threshold of one million florins, a previously commonly accepted number.[20] In 1467, Matthias Corvinus reformed the coin system for easier accumulation of taxes and manageable disbursements and introduced an improved dinar, which had a finer silver content (500‰) and weighed half a gram. He also re-established its ratio, where one florin of gold equaled 100 dinars of silver, which was so stable that it remained in place until the mid-16th century.[21]
The army was divided into three parts: the cavalry, paid three florins per horse; the pavisors, who received double the money; and the archers, light infantry and arquebusiers, with the latter consisting of mostly Bohemians, Germans and Poles (all paid differently). Medieval gunpowder was quite expensive, so the king preferred adapting Hussite tactics to mounted warfare (based on defense, placing infantry behind wagon blockades or tall pavises, while the cavalry constantly harassed the enemy and guarded the "middle") and placed archery in favor of fusiliers, with the latter being engaged at the very start of the battle. With firearm production being made available by local marksmen in Transylvania, especially in Braşov,[9][22] [23] these type of ranged infantry became cheaper to handle for the Hungarians.[10]
Improving the river fleet
The river fleet ([flottila or naszád] Error: {{Lang-xx}}: text has italic markup (help)) was composed of wooden galleys, rowboats (later upgraded to gunboats) and smaller ships, which were capable of sailing up the rivers Danube, Tisza and Sava. The victory at the Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) in 1456, where the fleet played a significant role in breaking through the Turkish river blockade to bring relief to the besieged city, showed its importance and signaled the beginning of a recognition of its significance. It also encouraged King Matthias to build a larger and better-equipped navy. Since they were manned by South Slavs, mainly Serbs and Croats, the two major ports of operations were Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) and Szabács (Šabac). In 1475, concomitantly with the introduction of field guns, he ordered the installation of artillery onto the river barges as well as bombards able to shoot cannonballs ranging from 100–200 lb. In 1479, he had a mixed fleet of 360 vessels, a crew of 2600 sailors, and a capacity of 10,000 soldiers on board.[10][24] Matthias also secured an exit to the Adriatic Sea, the city-port of Zengg from which Balázs Matthias could embark for his maritime campaigns.[25] Matthias could also monitor the trade going through the Danube Delta to the Black Sea from the City of Kilia, but during his reign, it was seized by the Moldavian army supported by the Ottoman fleet.[26]
Uprisings within the Black Army
The disadvantage of having periodically or occasionally paid recruits was that if their money had not arrived on time, they simply left the battlefield, or – in a worse scenario – they revolted, as has happened in several instances. Since they were the same skilled men-at-arms led by the same leaders previously fighting under the Hungarian flag, they were as difficult to eliminate as the Black Army was to its enemies. However, they could be outnumbered, since it was always a flank or division which quit the campaign. An easier solution was to have the captain accept some lands and castles to be mortgaged in return of service (in one occasion the forts of Ricsó (Hričovský hrad) and Nagybiccse (Bytča) to František Hag). An example of mass desertion occurred in 1481 when a group of 300 horsemen joined the opposing Holy Roman forces. One of these recorded insurrections was conducted by Jan Svehla, who accompanied Corvinus to Slavonia in 1465 to beat the Ottomans; but when they were approaching Zagreb, Svehla asked for royal permission to officially quit the offensive with his mercenaries due to financial difficulty. His request was denied, and as a consequence, he and two of his vice-captains left the royal banner along with their regiments.
Following their breakaway, George of Poděbrady secretly supported their invasion into the Comitatus of Nitra and their occupation of the fort of Kosztolány, as the army was composed of Czech or Moravian professionals previously in service for Podebrad and Frederick III. Apart from the militia, there were religious outcasts (considered heretics) looking for shelter, including Hussite Brethren and rogue Moravian Žebraks[nb 1] who favoured pillaging instead of payment. Svehla established an ad-hoc fort, and he appointed Jorig Lichtenburger and Vöttau as comeses for the county. The fort and its looting inhabitants had a surrounding sphere of influence ranging from the valleys of Váh and Nitra to the eastern provinces of Austria. Matthias realized the threat and ordered two of his "upper-land" captains to besiege Kosztolany, namely Stefan Zápolya and Ladislaus Podmaniczky. After returning from Slavonia, the king joined the siege. It is worth mentioning that here, among few occasions, Matthias cooperated with Frederick. He sent a strong-armoured mounted troop led by commander Ulrich von Grafeneck to help wipe out these brigades. When he reached Pozsony (Bratislava), he was reinforced by Knight Georg Pottendorfer with his 600 crusader cavalry. This totaled 8–10 thousand people ready to besiege, who began an assault after taking some minor fortifications on 1 January 1467. The vanguards of the Black Army officers were all present against their former ally. They included the Palatinate Mihály Országh, Jan Jiskra, Jan Haugwitz, Balázs Magyar, Pál Kinizsi, Nicholaus Ujlaki Ban of Macsó (Mačva), and Peter Sobi Ban of Bosnia-Croatia-Dalmatia, with the latter-most dying in the assault. Before the siege began, Matthias offered Svehla the chance to return to his service in exchange for an unconditional surrender on all grounds. After a refusal, he immediately began the siege and the cannon firing despite the harsh winter conditions. Svehla and his 2,500 men (and additional citizens) resisted the superior besiegers, but food storages reached extremely low levels and all the efforts to break out were unsuccessful, so he decided to capitulate twice to Matthias with the aforementioned taking his revenge in rejecting it. After three weeks, Svehla feigned a breakout attempt in the front while getting out from the rear through a water channel. Though his physically weak and exhausted entourage of 2,000 infantry tried to elude the besieging forces, they were not fast enough to escape safely. Balázs Magyar and Pál Kinizsi rode down to the fort of Csejte (Čachtice), where they clashed. Almost all of the rioters fell, only 250 taken as prisoners. Svehla evaded capture again but was put in custody by peasants by the time he was too debilitated to fight.
