Jump to content

Animal sacrifice in Hinduism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 117.246.125.119 (talk) at 03:14, 10 June 2022. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

A goat being sacrificed in a Temple festival in Tamil Nadu.

The practice of Hindu animal sacrifice is mostly associated with Vedic Śrauta rituals, Shaktism and in currents of folk Hinduism strongly rooted in local popular or tribal traditions, however animal sacrifices were part of the ancient Vedic religion in India, and are mentioned in scriptures such as the Yajurveda.[1][2][3][4]

Vedic Srautism

Seven of the twenty one Vedic Srauta Yagnyas require animal sacrifices. The famous ones are the goat in Soma Yaga[5][6] and the horse in Ashvamedha. However, consumption of the victim's meat is not compulsory for the sacrificer depending on his descent and caste. Many Brahmin castes offer meat sacrifices but do not eat it, referring to the curse of rishi Agastya after the Ilvala-Vatapi episode.[7]

Puranic references

The eighteen major Puranas and Upapuranas like the Devi-Bhagavata Purana[8] and Kalika Purana prescribe animal sacrifice.[9][10]

Vedantic Smartism

The orthodox Smarta Advaita Vedantic tradition of Adi Shankaracharya follows the Brahma Sutras in which animal sacrifice as per scriptures is seen as a way for the liberation of the victim's soul as well as the sacrificer's.[11]


अशुद्धमिति चेत्, न, शब्दात् ॥ २५ ॥

aśuddhamiti cet, na, śabdāt || 25 ||

- Brahma-Sutra 3.1.25

25. If it be said (that sacrifices, which entail the killing of animals etc.) are unholy, (we say) not so, on account of scriptural authority.

This Sutra refutes the point raised by the Nastika opponent in the previous Sutra that the descending soul is enveloped by its bad Karma such as the killing of animals in sacrifices and so is born as herbs etc. The killing of animals etc. in sacrifices does not entail any bad Karma for the person, for it is sanctioned by the scriptures.

Inside the Puri Jagannath temple, which follows the Govardhana Matha tradition of Adi Shankaracharya, animal sacrifices, arrack and fish are traditionally offered to the matha's head deity at the Vimala Shakti Peetha.[12] The practice never declined during the formation of Hinduism, and very many Hindus strongly approve of them.

Orthodox Sikhs like Hazuri Sikhs and Nihangs who hold on to tradition believe in sacrifice by Jhatka in Gurudwaras as well. Buddhists,[13] Jains and colonial era Neo-Hindu and Neo-Sikh movements like Arya Samaj and the reformist Sikh SGPC alongwith western organisations like ISKCON and PETA have questioned such orthodox rituals as an external reaction to the orthodoxy. Buddha succumbed to dysentery after eating pork begged from Cunda Kammaraputta. So non vegetarianism is a norm in the orthodox Theravada Buddhist monastic tradition, whereas animal sacrifice for deities is proscribed. However, lay Buddhists often lapse to their former faiths Hinduism,[14][15] Shinto[16] or the Chinese folk religion in performing animal sacrifices in desperate circumstances. Jainism proscribes all killing for the monks but the lay Jain parents of Arihants like Mahavira were blood thirsty warriors, slaughtering thousands of lives in wars

A sacrificed boar, coocked mutton and chicken and eggs being offered in a spirit house consecration by a Thai Brahmin.

Critiques of animal sacrifice

Critiques are seen by the Vedic orthodoxy as the hypocrisies of Buddhism and Jainism, both which are Nastika religions which deny any liberator Godheads as in the Vedic orthodoxy. Following M.K.Gandhi, a Jain influenced philosopher, and J.Nehru, a Buddhist influenced leader, Indian states like Kerala had legally banned such practices.[17]

"Kerala's law allows killing of animals for consumption but not to propitiate a deity", observed the Supreme Court of India and declared such laws 'arbitrary' in a plea by Shakta worshippers for whom animal sacrifice is an integral part of their religion.[18]

Practice in Indian temples

The famous Kalighat temple, to which Kolkata owes its name sees hundreds of sacrifices everyday.[19]

In the Kallalagar temple of Vishnu, animals are presented to a closed door that acts as a shrine of the guardian deity Karuppanana Swamy and then ritually sacrificed outside the temple. Many devotees believe that sacrifice is to the presiding form of Vishnu, rather than Karuppan.[20] Karuppan, as the guardian deity of the Tamil village god Aiyanar, is offered animal sacrifice, while the main deity is covered with a curtain, to avoid the sight of the sacrifice.[21] Village goddesses like Mariamman are said to enjoy animal sacrifice. Karuppan or another guardian deity receives animal sacrifice on her behalf; however animal sacrifice is offered directly to the goddess in festivals, generally outside the temple premises.[22]

