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<!-- This article uses British English dialect and spelling. Some terms that are used in it differ from, or are not used in, American English. For more information, see American and British English differences. According to the relevant style guide, this should not be changed without broad consensus. -->
<!-- This article uses British English dialect and spelling. Some terms that are used in it differ from, or are not used in, American English. For more information, see American and British English differences. According to the relevant style guide, this should not be changed without broad consensus. -->
[[File:Triumph T 110 650 cc 1954.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A [[Triumph Tiger T110|Triumph T110 motorcycle]]]]
[[File:Triumph T 110 650 cc 1954.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A [[Triumph Tiger T110|Triumph T110 motorcycle]]]]
[[File:URAL650-SPORTSMAN.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A Ural motorcycle with [[sidecar]] ]]
[[File:URAL650-SPORTSMAN.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A Ural motorcycle with a [[sidecar]] ]]
A '''motorcycle''' (also called a '''motorbike''', '''bike''', '''moto''' or '''cycle''') is a two<ref>{{cite book
A '''motorcycle''' (also called a '''motorbike''', '''bike''', '''moto''' or '''cycle''') is a two<ref>{{cite book
| title = Motorcycle Handling and Chassis Design
| title = Motorcycle Handling and Chassis Design

Revision as of 22:00, 9 February 2014

For other uses, see Motorcycle (disambiguation).
A Triumph T110 motorcycle
A Ural motorcycle with a sidecar

A motorcycle (also called a motorbike, bike, moto or cycle) is a two[1] or three wheeled[2] motor vehicle. Motorcycle design varies greatly to suit a range of different purposes: long distance travel, navigating urban traffic, cruising, sport, racing and off-road riding.

Motorcycles are one of the most affordable forms of motorised transport and, for most of the world's population, they are the most familiar type of motor vehicle.[3][4][5] About 200 million motorcycles, including mopeds, motor scooters, motorised bicycles, and other powered two and three-wheelers, are in use worldwide,[6] or about 33 motorcycles per 1000 people. By comparison, there are around 590 million cars in the world, or about 91 per 1000 people, with about one third (195 million) in service in Japan and the United States.[7]

Most of the world's motorcycles, 58%, are in the developing countries of Southern and Eastern Asia, and the Asia Pacific, excluding Japan which is one of the world's major car users. In 2006, China had 54 million motorcycles in use and an annual production of 22 million units.[8][9] As of 2002, India had an estimated 37 million motorcycles and mopeds.[7][10]

History

Main article: Motorcycle history

Experimentation and invention

Butler's Patent Velocycle

The first commercial design for a self-propelled bicycle was a three-wheel design called the Butler Petrol Cycle, conceived of and built by Edward Butler in England in 1884.[11] He exhibited his plans for the vehicle at the Stanley Cycle Show in London in 1884, two years earlier than Karl Benz invented his first automobile who is generally recognized as the inventor of the modern automobile. Butler's vehicle was also the first design to be shown at the 1885 International Inventions Exhibition in London.

The vehicle was built by the Merryweather Fire Engine company in Greenwich, in 1888.[12] The Butler Petrol Cycle (first recorded use of the term)[12] was a three-wheeled vehicle, with the rear wheel directly driven by a 5/8hp (466W) 600 cc (40 in3; 2¼×5-inch {57×127-mm})[12] flat twin four stroke engine (with magneto ignition replaced by coil and battery),[12] equipped with rotary valves and a float-fed carburettor (five years before Maybach),[12] and Ackermann steering,[13] all of which were state of the art at the time. Starting was by compressed air.[12] The engine was liquid-cooled, with a radiator over the rear driving wheel. Speed was controlled by means of a throttle valve lever. No braking system was fitted; the vehicle was stopped by raising and lowering the rear driving wheel using a foot-operated lever; the weight of the machine was then borne by two small castor wheels. The driver was seated between the front wheels.[12] It wasn't, however, a success, as Butler failed to find sufficient financial backing.

Replica of the Daimler-Maybach Reitwagen.

Another early internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Daimler Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, Germany in 1885.[14] This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no fork offset, and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning.[15] The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.[16][17]

Many authorities who exclude steam powered, electric or diesel two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle.[18][19][20]

If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first was the French Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede of 1868.[16][17] This was followed by the American Roper steam velocipede of 1869, built by Sylvester H. Roper Roxbury, Massachusetts.[16][17] Roper demonstrated his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. in 1867,[14] and built a total of 10 examples.[20]

First motorcycle companies

Diagram of 1894 Hildebrand & Wolfmüller.