Matthias doomed him to be hung up along with the remaining couple of hundred prisoners. This was a rather violent act regarding the campaigns of King Matthias Corvin. On the very next day, 31 January 1467, witnessing the executions, the garrison asked for mercy, and it was granted; and after taking Kosztolány, he also offered František Hag – officer member of the resistance group – captainship in the Black Army, since he found him skilled enough. In another case in 1474, František Hag revolted due to lack of pay, but the conflict ended without violence, and he remained Matthias' subject until his death.[9][25][28]
Branches, tactics, equipments
Tactics
„ …we regard the armored heavy infantry as a wall, who never give up their place, even if they are slaughtered to the last one of them, on the very spot they are standing. Light soldiers perform breakouts depending on the occasion, and when they are already tired or sense severe danger, they return back behind the armoured soldiers, organizing their lines and collecting power, and stay there until, on occasion, they may break forth again. In the end, all of the infantry and shooters are surrounded by armoured and shielded soldiers, just as those were standing behind a rampart. Since, the greater pavieses, put next to each other in a circle, show the picture of a fortress, and are similar to a wall, in the protection whereof the infantry and all the ones standing in the middle, fight like from behind tower-walls or rampart, and they occasionally break out of there."
— Matthias Corvinus: in this case from a letter to his father-in-law king Ferdinand I of Naples in the 1480's [29][30]
Heavy cavalry
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Hungarian-Turkish_wars.jpg/220px-Hungarian-Turkish_wars.jpg)
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Knight_of_black_army.png/200px-Knight_of_black_army.png)
At the height of the century, the heavy cavalry was already at its peak, although it showed signs of declining tendencies. The striking power and the ability to charge without backup made them capable of forcing a decisive outcome in most battles. Although they were rarely deployed on their own, if they were, they would take square formations. Such turning points occurred at the battle of Breadfield (1479). Usually, they made up one-sixth of the army and, with mercenary knights, were in the majority. Their armament was well prepared and of high quality except for the noble banners. This stands for proprietary arms, not the ones provided by the king.
Weaponry
![]() | This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. (August 2011) |
![]() | This article needs attention from an expert in section. Please add a reason or a talk parameter to this template to explain the issue with the article.(August 2011) |
- Lances: The lance was the principal assault weapon of the tilting heavy cavalry. They were up to four meters long, ranging from the classical lance type with a lengthened spearhead (often decorated with animal tails, flags or other ornaments) to the short conical spearheaded, one designed for piercing heavy armour. A buckler-like vamplate protected the hand and arm. Its stability was increased with a fastening hook (lance-arret) on the side of the horseman's cuirass.
- Swords: The most common swords of the era originated from Southern Europe.[31] They were one meter long,designed to cut rather than thrust, with an S-shaped crossguard. As in many medieval swords, the heavy pommel balanced the blade and could be used for striking in close combat. The other version, which became popular in the second half of the century. was of similar design except for the quillon, which was curved towards the blade for the purpose of breaking or clinching the enemy's blade. The 130–140 cm long bastardswords also came into use. As a companion weapon, daggers of saw-toothed and flame-form type were applied (both with ring-guard) and a misericordia.