A popular Hindu ritual form of worship of North Malabar region in the Indian state of Kerala is the blood offering to Theyyam gods. Theyyam deities are propitiated through the cock sacrifice where the religious cockfight is a religious exercise of offering blood to the Theyyam gods.[23]


Jhatka, Himsa and Hatya

Hindu scriptures declare torture or himsa as bad karma but prescribed tortureless instantaneous hatya to the gods as liberation. Thus animals killed for food without being slaughtered by Jhatka to gods, Bhutas or the pitrs are considered non liberated and thus incur bad karma to the slaughterer.

Shaktism (Sakta)

Shaktism or mother goddess worship nearly always requires Panchamakara worship as does that of Bhutas, or the local deities which are the primordial inhabitants of any given place.

Greater India

The practice exists throughout Greater India, even where Hinduism has declined as Burmese Nat (deity) worship, Indochinese Spirit house worship and the Philippine Diwata anito worship upto the Bali-Javanese animal sacrifices which are explained in the Saktimangala tantra.[24]

Agamic and Tantric Hinduism

The Saivagamas refer to the Sakta agamas and Kaula (Hinduism) tantras such as Yamala and Matrutantras when dealing with Panchamakara rituals. Kulamarga is also known by the name 'Bhuta tantra'.

Terminology

Yupa sacrificial pillar of the time of Vasishka, Isapur, near Mathura. Mathura Museum.

A Sanskrit term used for animal sacrifice is bali, in origin meaning "tribute, offering or oblation" generically ("vegetable oblations [... and] animal oblations,").[25] Bali among other things "refers to the blood of an animal"[25] and is sometimes known as Jhatka Bali[26][27] among Hindus.

The Kalika Purana distinguishes bali (sacrifice), mahabali (great sacrifice), for the ritual killing of goats, elephant, respectively, though the reference to humans in Shakti theology is symbolic and done in effigy in modern times.[28] For instance, Sir John Woodroffe published a commentary on the Karpuradistotram, where he writes that the sacrificial animals listed in verse 19 are symbols for the six enemies, with "man" representing pride.[29]

Hindu scriptures

The Ashvamedha, a ritual in which a horse was allowed to roam freely for a year, then finally sacrificed, is mentioned in the Vedic texts such as the Yajurveda. In the epic Mahabharata, Yudhishtra performs the Ashwamedha after winning the Kurukshetra war to become the Chakravartin emperor. The Mahabharata also contains a description of an Ashvamedha performed by the Chedi king Uparichara Vasu, however.[30]

Human sacrifice was banned for Brahmins and recommended for the Kshatriyas in dire circumstances. The victim was expected to voluntarily behead himself with his own hands. The Tamil version of Mahabharata depicts the Nara bali or human sacrifice of Aravan at the counsel of Krishna on Baudhayana Amavasya to the Kali at the Kurukshetra battlefield before the war. Vikramaditya and Bhartruhari offered themselves as sacrifices to Ujjain Mahakali.

Details about Navaratri festival and Rama's performing the Navarâtra ceremony in which animal sacrifice for devi is prescribed to Rama and he offers it.[31]

The rulers of the Gupta empire, the Chalukya dynasty, and the Chola dynasty all performed the Ashvamedha.[32][33]

Agnisomiya was the simplest of all Soma sacrifices in which animal sacrifice played an important part; it required that a goat be sacrificed to Agni and Soma preceding the day of offering of nectar to the gods.[34][35] In the Savaniya sacrifice, victims were offered throughout the day of offering to Agni.[2][3][4] These rituals didn't focus on the killing of the animal but as a symbol to the powers it was sacrificed.[36]

In Bhagavata Purana written in 10th or 11th century, Krishna tells people to perform animal sacrifices in the Kali Yuga, the present age not in excess, though the prescribed methods can be done.[37][38] The Gaudiya Vaishnavite Brahma Vaivarta Purana describes animal sacrifices as kali-varjya or prohibited in the Kali Yuga.[39] The Adi Purana, Brihan-naradiya Purana and Aditya Purana which are sectarian, also forbid animal sacrifice in Kali Yuga.[40] Some orthodox interpreters of Hindu scriptures, like the Shankaracharya of Puri Govardhana Matha[41] adhere to the Brahma Sutras that justify Vedic animal sacrifice to deities viewing it "in the cause of a great ideal" and that "the animal sacrificed attains the deity to which it is offered to as does the sacrificer at his end".