In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle (German: Motorrad).[16][17][20][21] Excelsior Motor Company, originally a bicycle manufacturing company based in Coventry, England, began production of their first motorcycle model in 1896. The first production motorcycle in the US was the Orient-Aster, built by Charles Metz in 1898 at his factory in Waltham, Massachusetts.

In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased. Many of the nineteenth century inventors who worked on early motorcycles often moved on to other inventions. Daimler and Roper, for example, both went on to develop automobiles.

At the turn of the century the first major mass-production firms were set up. In 1898, Triumph Motorcycles in England began producing motorbikes, and by 1903 it was producing over 500 bikes. Other British firms were Royal Enfield, Norton and Birmingham Small Arms Company who began motorbike production in 1899, 1902 and 1910, respectively.[22] Indian began production in 1901 and Harley Davidson was established two years later. By the outbreak of the First World War,the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian,[23][24] producing over 20,000 bikes per year.[25]

First World War

Triumph Motorcycles Model H, mass-produced for the war effort and notable for it's reliability.

During the First World War, motorbike production was greatly ramped up for the war effort to supply effective communications with front line troops. Messengers on horses were replaced with despatch riders on motorcycles carrying messages, performing reconnaissance personnel and acting as a military police. American company Harley-Davidson was devoting over 50% of its factory output toward military contract by the end of the war. The British company Triumph Motorcycles sold more than 30,000 of its Triumph Type H model to allied forces during the war. With the rear wheel driven by a belt, the Model H was fitted with a 499 cc air-cooled four-stroke single-cylinder engine. It was also the first Triumph not to be fitted with pedals, so was a true motorcycle.[26]

The Model H in particular, is regarded by many as having been the first "modern motorcycle".[27] Introduced in 1915 it had a 550cc side-valve four-stroke engine with a three-speed gearbox and belt transmission. It was so popular with its users that it was nicknamed the "Trusty Triumph."[28]

Postwar

By 1920, Harley-Davidson was the largest manufacturer,[29] with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries.[30][31] By the late 1920s or early 1930s, DKW in Germany took over as the largest manufacturer![32][33][34]

After World War II, the Birmingham Small Arms Company became the largest producer of motorcycles in the world, producing up to 75,000 bikes per year in the 1950s.[citation needed] The German company NSU held the position of largest manufacturer from 1955 until the 1970s.[citation needed]

NSU Sportmax streamlined motorcycle, 250 cc class winner of the 1955 Grand Prix season

In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.[35] NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing.[36]

Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and by 1957 nearly all the Grand Prix races were being won by streamlined machines.[citation needed] The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns.

From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.[37]

Today

In the 21st century, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Japanese companies. In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries. An example is the 1958 Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008.[38] Today, this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero MotoCorp emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. Its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date.[39] Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors.[40]

Demographics

Number of motorcycles vs number of cars by country. Size of pie indicates population. 2002 estimates.[7][10]
Millions of cars (light blue) and motorcycles (dark blue) in the top 20 countries with the most motorcycles. Population in red. 2002 estimates.[7][10]
Motorbikes are the primary form of transportation in Vietnam.

In numerous cultures, motorcycles are the primary means of motorised transport. According to the Taiwanese government, for example, "the number of automobiles per ten thousand population is around 2,500, and the number of motorcycles is about 5,000."[41] In places such as Vietnam, motorised traffic consist of mostly motorbikes[4] due to a lack of public transport and low income levels that put automobiles out of reach for many.[3]

The four largest motorcycle markets in the world are all in Asia: China, India, Indonesia, and Vietnam.[3][42] The motorcycle is also popular in Brazil's frontier towns.[5] Amid the global economic downturn of 2008, the motorcycle market grew by 6.5%.[43]

Recent years have seen an increase in the popularity of motorcycles elsewhere. In the USA, registrations increased by 51% between 2000 and 2005.[44] This is mainly attributed to increasing fuel prices and urban congestion.[45] A Consumer Reports subscribers' survey of mainly United States motorcycle and scooter owners reported that they rode an average of only 1,000 miles (1,600 km) per year, 82% for recreation and 38% for commuting.[46] Americans put 10,000–12,000 miles (16,000–19,000 km) per year on their cars and light trucks.[47]

As motorcyclists age, there is a tendency for riders to choose touring bikes over sports bikes.[48]

Use

Milk delivery in Karnal, India
A couple ride on a motorcycle in Udaipur, India. Annual sales of motorcycles in India are expected to exceed 10 million by 2010.