- Apart from these, they carried auxiliary weapons, such as Gothic maces, flanged maces, axes, crossbows (balistrero ad cavallo) and short shields similar in design to the pavise (petit pavois)) for defense.[31]
Light cavalry
The traditional hussars were introduced by Matthias; henceforth, the light cavalry is called huszár, a name derived from the word húsz ("twenty" in English), which refers to the drafting scheme where for every twenty serfs a noble owned, he had to equip a mounted soldier. After the Diet of Temesvár (Timişoara) of 1397, the light cavalry was institutionalized as an arm division. They were the second ranked in order within an army and generally considered an elite force. They assembled from the militia portalis, a significant number of them insurrectios, the Moldavians and Transylvanians with the first having serfs with lesser accoutrement and the latter generally regarded as good horsearchers. They were divided into groups of 25 (turma) led by a captain (capitaneus gentium levis armature). Their field of operation was scouting, securing, prowling, cutting enemy supply lines, and disarraying them in battle. They also served as an additional maneuverable flank (for swooping advance attacks) to strong centers of heavy cavalry.
Weaponry
Helmet, mail shirt, sabre, targe, spear and, in some cases, throwing axes and topors.
- Sabres (szablya): One type followed the tradition of Southern European longswords (S-shaped crossguard), while gradually transforming into an Eastern-style blended (Turkish) sabre. The other type was the so-called huszarszablya (hussarsabre), a 40 mm thick multi-layered sabre stuck with 3–6 rivets.
- Bows: The traditional Magyar composite bow and, due to heavy Eastern influence, the more powerful Turkish-Tatar bow came into play.
- Axes: Throwing axes could also have had some role in light-cavalry weaponry. It was made from one piece of metal, with a short engraved haft. If the arc of the blade is almost flat or slightly curved, it is called the "Hungarian-type axe". A subsidiary to the aforementioned beaked pickaxe was also favored: it had a beak-looking, protruding edge, resulting in a stronger piercing effect.[31]
Infantry
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Garamszentbenedek.png/200px-Garamszentbenedek.png)
Infantry was less important but formed a stable basis in the integrity of an army. They were organized from mixed ethnicities and were composed of heavy infantry, shielded soldiers, light infantry and fusiliers. Their characteristics include the combination of plate and mail armour and the use of the pavises (these painted willow-wood large shields were often ornamented and covered with leather and linen). The latter served for multiple purposes: to hold enemy attack, to cover ranged infantry shooting from behind (fusiliers engage first, the archer fire constantly), and moveable hussite-style Tabor (with a restricted deployment of war wagons in number). The infantry contained Swiss Pikemen, who were held in high honour by the king.[32]
Weaponry
Various long-range weapons including bows, crossbows, and arquebuses; all sorts of melee weapons, halberds, pikes, and awl-pikes; hussite/peasant weapons such as slings and frails; hand weapons such as morgensterns and war-hammers; and classical swords and sabres.
- Melee weapons: Corseques, glaives, partisans, Friulian spears, and halberds were all adapted depending on the social class and nationality of the infatrymen. The 15th-century type of halberd was a transition that mixed the hatchet with the awl-pike, sometimes affixed with a "beak" that was used to pull a knight off his horse and to increase its piercing impact. They were covered with metal langlets on the side to prevent being cut in two.
- Archery: The most valuable archers were the crossbowmen. Their number in Matthias' service reached 4,000 in the 1470s. They used sabres as a secondary weapon (which was unusual for infantry in those ages). Their primary advantage was the ability to shoot heavy armour, while the disadvantages were that they required defense to protect them while moving slowly in a standing position.
- Arquebusiers: Matthias disfavored[dubious – discuss] the cannons and rifles them compared to archery. They charged in the early stages of battle. Their aiming ability, price and the danger of primitive handcannons (self-exploding) prevented them from being highly effective, especially against smaller groups of people or hand-to-hand combat. A distinctive Hungarian feature was that they did not use a fork to stabilize their guns but put it on top of the pavese instead (or in some cases, on the parapet of a wagon). Two types were simultaneously brought to practice, the schioppi (handgun) in the beginning, and later the arquebus à croc (not to be confused with cannons). Three classes of handguns were distinguished: the "bearded" light guns; forked guns; the first primitive muskets (irontube compounded with wooden grip to be pushed against the shoulder). Their calibers varied from 16 to 24 mm.[31]
- Arsenal
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Glaive
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Corseque
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Flanged maces
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Peasant flail
-
Pavese shield
-
Bastardsword
-
Blended crossguarded sword
-
Morning stars
-
Crossbow and accessories
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One of the Elephant Cannons of Matthias Corvinus, These were so heavy that they required 80 horses to transport it [33]
Dissolution of the Black Army
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Hungarian_post-Matthias_succession_wars_%281490-94%29.jpg/300px-Hungarian_post-Matthias_succession_wars_%281490-94%29.jpg)
Before his death on 6 April 1490, King Matthias asked his captains and barons to pledge an oath to his son John Corvinus and secure his succession to the throne. Though John was the biggest estate holder in Hungary and had the command over the Black Army, his stepmother, Queen Beatrice of Naples, invited two heirs, the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and Polish prince John I Albert, for an assembly to be held at Buda to discuss who would inherit the throne. The first based his claim on the Peace Treaty of Wiener Neustadt, while the latter on his family ties. Furthermore, the Hungarian barons invited a third pretender, the King of Bohemia and brother of John Albert, Vladislas II. After the barons double-crossed John Corvinus, he escaped from the capital and was moving to Pécs, when he was attacked midway at Szabaton village and suffered a defeat from which he could retreat. No parts of the Black Army were – yet – involved, as their core was stuck in Silesia and Styria. Their famed captains Blaise Magyar and Paul Kinizsi joined the pretenders' side, John Albert and Vladislas, respectively; the latter subsequently became the legitime king.[34]