Animal sacrifice in contemporary Hindu society

A male buffalo calf about to be sacrificed by a priest in the Durga Puja festival. The buffalo sacrifice practice, however, is rare in contemporary India.[42]
A man carrying the sacrificed buffalo's head in plate at Silchar in Assam

Some orthodox Hindus follow a tradition of animal sacrifice, but there are numerous local exceptions. In general, where it is practiced, it will be seen as desired by some deities, but not by others.[25]

Animal sacrifice is practiced in many Shakti temples in the states of Assam, Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal in Eastern India, as well as in the nation of Nepal.The sacrifice involves slaying of goats, chickens, pigeons and male Water buffaloes[43][44] For example, one of the largest animal sacrifice in Nepal occurs over the three-day-long Gadhimai festival. In 2009 it was speculated that more than 250,000 animals were killed[45] while 5 million devotees attended the festival.[46] The Gadhimai festival was banned by the Nepal government in 2015.[47]

In the state of Odisha, every year, animals like goat and fowl are sacrificed before Kandhen Budhi, the reigning deity of Kantamal in Boudh district, on the occasion of her annual Yatra/Jatra (festival) held in the month of Aswina (September–October). The main attraction of Kandhen Budhi Yatra is Ghusuri Puja. Ghusuri means a child pig, which is sacrificed to the goddess every three years.[48] During the Bali Jatra, male goats are offered as a sacrifice to the goddess Samaleswari in her temple in Sambalpur, Odisha.[49][50] Bali Jatra of Sonepur in Odisha, India is also an annual festival celebrated in the month of Aswina (September–October) when animal sacrifice is an integral part of the ritual worship of deities namely Samaleswari, Sureswari and Khambeswari. Bali refers to animal sacrifice and hence this annual festival is called Bali Jatra.[51][52]

Animal sacrifice is a part of some Durga puja celebrations during the Navratri in the eastern states of India. The goddess is offered sacrificial animal in this ritual in the belief that it stimulates her violent vengeance against the buffalo demon.[53] According to Christopher Fuller, the animal sacrifice practice is rare among Hindus during Navratri, or at other times, outside the Shaktism tradition found in the eastern Indian states of West Bengal, Odisha[54] and Northeastern India, Assam and Tripura. Further, even in these states, the festival season is one where significant animal sacrifices are observed.[53] In some Shakta Hindu communities, the slaying of buffalo demon and victory of Durga is observed with a symbolic sacrifice instead of animal sacrifice.[55][56][note 1]

The Rajput of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses on Navratri, and formerly offered a sacrifice of a goat to a goddess revered as Kuldevi – a practice that continues in some places.[59][60] The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior.[61] The Kuldevi among these Rajput communities is a warrior-pativrata guardian goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput–Muslim wars.[62]

The tradition of animal sacrifice is not prevalent in temples and households around Banaras where vegetarian offerings are made to the Goddess.[63]

Animal sacrifice is practiced by Shaktism tradition where ritual offering is made to a Devi.[4] In Southern Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, it is most notably performed in front of local deities or clan deities. In Karnataka, the goddess receiving the sacrifice tends to be Renuka. The animal is either a male buffalo or a goat.[64]

In some sacred groves of India, particularly in Western Maharashtra, animal sacrifice is practiced to pacify female deities that are supposed to rule the groves.[65] Animal sacrifice is also practiced by some rural communities around Pune to placate deities at temples of Waghjai and Sirkai.[66] In the region around Pune, goats and fowl are sacrificed to the God Vetala.[67] The Kathar or Kutadi community of Maharashtra, while observing the Pachvi ceremony after delivery of a child in the family, offer worship to their family deity, Saptashrungi and also offer a sacrifice of a goat. Following this they hold the naming ceremony of the child on the 12th day.[68]

Ahobilam in Andhra Pradesh, is the centre of worship of Narasimha, the lion-headed avatar of Vishnu, to whom the nine Hindu temples and other shrines are all dedicated. A certain amount of sacrifice of goats and rams is still performed weekly. This is now highly unusual in the worship of Vishnu,[69][70] suggesting a "transitional state between a wild and unregulated tribal deity and an orthodox form of the god Vishnu".[69]

A popular Hindu ritual form of worship of North Malabar region in the Indian state of Kerala is the blood offering to Theyyam gods. Theyyam deities are propitiated through the cock sacrifice where the religious cockfight is a religious exercise of offering blood to the Theyyam gods.[71]

Shaktism or mother goddess worship nearly always requires Panchamakara worship as does that of Bhutas, or the local deities which were the primordial inhabitants of any given place. This practice exists throughout Greater India, even where Hinduism has declined as Burmese Nat (deity) worship, Indochinese Spirit house worship and the Philippine Diwata anito worship. The Saivagamas (Agama (Hinduism)#Shaiva Agamas) refer to the Sakta agamas (Agama (Hinduism)#Shakta Agamas) and Kaula (Hinduism) tantras such as Yamala and Matrutantras when dealing with Panchamakara rituals. Kulamarga is also known by the name 'Bhuta tantra'.