While people choose to ride motorcycles for various reasons, those reasons are increasingly practical, with riders opting for a powered two-wheeler as a cost-efficient alternative to infrequent and expensive public transport systems, or as a means of avoiding or reducing the effects of urban congestion.[49] Where permitted, lane splitting, which is also known as filtering, allows motorcycles to move between vehicles in slow or stationary traffic.[50]

In the UK, motorcycles are exempt from the £10 per day London congestion charge that other vehicles must pay to enter the city during the day. Motorcycles are also exempt from toll charges at such river crossings as the Severn Bridge, Dartford Crossing, and Mersey Tunnels. Such cities as Bristol provide dedicated free parking and allow motorcycles to use bus lanes. In the United States, motorcycles may use high-occupancy vehicle lanes in accordance with federal law [51] and pay a lesser fee on some toll roads. Other countries have similar policies.

In New Zealand, motorcycle riders need not pay for parking that is controlled by a barrier arm;[52] the arm occupies less than the entire width of the lane, and the motorcyclist simply rides around it.[53] Many car parks that are thus controlled so supply special areas for motorcycles to park as to save space.

In many cities that have serious parking challenges for cars, such as Melbourne, Australia, motorcycles are generally permitted to park on the sidewalk, rather than occupy a space on the street which might otherwise be used by a car.[citation needed]

Technical aspects

A Suzuki GS500 with a clearly visible frame (painted silver).

Construction

See also: Motorcycle components and Motorcycle design

Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain, driveshaft or belt.

Fuel economy

Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style[54] ranging from a low of 29 mpg‑US (8.1 L/100 km; 35 mpg‑imp) reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider,[55] to 107 mpg‑US (2.2 L/100 km; 129 mpg‑imp) reported for the Verucci Nitro 50 cc scooter.[56] A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved 470 mpg‑US (0.50 L/100 km; 560 mpg‑imp) "on real highways – in real conditions."[57] Due to low engine displacements (100 cc–200 cc), and high power-to-mass ratios, motorcycles offer good fuel economy. Under conditions of fuel scarcity like 1950s Britain and modern developing nations, motorcycles claim large shares of the vehicle market.

Electric motorcycles

Main article: Electric motorcycle

Very high fuel economy equivalents are often derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent, zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed are limited by battery technology.[citation needed] Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric drive system.

Reliability

A 2013 survey of 4,424 readers of the US Consumer Reports magazine collected reliability data on 4,680 motorcycles purchased new from 2009 to 2012.[58] The most common problem areas were accessories, brakes, electrical (including starters, charging, ignition), and fuel systems, and the types of motorcycles with the greatest problems were touring, off road/dual sport, sport-touring, and cruisers.[58] There were not enough sport bikes in the survey for a statistically significant conclusion, though the data hinted at reliability as good as cruisers.[58] These results may be partially explained by accessories including such equipment as fairings, luggage, and auxiliary lighting, which are frequently added to touring, adventure touring/dual sport and sport touring bikes.[59] Trouble with fuel systems is often the result of improper winter storage, and brake problems may also be due to poor maintenance.[58] Of the five brands with enough data to draw conclusions, Honda, Kawasaki and Yamaha were statistically tied, with 11 to 14% of those bikes in the survey experiencing major repairs.[58] Harley-Davidsons had a rate of 24%, while BMWs did worst, with 30% of those needing major repairs.[58] There were not enough Triumph and Suzuki motorcycles surveyed for a statistically sound conclusion, though it appeared Suzukis were as reliable as the other three Japanese brands while Triumphs were comparable to Harley-Davidson and BMW.[58] Three fourths of the repairs in the survey cost less than US$ 200 and two thirds of the motorcycles were repaired in less than two days.[58] In spite of their relatively worse reliability in this survey, Harley-Davidson and BMW owners showed the greatest owner satisfaction, and three fourths of them said they would buy the same bike again, followed by 72% of Honda owners and 60 to 63% of Kawasaki and Yamaha owners.[58]

Dynamics

Racing motorcycles leaning in a turn.
Main article: Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics

Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances.[60] Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling.

Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering, in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. This practice is counter-intuitive and therefore often confusing to novices – and even many experienced motorcyclists.[61]

Such short wheelbase motorcycles as sport bikes can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as wheelies and stoppies respectively. If carried past the point of recovery the resulting upset is known as an "endo" (short for "end-over-end"), or "looping" the vehicle.