Maximilian immediately attacked the conquested territories in Austria in 1490. The Black Army fortified itself in the occupied forts on the western border. Most of them were captured by trick, bribery, or citizen revolt in a few weeks without any major battles. The trenchline along the river Enns, which was built by mercenary captain Wilhelm Tettauer, resisted quite successfully for a month. Due to the lack of payment, some of the Black Army mercenaries, mostly Czechs, switched sides and joined the Holy Roman army of 20,000 men in invading Hungary. They advanced in the heart of Hungary and managed to capture the city of Székesfehérvár, which he sacked, as well as the tomb of King Matthias, which was kept there. His Landsknechts were still unsatisfied with the plunder and refused to go for taking Buda. He returned to the Empire in late December but left garrisons of a few hundred soldiers in those Hungarian cities and castles he occupied.[35]
The National Council of the barons decided to recuperate the cities, lost especially Székesfehérvár. The Black Army was put on reserve at Eger, but their payment of 46,000 forints was late again, so they robbed the neighboring monasteries, churches, peasantries and lorddoms. After their dues were paid, appointed captain Steven Báthory gathered an army of 40,000 soldiers and began the siege in June 1491, which lasted for a month. More minor cities were regained, and without further support from the German nobility, Maximilian agreed to negotiate, and in the end, he signed the Peace of Pressburg in 1491, which included ceding the Silesian lands to him.[35] John Haugwitz never recognized this treaty and held their possessions in Silesia afterwards.[36]
Meanwhile, disappointed John Albert gathered an army at the eastern border of Hungary and attacked the vicinity of Kassa (Košice) and Tokaj, also in 1490. John Corvinus accepted Vladislaus as his feudal lord and helped him in his coronation (he personally handed the crown to him). Vladislaus married widowed Queen Beatrice in order to acquire her assets of 500,000 forints. This would have allowed him to cover the expenses of the Black Army stationed in Moravia and upper Silesia and the cost of transporting them home to upper Hungary to defend it from the Polish army of John Albert.[35] John Filipec, on the behalf of the new king, helped to convince Silesian Black Army leader John Haugwitz to return to duty in exchange for 100,000 forints. The Hungarian-Czech army of 18,000 met the Polish troops in December 1491 in the Battle of Eperjes (Prešov), which was a decisive victory for the Black Army.[36] John Albert withdrew to Poland and promised that he had no further claims to the throne.
The Black Army was sent to the south region to fight the Ottoman invasions. While waiting for their wages, they sought plunder in the nearby villages. The National Council ordered Paul Kinizsi to stop the plundering at all costs. He arrived in Szegednic-Halászfalu in late August 1492, where he dispersed the Black Army led by Haugwitz. Of the 8000 members, 2000 were able to escape to western Styria, where they continued to pillage the countryside.[36] The prisoners were escorted to Buda, where the Black Army was officially disbanded and they were allowed to leave abroad under the condition never to come back and claim their payment. They joined the forces already in Austria.[1] They confronted Count Georg Eynczinger on 7 May 1493, at Thaya, where they were all killed or captured and tortured to death. The last remaining mercenaries were integrated into local garrisons, such as the one in Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade) under the leadership of Balthasar Tettauer, brother of Wilhelm Tettauer. They were so frustrated about their financial status that they even blackguardly allied with Ottoman Mihaloğlu Ali Bey to handle secretly the fort to his Sultan, Bayezid II. When their plan surfaced, Paul Kinizsi intervened in May 1494 before their act could take place. He arrested the captain and his crew for treason and famished them to death.[1]
Battles and respective captains of the Black Army
List of Battles and respective captains of the Black Army
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![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() ![]() Campaign color codes
Key
Post-Matthias
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Notes
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png/225px-The_wars_of_Matthias_Corvinus_of_Hungary_%281458-1490%29.png)
- ^ Žebrák (in Hungarian:Zsebrák) is a distinctive historical and military term deriving from the same Czech word meaning beggar. It refers to Czech booty-hunters ravaging the northern regions of Hungary in the 15th century (but would submit themselves to any service for proper pay)[27]
- ^ a b Matthias I was proclaimed king by the Estates, but he had to wage war against Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor who claimed the throne for himself.[56] Several magnates, such as the Újlaki family, the Garai family and the Szentgyörgy family, supported the emperor's claim and proclaimed him king against King Matthias; the emperor rewarded the brothers Sigismund and John of Szentgyörgy and Bazin with the hereditary noble title "count of the Holy Roman Empire" in 1459 and they thus were entitled to use red sealing wax.[56][57] Although the Counts Szentgyörgyi commenced using their title in their deeds, in the Kingdom of Hungary, public law did not distinguish them from other nobles. The tide turned when they were pleased by Matthias' promises, changed their affiliation and joined forces with him. The second battle thus was successful in defending the Hungarian crown and the integrity of the nobility. The precise location of the battle is unknown since the historical records only guess where it could have situated.