Animal Sacrifice is practiced by some Hindus on the Indonesian island of Bali.[72][73][74] The religious belief of Tabuh Rah, a form of animal sacrifice of Balinese Hinduism includes a religious cockfight where a rooster is used in religious custom by allowing him to fight against another rooster in a religious and spiritual cockfight, a spiritual appeasement exercise of Tabuh Rah.[75] The spilling of blood is necessary as purification to appease the evil spirits, and ritual fights follow an ancient and complex ritual as set out in the sacred lontar manuscripts.[76][77] This ritual is also found in Tamil Nadu.[78]

Method of sacrifice

Methods for sacrificing range from decapitation (Jhatka), strangulation, to a spike being driven into the heart of the animal. The Jhatka method requires the instant killing of the animal in a single decapitating blow with an axe or sword.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In these cases, Shaktism devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.[57] A statue of asura demon made of flour, or equivalent, is immolated and smeared with vermilion to remember the blood that had necessarily been spilled during the war.[55][56] Other substitutes include a vegetal or sweet dish considered equivalent to the animal.[58]

References

  1. ^ "Yajur Veda Kanda II". www.sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
  2. ^ a b Arthur Berriedale Keith (1989). The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. Motilal Banarsidass Publishe. pp. 324–327. ISBN 978-81-208-0644-3.
  3. ^ a b Arthur Berriedale Keith; Ralph T.H. Griffith (2013). The Yajur Veda. Publish This, LLC. p. 1035. ISBN 9781618348630.
  4. ^ a b c James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 41. ISBN 9780823931798.
  5. ^ Somayaga :- Buying soma for somayaga, retrieved 7 January 2022
  6. ^ "Sankethi Brahmins sacrifice eight goats for public welfare!". News Karnataka. 4 May 2016. Retrieved 20 April 2022.
  7. ^ Basu, Abhijit (1 January 2020). "LEGENDS AND TRADITIONS RELATING TO SAGE AGASTYA". Author's Book Titled 'Perpetual India: Tale of a Timeless People' (Chapter 7, Titled 'The Idea of India'), Publisher - Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi (2020).
  8. ^ "The Devi Bhagavatam: The Third Book: Chapter 30". www.sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 11 April 2022.
  9. ^ Preece, Rod (2001). Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities. UBC Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780774807241.
  10. ^ Understanding World Religions: A Road Map for Justice and Peace. Rowman & Littlefield. January 2007. p. 13. ISBN 9780742550551. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  11. ^ करपात्री जी ने किया था बलि प्रथा का समर्थन l, retrieved 17 March 2022
  12. ^ "Animal sacrifice goes unchecked". The Times of India. 3 October 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  13. ^ "After Protests, Sri Lanka To Ban Animal Sacrifices At Hindu Temples". NDTV.com. Retrieved 26 March 2022.
  14. ^ Feddema, J. P. (Hans) (1995). "The "Lesser" Violence of Animal Sacrifice: A Somewhat Hidden and Overlooked (Ignored?) Reality in Sinhala Buddhism". Anthropos. 90 (1/3): 133–148. ISSN 0257-9774. JSTOR 40463108.
  15. ^ Chadha, Jyotsna (19 August 2020). "Funfact: Why do Thai people offer Strawberry Fanta to Gods?". Beyond IIM. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
  16. ^ "Animal abuse". Green Shinto. 2 October 2015. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
  17. ^ Jul 2, TNN /; 2021; Ist, 15:43. "PM Modi urged to ban animal sacrifice | India News - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 10 June 2022. {{cite web}}: |last2= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ "Ban on animal sacrifice in temples arbitrary, says plea in Supreme Court". The Hindu. 26 June 2020. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 17 March 2022.
  19. ^ Kalighat Temple | Kolkata Kali ghat Mandir, retrieved 31 December 2021
  20. ^ Fuller 2004, pp. 95–6. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  21. ^ Fuller 2004, p. 90. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  22. ^ Fuller 2004, pp. 91. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  23. ^ K. K. Kusuman (1990). A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume. Mittal Publications. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-81-7099-214-1.
  24. ^ "Evolution of Tantra". www.esamskriti.com. Retrieved 22 March 2022.
  25. ^ a b c Rodrigues, Hillary; Sumaiya Rizvi (10 June 2010). "Blood Sacrifice in Hinduism". Mahavidya. p. 1. Archived from the original on 17 August 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
  26. ^ O.P. Radhan (September 2002). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties. Vol. 33 to 50. Anmol, India. p. 854. ISBN 978-81-7488-865-5. ASIN 8174888659.
  27. ^ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 75.
  28. ^ "" Pramatha Nath Bose, A History of Hindu Civilization During British Rule, vol. 1, p. 65
  29. ^ Hymn to Kali: Preface
  30. ^ Dalal, Roshen (2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin UK. p. 224. ISBN 978-8184752779.
  31. ^ "The Devi Bhagavatam: The Third Book: Chapter 30". www.sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 28 March 2022.
  32. ^ Roshen Dalal (18 April 2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. p. 207. ISBN 9788184752779.
  33. ^ Uma Marina Vesci (1992). Heat and Sacrifice in the Vedas. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 103. ISBN 9788131716779.
  34. ^ A. B. Gajendragadkar; R. D. Karmarkar, eds. (1998). The Arthasamgraha of Laugaksi Bhaskara. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers. p. 34. ISBN 9788120814431.
  35. ^ Arthur Berriedale Keith (2007). The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 324–326. ISBN 9788120806443.
  36. ^ Tom Regan (2004). Animal Sacrifices. Temple University Press. p. 201. ISBN 9780877225119.
  37. ^ "ŚB 11.5.13". vedabase.io. Retrieved 31 March 2022.
  38. ^ Patton, Laurie L (1994). Authority, Anxiety, and Canon: Essays in Vedic Interpretation – Google Books. ISBN 9780791419373. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  39. ^ Rosen, Steve (2004). Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and Animal Rights. Lantern Books. p. 24.