Accessories

Main article: Motorcycle accessories

Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM (factory-fitted) or after-market. Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers.

Safety

Main articles: Motorcycle safety and Motorcycle safety clothing

Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles or trucks and buses. United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles – four times higher than for cars.[62] The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47–28 times higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007).[63] Furthermore for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars.

Wearing a motorcycle helmet reduces the risks of death or head injury in a motorcycle crash

The two major causes of motorcycle accidents in the United States are: motorists pulling out or turning in front of motorcyclists and violating their rights-of-way, and motorcyclists running wide through turns.[citation needed] The former is sometimes called a SMIDSY, an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you".[64] The latter is more commonly caused by operating a motorcycle while intoxicated.[65] Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their visibility to other traffic, keeping the speed limits, and not consuming alcohol or drugs before riding.[66]

The United Kingdom has several organisations dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training beyond what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle licence test. These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications may benefit from reduced insurance costs.[citation needed]

In South Africa, the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads. The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State. It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run.[67]

An MSF rider course for novices

Motorcycle safety education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. Most states use the courses designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), while Oregon and Idaho developed their own. All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course.

In the UK and some Australian jurisdictions, such as Victoria, New South Wales,[68] the Australian Capital Territory,[69] Tasmania[70] and the Northern Territory,[71] it is compulsory to complete a basic rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence, after which they can ride on public roads with L plates in the UK and P plates in Australia.

In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have graduated licence programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. The Canada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council.[72] Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums.

Types

Main article: Types of motorcycles
A boulevard cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background)
French gendarme motorcyclist

There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many different sub-types of motorcycles for many different purposes.

Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.

Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.

Motorcycle rider postures

The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic postures.[73]

  • Sport – the rider leans forwards into the wind and the weight of the upper torso is supported by the rider's core at low speed and air pressure at high speed (e.g., above 50 mph (80 km/h)). The footpegs are below the rider or to the rear. The reduced frontal area cuts wind resistance and allows higher speeds. At low-speed this position throws the weight of the rider onto the arms, which can tire the rider's wrists.
  • Standard – the rider sits upright or leans forward slightly. The feet are below the rider. These are motorcycles that are not specialised to one task, so they do not excel in any particular area.[74][75] The standard posture is used with touring and commuting as well as dirt and dual-sport bikes, and may offer advantages for beginners.[76]
  • Cruiser – the rider sits at a lower seat height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly rearward. Legs are extended forwards, sometimes out of reach of the regular controls on cruiser pegs. The low seat height can be a consideration for new or short riders. Handlebars tend to be high and wide. The emphasis is on comfort, while compromising cornering ability because of low ground clearance and the greater likelihood of scraping foot pegs, floor boards, or other parts if turns are taken at the speeds other motorcycles can more readily accomplish.[77][78]

Factors of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height.

Main article: Legal definition of motorcycle

A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger vehicles (scooters do not count as a separate category). Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheeled cars as motorcycles.

Environmental impact

Motorcycles and scooters' low fuel consumption has attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those whom increased fuel prices affect.[79][80] Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, claiming lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile (113 g/km) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy.[81]

However, a motorcycle's exhaust emissions may contain 10–20 times more oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide, and unburned hydrocarbons than exhaust from a similar-year passenger car or SUV.[79][82] This is because many motorcycles lack a catalytic converter, and the emission standard is much more permissive for motorcycles than for other vehicles.[79] While catalytic converters have been installed in most gasoline-powered cars and trucks since 1975 in the United States, they can present fitment and heat difficulties in motorcycle applications.[79] Along with other emissions-reducing technologies that have taken longer to appear in motorcycles than in cars, such as fuel injection, catalytic converters are becoming increasingly commonplace. Many newer motorcycles, such as the Yamaha R1 and Suzuki GSXR1000 do have catalytic converters, and most BMWs have been equipped with catalytic converters since the 1990s.[citation needed]

United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters),[83] the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531. 54% of the tested 2007-model motorcycles were equipped with a catalytic converter.

United States emissions limits

The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, and carbon monoxide for new motorcycles sold in the United States with 280 cc or greater piston displacement.[84]

Tier Model year HC+NOx (g/km) CO (g/km)
Tier 1 2006–2009 1.4 12.0
Tier 2 2010 and later 0.8 12.0

The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows:[84]

Model year HC (g/km) CO (g/km)
2006 and later 1.0 12.0

Europe

European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars.[citation needed] New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards,[85] while cars must meet Euro V standards. Motorcycle emission controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015.[86]

See also

References

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