- ^ Matthias' attack followed a papal call for crusade against the heretic Czech king. He was promised that Frederick III would join, but it remained oral aid. The defeat at Vilémov happened to be a surrender by Matthias without actual battle due to him wrongly choosing the battleground. He was easily encircled by George of Poděbrady and was left with no option but to set an agreement. They met in a cottage in Ouhrov where they settled the conflict under the terms by which Matthias would help George's coronation be acknowledged by Pope Paul II. Furthermore, the succession of the Czech crown was set between the two kings with George ruling until his death and Matthias inheriting the throne afterwards. Matthias was set free in the counterpart though he abrogated the deal by coronating himself King of Bohemia shortly after.[59][62]
- ^ Several sources differ whether a siege, sparse fightings, or retreat caused by famine occurred during the Polish-Hungarian conflict. Caused and followed by an internal revolt of Hungarian nobles and religious leaders led by Janus Pannonius, János Vitéz, and Emeric Zápolya. Casimir IV of Poland was invited and supported by the rebelling nobles so he stepped in and sent his son Casimir as a pretender to the Hungarian throne. He was promised Hungarian reinforcement as the nobles were to join him when he crossed the border. He led his army of 12,000 men towards Kassa where he was about to take the city without resistance. Meanwhile, Matthias was able to settle his dispute with the rebelling factions and convinced them to take his side. The parties agreed and so did Zápolya along with Nicolaus Chiupor de Monoszló who stopped the approaching Polish invasion from attempting to besiege Kassa by taking the city before him and fortifying themselves in. The prince turned to Nitra instead and occupied it. Matthias arrived there to liberate the city with his army of 16.000 mercenaries and banderias (banners). From this point on, the events are unclear; what is sure is that Casimir retreated with an escort cavalry and the rest of the Polish main forces were released shortly after. Finally the conflict was settled in the Treaty of Ófalu[67] Contemporary historians' presentations differ on the causes of the outcome. Italian historian Antonio Bonfini commissioned by Matthias refers to it as being a siege, which resulted in heavy loss for the besieged due to famine for the first wave. He states that the second wave of Poles was slaughtered by peasants and citizents while marching home, while the prince fled days before, after meeting Matthias and had been spared by him.[68] Hungarian Johannes de Thurocz agrees while adding that a counterattack followed the events where Hungarians attacked the counties of Zemplén and Sáros still under Polish possession and drove them out and intruded into Poland as well for prowling (it is worth noting that these events show remarkable similarities to those that took place two years later).[69] While Polish historian Jan Długosz argues that the incursion happened upon invitation and that no state of war came into existence. He recalls the nobility's actions as betrayal and Casimir's steps as aid or some sort of help for the counts of Hungary. He also questions the circumstances of the retreat claiming it was a peaceful return after Casimir IV met with the Pope Sixtus IV's emissary in Kraków who intervened and urged the maintenance of peace.[70] Based upon the aformentioned, the causes of retreat might be (any or multiple):
- Famine caused by siege
- Casimir's disappointment with his former Hungarian allies and frustration that the project became more difficult to carry out
- Agreement of military matters with Matthias on diplomatic grounds (status quo)
- Mediation of the pope and his calling for peace
- Casimir's fear of being captured and Matthias' fear of triggering a possible "official" war with Casimir IV (reason for letting them retreat)
- Intrigue of the nobility to both sides
- ^ On 7 February 1474, Mihaloğlu Ali Bey's unexpected attack took the town by storm. Ahead of his 7 000 horsemen, he broke through its wooden fences and pillaged the town, burned the houses and took the population as prisoners. Their goal was to rob the treasury of the episcopate, but were resisted by the refugees and clergy in the bishop's castle (at the time the bishop's rank was absent, and no records mention the identity of a possible captain). The town fell but the castle stood, forcing the Turks to give up the fight after one day of siege. While retreating, they devastated the surrounding areas.[75]