  40. ^ Vidyasagar, Ishvarchandra (13 August 2013). Hindu Widow Marriage – Īśvaracandra Bidyāsāgara – Google Books. ISBN 9780231526609. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  41. ^ करपात्री जी ने किया था बलि प्रथा का समर्थन l, retrieved 30 April 2022
  42. ^ Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
  43. ^ Fuller, Christopher John (2004). "4". The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India (Revised and Expanded ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
  44. ^ Fuller C. J. (26 July 2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback] (Revised ed.). Princeton University Press. p. 83. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5. ASIN 069112048X.
  45. ^ Olivia Lang (24 November 2009). "Hindu sacrifice of 250,000 animals begins | World news". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  46. ^ "Ritual animal slaughter begins in Nepal". CNN. Edition.cnn.com. 24 November 2009. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  47. ^ Ram Chandra, Shah. "Gadhimai Temple Trust Chairman, Mr Ram Chandra Shah, on the decision to stop holding animal sacrifices during the Gadhimai festival" (PDF). Humane Society International. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  48. ^ "Kandhen Budhi" (PDF). Orissa.gov.in. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  49. ^ Georg Pfeffer; Deepak Kumar Behera (1997). Contemporary Society: Developmental issues, transition, and change. Concept Publishing Company. p. 312. ISBN 9788170226420.
  50. ^ "Komna ready for animal sacrifice". The Times of India. The Times Group. 2 October 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
  51. ^ "Bali Jatra of Sonepur" (PDF). Orissa.gov.in. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  52. ^ (Barik, 2009:160–162).[full citation needed]
  53. ^ a b Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 46, 83–85. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
  54. ^ Hardenberg, Roland (2000). "Visnu's Sleep, Mahisa's Attack, Durga's Victory: Concepts of Royalty in a Sacrificial Drama" (PDF). Journal of Social Science. 4 (4): 267. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
  55. ^ a b Hillary Rodrigues 2003, pp. 277–278. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHillary_Rodrigues2003 (help)
  56. ^ a b June McDaniel 2004, pp. 204–205. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJune_McDaniel2004 (help)
  57. ^ Ira Katznelson; Gareth Stedman Jones (2010). Religion and the Political Imagination. Cambridge University Press. p. 343. ISBN 978-1-139-49317-8.
  58. ^ Rachel Fell McDermott (2011). Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals. Columbia University Press. pp. 204–205. ISBN 978-0-231-12919-0.
  59. ^ Harlan, Lindsey (2003). The goddesses' henchmen gender in Indian hero worship. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. pp. 45 with footnote 55, 58–59. ISBN 978-0195154269. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  60. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf; Erndl, Kathleen M. (2000). Is the Goddess a Feminist?: the Politics of South Asian Goddesses. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 77. ISBN 9780814736197.
  61. ^ Harlan, Lindsey (1992). Religion and Rajput Women. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 61, 88. ISBN 978-0-520-07339-5.
  62. ^ Harlan, Lindsey (1992). Religion and Rajput Women. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-0-520-07339-5.
  63. ^ Rodrigues, Hillary (2003). Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with interpretation. Albany, New York, USA: State University of New York Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-07914-5399-5. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  64. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (February 1980). "Rāma and Gilgamesh: the sacrifices of the water buffalo and the bull of heaven". History of Religions. 19 (3): 187–195. doi:10.1086/462845. JSTOR 1062467. S2CID 162925746.
  65. ^ Gadgil, M; VD Vartak (1975). "Sacred Groves of India" (PDF). Journal of the Bombay Natural History. 72 (2): 314.
  66. ^ Gadgil, Madhav; Malhotra, K.C> (December 1979). "Indian Anthropologist" (PDF). Indian Anthropologist. 9 (2): 84. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  67. ^ Kosambi, Damodar Dharmanand (2002). An introduction to the study of Indian history (Rev. 2. ed., repr ed.). Bombay: Popular Prakashan. p. 36. ISBN 978-8171540389. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  68. ^ Kumar Suresh Singh (2004). People of India: Maharashtra. Popular Prakashan. p. 962. ISBN 978-81-7991-101-3.
  69. ^ a b Blurton, 125
  70. ^ Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions. Lantern Books. 2011. p. 60. ISBN 9781590562819. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  71. ^ K. K. Kusuman (1990). A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume. Mittal Publications. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-81-7099-214-1.
  72. ^ Gouyon Anne; Bumi Kita Yayasan (30 September 2005). "The Hidden Life of Bali". The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference. Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd. p. 51. ISBN 978-979-3780-00-9. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
  73. ^ Smith, David Whitten; Burr, Elizabeth Geraldine (28 December 2007). "One". Understanding world religions: a road map for justice and peace. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7425-5055-1. ASIN 0742550559.
  74. ^ Kamphorst, Janet (5 June 2008). "9". In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia). Leiden University Press. p. 287. ISBN 978-90-8728-044-4. ASIN 9087280440.
  75. ^ Bali Today: Love and social life By Jean Couteau, Jean Couteau et al – p.129 [1]
  76. ^ Indonesia Handbook, 3rd, Joshua Eliot, Liz Capaldi, & Jane Bickersteth, (Footprint – Travel Guides) 2001 p.450 [2]
  77. ^ "Is Sacrificial Killing Justified? from the Chapter "The Vedas", in Hindu Dharma". kamakoti.org. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  78. ^ Subramani, A. (4 June 2014). "Madras high court suggests ban on cockfights, denies permission to hold the event at temple near Madurai | India News - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 7 January 2022.