- ^ In March 1474, Polish booty-hunter mercenary captain Peter Komorovszki had already penetrated into the upper border region of Hungary and held several forts. He supported Prince Casimir in his attempt to acquire the Hungarian throne. Fed up with his presence King Matthias launched a campaign to regain his fortresses. The castles of Ružomberok, Hrádek, Sklabiňa, Olováry and Chynadiyovo surrendered without resistance. The remaining stronghold of Árva had been fortified and Komorovszki defended it himself. The standoff resulted in Matthias' offer of 8000 gold florins in exchange for the castles, which Komorovszki accepted. He even agreed to let his mercenaries join the Black Army.[77]
- ^ In 1480, Ottomans sought an option to plunder Syria. The Austro-Hungarian wars mobilized the Christian troops out of the area thus the Ottomans chose to interfere. Had being informed of the Ottoman approach Matthias sent John Haugwitz and his 1500 mercenaries to face the Ottomans. After their arrival Haugwitz realized that the several thousand spahis outnumbered them and chose to occupy the near fort of Neumarkt in Steiermark, which was still in the hands of the Holy Roman Emperor. The inhabitants sought protection against the Ottomans and so let Haugwitz's army into the city, successfully repelled the siege. After the relief of the beleaguerment, the Hungarians continued to hold the city until the death of Matthias in 1490[79]
Name variations
International usage of historical names | |||
---|---|---|---|
Hungarian (surname, given name) | English (given name, surname) | Ethnolect (given name, surname) | |
Korvin Mátyás (Mátyás király) | Mat(t)hias Rex, Mat(t)hias Corvin, Mat(t)hias Corvinus, Mat(t)hias Hunyadi, Mat(t)hias Korwin | Czech: Matyáš Korvín, Croatian: Matijaš Korvin, German: Matthias Corvinus, Medieval Latin: Mattias Corvinus, Polish: Maciej Korwin, Romanian: Matia/Matei/Mateiaş Corvin, Serbian: Матија Корвин/Matija Korvin, Slovak: Matej Korvín, Slovene: Matija Korvin, Russian: Матьяш Корвин/Matyash Corvin | |
Magyar Balázs | Balázs/Balazs Magyar, Blaž the Magyar | Croatian:Blaž Magyar, Spanish:Blas Magyar, German:Blasius Magyar, Italian:Biagio Magiaro | |
Kinizsi Pál | Paul/Pál Kinizsi | Romanian:Pavel Chinezul, Spanish:Pablo Kinizsi | |
(S)Zápolya(i) Imre, S)Zapolya(i) Imre, Szipolyai Imre | Emeric Zapolya, Emeric Zapolyai, Emeric Szapolya, Emeric Szapolyai, Emrich of Zapolya | Polish: Emeryk Zápolya, Slovenian: Imrich Zápoľský, Spanish: Emérico Szapolyai (de Szepes), German: Stefan von Zips | |
Gis(z)kra János | John Giskra, John Jiskra | Czech: Jan Jiskra z Brandýsa, German: Johann Giskra von Brandeis, Italian:Giovanni Gressa | |
Löbl Menyhért | Melchior Löbel, Melchior Loebel, Melchior Löbl, Melchior Loebl | German: Melchior Löbel | |
Haugwitz János | John Haugwitz | German: Jan Haugwitz, Czech:Hanuš Haugvic z Biskupic | |
Báthory István, Báthori István | Stephen V Báthory, Stephen Báthory of Ecsed | Romanian: Ștefan Báthory, German: Stephan Báthory von Ecsed, Italian: Stefano Batore | |
Csupor Miklós | Nicolaus Chiupor, Nicolaus Csupor | Romanian: Nicolae Ciupor | |
Jaksics Demeter | Demetrius Jaksic | Serbian: Dmitar Jakšić | |
Újlaki Miklós | Nicholaus of Ujlak, Nicholaus Iločki | Croatian: Nikola Iločki | |
Hag Ferenc | František Hag | German: Franz von Hag, Czech: František z Hája | |
Tettauer Vilmos | Wilhelm Tettauer | Czech: Vilém Tetour z Tetova | |
Table 2 Guide for searching in sources (information is taken from the corresponding Wikipedia sister language projects and from all references listed below) |
See also
- Austrian-Hungarian War (1477-1488)
- Bohemian War (1468-1478)
- Hussite Wars
- Wagon fort
- Growth of the Ottoman Empire
- Siege of Hainburg
- Second siege of Hainburg
- Battle of Leitzersdorf
- Siege of Vienna (1485)
- Siege of Kaiserebersdorf
- Siege of Retz
- Siege of Wiener Neustadt
References
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{{cite web}}
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ignored (|trans-title=
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- ^ Beham, Markus Peter (23 July 2009). "Braşov (Kronstadt) in the Defence against the Turks (1438–1479)" (PDF). Vienna, Austria: Kakanien revisited. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
- ^ Haywood, Matthew (2002). "Wargaming and Warfare in Eastern Europe (1350 AD to 1500 AD )". Mercenary Infantry of the Hunyadi era. Southampton, United Kingdom: British Historical Games Society. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
- ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Hunyadi Matthias I". [[Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition|Encyclopædia Britannica]] (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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(help); Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
ignored (|trans-chapter=
suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "Zrinyi" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ a b Halil İnalcık (27 January 1995). An economic and social history of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 290. ISBN 0-521-34315-1. Retrieved 12 October 2010.