Bibliography

Further reading

Terminology

Yupa sacrificial pillar of the time of Vasishka, Isapur, near Mathura. Mathura Museum.

A Sanskrit term used for animal sacrifice is bali, in origin meaning "tribute, offering or oblation" generically ("vegetable oblations [... and] animal oblations,").[1] Bali among other things "refers to the blood of an animal"[1] and is sometimes known as Jhatka Bali[2][3] among Hindus.

The Kalika Purana distinguishes bali (sacrifice), mahabali (great sacrifice), for the ritual killing of goats, elephant, respectively, though the reference to humans in Shakti theology is symbolic and done in effigy in modern times.[4] For instance, Sir John Woodroffe published a commentary on the Karpuradistotram, where he writes that the sacrificial animals listed in verse 19 are symbols for the six enemies, with "man" representing pride.[5]

Hindu scriptures

The Ashvamedha, a ritual in which a horse was allowed to roam freely for a year, then finally sacrificed, is mentioned in the Vedic texts such as the Yajurveda. In the epic Mahabharata, Yudhishtra performs the Ashwamedha after winning the Kurukshetra war to become the Chakravartin emperor. The Mahabharata also contains a description of an Ashvamedha performed by the Chedi king Uparichara Vasu, however.[6] The rulers of the Gupta empire, the Chalukya dynasty, and the Chola dynasty all performed the Ashvamedha.[7][8]

Agnisomiya was the simplest of all Soma sacrifices in which animal sacrifice played an important part; it required that a goat be sacrificed to Agni and Soma preceding the day of offering of nectar to the gods.[9][10] In the Savaniya sacrifice, victims were offered throughout the day of offering to Agni.[11][12][13] These rituals didn't focus on the killing of the animal but as a symbol to the powers it was sacrificed.[14]

In Bhagavata Purana written in 10th or 11th century, Krishna tells people not to perform animal sacrifices in the Kali Yuga, the present age.[15] The Brahma Vaivarta Purana describes animal sacrifices as kali-varjya or prohibited in the Kali Yuga.[16] The Adi Purana, Brihan-naradiya Purana and Aditya Purana also forbid animal sacrifice in Kali Yuga.[17] The Padma Purana encourages respect for all living beings.[18] Some orthodox interpreters of Hindu scriptures, such as Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi, believed that the prohibition in Kali Yuga applies only to a few types of animal sacrifices, notably cow and horse sacrifices.[19] Such interpretations justify Vedic animal sacrifice viewing it "as a little hurt caused in the cause of a great ideal" and believing that "the animal sacrificed attains an elevated state".

Animal sacrifice in contemporary Hindu society

A male buffalo calf about to be sacrificed by a priest in the Durga Puja festival. The buffalo sacrifice practice, however, is rare in contemporary India.[20]
A man carrying the sacrificed buffalo's head in plate at Silchar in Assam
A sacrificed boar, cooked mutton, chicken and eggs being offered in a spirit house consecration by a Thai Brahmin.

The majority of modern Hindus avoid animal sacrifice,[citation needed] but there are numerous local exceptions. In general, where it is practiced, it will be seen as desired by some deities, but not by others.[1]

Though Hindu food offerings are generally vegetarian, it is prevalent and remains "important ritual in popular Hinduism".[21] Animal sacrifice is practiced in the states of Assam, Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal in Eastern India, as well as in the nation of Nepal.The sacrifice involves slaying of goats, chickens, pigeons and male Water buffaloes.[22] For example, one of the largest animal sacrifice in Nepal occurs over the three-day-long Gadhimai festival. In 2009 it was speculated that more than 250,000 animals were killed[23] while 5 million devotees attended the festival.[24] The Gadhimai festival was banned by the Nepal government in 2015.[25]

Animal sacrifice is offered to fierce forms of Hindu divine like fearsome goddesses like Durga, Kali; village goddesses like Shitala, Mariamman; Bhairava (Shiva's terrible form); Narasimha (Vishnu's ferocious avatar) and malevolent spirits. The purpose of the sacrifice is to pacify the anger of these wrathful deities and seek their grace.[26]

In the state of Odisha, every year, animals like goat and fowl are sacrificed before Kandhen Budhi, the reigning deity of Kantamal in Boudh district, on the occasion of her annual Yatra/Jatra (festival) held in the month of Aswina (September–October). The main attraction of Kandhen Budhi Yatra is Ghusuri Puja. Ghusuri means a child pig, which is sacrificed to the goddess every three years.[27] During the Bali Jatra, male goats are offered as a sacrifice to the goddess Samaleswari in her temple in Sambalpur, Odisha.[28][29] Bali Jatra of Sonepur in Odisha, India is also an annual festival celebrated in the month of Aswina (September–October) when animal sacrifice is an integral part of the ritual worship of deities namely Samaleswari, Sureswari and Khambeswari. Bali refers to animal sacrifice and hence this annual festival is called Bali Jatra.[30][31]

Animal sacrifice is a part of some Durga puja celebrations during the Navratri in the eastern states of India. The goddess is offered sacrificial animal in this ritual in the belief that it stimulates her violent vengeance against the buffalo demon.[32] According to Christopher Fuller, the animal sacrifice practice is rare among Hindus during Navratri, or at other times, outside the Shaktism tradition found in the eastern Indian states of West Bengal, Odisha[33] and Northeastern India, Assam and Tripura. Further, even in these states, the festival season is one where significant animal sacrifices are observed.[32] In some Shakta Hindu communities, the slaying of buffalo demon and victory of Durga is observed with a symbolic sacrifice instead of animal sacrifice.[34][35][note 1]

The Rajput of Rajasthan worship their weapons and horses on Navratri, and formerly offered a sacrifice of a goat to a goddess revered as Kuldevi – a practice that continues in some places.[38][39] The ritual requires slaying of the animal with a single stroke. In the past this ritual was considered a rite of passage into manhood and readiness as a warrior.[40] The Kuldevi among these Rajput communities is a warrior-pativrata guardian goddess, with local legends tracing reverence for her during Rajput–Muslim wars.[41]

The tradition of animal sacrifice is not prevalent in temples and households around Banaras where vegetarian offerings are made to the Goddess[42]