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: Unknown parameter|coauthor=
ignored (|author=
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- ^ http://mek.oszk.hu/07100/07105/pdf/matyaslev2.pdf
- ^ a b c d e Zarnócki Attila (1992). Mátyás király katonai. Budapest, Hungary: Libra Kiadó. ISBN 963-7663-03-7.
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- ^ József Bánlaky (1929). "Trónöröklési és királyválasztási viszályok Mátyás halála után. A csonthegyi ütközet 1490 július 4-én. Ulászló királlyá választása.". A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Grill Károly Könyvkiadó vállalata. ISBN 963-86118-7-1. Retrieved 16 June 2011.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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ignored (|trans-chapter=
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ignored (|trans-title=
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ignored (|trans-title=
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- ^ Tóth Zoltán (1925). Mátyás király idegen zsoldosserege. Budapest, Hungary: Stádium Sajtóvállalat Rt. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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{{cite web}}
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ignored (|trans-title=
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- ^ Hermann Markgraf (1881). "Johann II., Herzog in Schlesien". Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie 14 (in German). Retrieved 13 October 2010.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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- ^ Komlovszki Tibor (1965). Irodalomtörténeti Közlemények (PDF). 69 (in Hungarian). Vol. 3. Budapest, Hungary: Országos Széchényi Könyvtár. Retrieved 2 October 2010.
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ignored (|trans-title=
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: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Antonio Bonfini (1995) [1568]. "Negyedik tized – Nyolcadik könyv". Rerum Hungaricum Decades (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Balassi Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 963-506-040-8. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Ferencz Kállay (1829). Historiai értekezés a' nemes székely nemzet' eredetéről: hadi és polgári intézeteiről a régi időkben (in Hungarian). Nagyenyed, Hungary: Fiedler Gottfried. p. 247. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
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{{cite book}}
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ József Bánlaky (1929). "Megjegyzések. Elmélkedések.". A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Grill Károly Könyvkiadó vállalata. ISBN 963-86118-7-1. Retrieved 27 June 2011.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ József Bánlaky (1929). "11. Az 1463. évi délvidéki és boszniai hadjárat. Az ugyanezen évi tolnai országgyűlés határozatai.". A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Grill Károly Könyvkiadó vállalata. ISBN 963-86118-7-1. Retrieved 27 June 2011.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Jaques, Tony (2006). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A Guide to 8,500 Battles from Antiquity through the Twenty-first Century, Volume 2, F-O. Santa Barbara, CA United States: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 484. ISBN 0-313-33538-9. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
- ^ József Bánlaky (1929). "12. Az 1464. évi boszniai hadjárat.". A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Grill Károly Könyvkiadó vállalata. ISBN 963-86118-7-1. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ a b c Thallóczy Lajos (1915). Jajcza (bánság, vár és város) története 1450–1527 (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Hornyánszky Viktor cs. és kir. udv. könyvnyomdája., Históriaantik Könyvesház Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 978-2-253-05575-4. Archived from the original on 24 July 2010. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Sándor Szilágyi (1896). "7, Mátyás hadserege és diplomatiája". A magyar nemzet története, 5. kötet (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Athenaeum Irod. és Nyomdai Rt. ISBN 1-144-24218-5. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Albert III". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
- ^ a b Mórocz Zsolt (30 August 2008). "Hollószárnyak a Rába fölött" (in Hungarian). Szombathely: Vas Népe Kiadói Kft. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ a b Benda, Kálmán (editor) (1981). Magyarország történeti kronológiája I /A kezdetektől 1526-ig/ (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. p. 276. ISBN 963-05-2661-1.
{{cite book}}
:|first=
has generic name (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Fügedi, Erik (1986). Ispánok, bárók, kiskirályok (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó. p. 381. ISBN 963-14-0582-6.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Kenneth M. Setton (1978). The papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571, volume 1. Philadelphia, PA: American Philosophical Society. p. 400. ISBN 0-87169-127-2. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
- ^ a b c d Szentkláray Jenő (2008). "Temesvár és vidéke". Az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia Irásban és Képben (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Kempelen Farkas Digitális Tankönyvtár. Retrieved 4 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) Cite error: The named reference "stklaray" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page). - ^ Franz Babinger (19 October 1992). "Mehmed in Wallachia and Moldavia". Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time. Princeton, New Jersey, USA: Princeton University Press. p. 349. ISBN 0-691-01078-1. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Heltai, Gáspár (2009) [1574]. Magyar krónika, 2. kötet (in Hungarian). Kolozsvár, Hungary: ICON Group International (reprint). pp. 145–146. ISBN 0-546-87357-X. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ "George of Podebrady". Prague, Czech Republic: Government Information Center of the CR. 26 April 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
- ^ Bartl, Július (2002). "1463". Slovak history: chronology & lexicon. Mundelein, Illinois, USA: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 52. ISBN 0-86516-444-4. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Spilberk Castle". Brno, Czech Republic: Muzeum města Brna. 26 April 2010. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
- ^ Kristó, Gyula (1988). Magyarország története 895–1301. 1984/I (in Hungarian). Vol. 74. Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó. pp. 118, 126. ISBN 978-963-389-970-0. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Medieval Lands Project: Croatia". England: Foundation for Medieval Genealogy. 12 February 2009. Retrieved 8 October 2010.
- ^ Csukovits Enikő (2008). Mátyás és a humanizmus. Nemzet és emlékezet (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó. pp. 92–105. ISBN 978-963-389-981-6.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Antonio Bonfini (1995) [1568]. Rerum Hungaricum Decades (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Balassi Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 963-506-040-8. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Thuróczy János (2001) [1488]. A magyarok krónikája és Siralmas ének (Rogerius mester) (spoken word (mp3)) (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Osiris Kiadó (reprint). ISBN 963-389-129-9. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Jan Długosz (1712). Historiae Polonicae liber XIII.et ultimus (in Latin). pp. 470–473. ASIN B001C6WHOI.
- ^ a b Heltai, Gáspár (1981). "XXXV. Rész". Krónika az magyaroknak dolgairól (PDF) (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Magyar Helikon (reprint). pp. 360–362. ISBN 963-207-840-3. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ "A jászói vár" (in Hungarian). Jasov, Slovakia. Retrieved 21 October 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Karl Nehring (1973). "Vita del re Mattio Corvino" (PDF) (in Italian). Mainz, Germany: von Hase & Koehler Verlag. Retrieved 26 October 2010.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Delia Grigorescu (11 January 2010). "Vlad the Impaler, the second reign – Part 4". Retrieved 18 October 2010.
- ^ Bunyitay Vincze, (1883–1884). A váradi püspökség története (Epistolario di Pier Paolo Vergerio) (in Hungarian). Nagyvárad, Hungary: Episcopate of Várad. Retrieved 20 October 2010.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ a b József Bánlaky (1929). "b) Az 1483–1489. évi hadjárat Frigyes császár és egyes birodalmi rendek ellen. Mátyás erőlködései Corvin János trónigényeinek biztosítása érdekében. A király halála.". A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Grill Károly Könyvkiadó vállalata. ISBN 963-86118-7-1. Retrieved 27 June 2011.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
ignored (|trans-chapter=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b c József Bánlaky (1929). "Az 1472–1474. évi főbb események. Béketárgyalások Kázmérral és Frigyes császárral.". A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Grill Károly Könyvkiadó vállalata. ISBN 963-86118-7-1. Retrieved 27 June 2011.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
ignored (|trans-chapter=
suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ József Bánlaky (1929). "31. Az alkudozások és a kis háborúskodás folytatása Frigyes császárral. Kinizsi 1481–1482. évi délvidéki hadjáratai. Békekötés Bajezid szultánnal.". A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme (in Hungarian). Budapest, Hungary: Grill Károly Könyvkiadó vállalata. ISBN 963-86118-7-1. Retrieved 28 June 2011.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Ferenc Bánhegyi (2008). "Az osztrák háborúk kezdete". A Hunyadiak Dicsősége (in Hungarian). Celldömölk, Hungary: Apáczai Kiadó. ISBN 978-963-465-183-3. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_chapter=
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suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ Elke Feichtinger (2010). "Schloss Forchtenstein". marktgemeinde-neumarkt.at (in German). Neumarkt in Steiermark, Austria: Marktgemeinde Neumarkt. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Zeleny (Selene), ungarischer Hauptmann". Regesta Imperii (in German). Mainz, Austria: Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
ignored (|trans-title=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b Alexander Ganse. "Austro-Hungarian War, 1479–1491". World History at KMLA. Hoengseong, South Korea: Korean Minjok Leadership Academy. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
- ^ "Geschichte Chronik 987–2009". baderlach.gv.at (in German). Bad Erlach, Austria: Marktgemeinde Bad Erlach. Retrieved 30 June 2011.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|trans_title=
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suggested) (help) - ^ Történelmi világatlasz (Map). 1 : 10.000.000. Kartográfiai Vállalat. 1991. p. 112. § V. ISBN 963-351-696-XCM.
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External links
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