Animal sacrifice is practiced by Shaktism tradition where ritual offering is made to a Devi.[13] In Southern Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, it is most notably performed in front of local deities or clan deities. In Karnataka, the goddess receiving the sacrifice tends to be Renuka. The animal is either a male buffalo or a goat.[43]

In some sacred groves of India, particularly in Western Maharashtra, animal sacrifice is practiced to pacify female deities that are supposed to rule the groves.[44] Animal sacrifice is also practiced by some rural communities around Pune to placate deities at temples of Waghjai and Sirkai.[45] In the region around Pune, goats and fowl are sacrificed to the God Vetala.[46] The Kathar or Kutadi community of Maharashtra, while observing the Pachvi ceremony after delivery of a child in the family, offer worship to their family deity, Saptashrungi and also offer a sacrifice of a goat. Following this they hold the naming ceremony of the child on the 12th day.[47]

Ahobilam in Andhra Pradesh, is the centre of worship of Narasimha, the lion-headed avatar of Vishnu, to whom the nine Hindu temples and other shrines are all dedicated. A certain amount of sacrifice of goats and rams is still performed weekly. This is now highly unusual in the worship of Vishnu,[48][49] suggesting a "transitional state between a wild and unregulated tribal deity and an orthodox form of the god Vishnu".[48]

In the Kallalagar temple of Vishnu, animals are presented to a closed door that acts as a shrine of the guardian deity Karuppan and then ritually sacrificed outside the temple. Many "low-caste" devotees believe that sacrifice is to the presiding form of Vishnu, rather than Karuppan.[50] Karuppan, as the guardian deity of the Tamil village god Aiyangar, is offered animal sacrifice, while the main deity is covered with a curtain, to avoid the sight of the sacrifice.[51] Tamil village goddesses like Mariamman are said to enjoy animal sacrifice. Karuppan or another guardian deity receives animal sacrifice on her behalf; however animal sacrifice is offered directly to the goddess in festivals, generally outside the temple premises.[52]

A popular Hindu ritual form of worship of North Malabar region in the Indian state of Kerala is the blood offering to Theyyam gods. Theyyam deities are propitiated through the cock sacrifice where the religious cockfight is a religious exercise of offering blood to the Theyyam gods.[53]

Shaktism or mother goddess worship nearly always requires Panchamakara worship as does that of Bhutas, or the local deities which were the primordial inhabitants of any given place. This practice exists throughout Greater India, even where Hinduism has declined as Burmese Nat (deity) worship, Indochinese Spirit house worship and the Philippine Diwata anito worship. The Shaiva Agamas refer to the Shakta Agamas and Kaula (Hinduism) tantras such as Yamala and Matrutantras when dealing with Panchamakara rituals. Kulamarga is also known by the name 'Bhuta tantra'.

Animal Sacrifice is practiced by some Hindus on the Indonesian island of Bali.[54][55][56] The religious belief of Tabuh Rah, a form of animal sacrifice of Balinese Hinduism includes a religious cockfight where a rooster is used in religious custom by allowing him to fight against another rooster in a religious and spiritual cockfight, a spiritual appeasement exercise of Tabuh Rah.[57] The spilling of blood is necessary as purification to appease the evil spirits, and ritual fights follow an ancient and complex ritual as set out in the sacred lontar manuscripts.[58][59]

Method of sacrifice

Methods for sacrificing range from decapitation (Jhatka), strangulation, to a spike being driven into the heart of the animal. The Jhatka method requires the instant killing of the animal in a single decapitating blow with an axe or sword.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ In these cases, Shaktism devotees consider animal sacrifice distasteful, practice alternate means of expressing devotion while respecting the views of others in their tradition.[36] A statue of asura demon made of flour, or equivalent, is immolated and smeared with vermilion to remember the blood that had necessarily been spilled during the war.[34][35] Other substitutes include a vegetal or sweet dish considered equivalent to the animal.[37]

References

  1. ^ a b c Rodrigues, Hillary; Sumaiya Rizvi (10 June 2010). "Blood Sacrifice in Hinduism". Mahavidya. p. 1. Archived from the original on 17 August 2010. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
  2. ^ O.P. Radhan (September 2002). Encyclopaedia of Political Parties. Vol. 33 to 50. Anmol, India. p. 854. ISBN 978-81-7488-865-5. ASIN 8174888659.
  3. ^ Gopal, Madan (1990). K.S. Gautam (ed.). India through the ages. Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. p. 75.
  4. ^ "" Pramatha Nath Bose, A History of Hindu Civilization During British Rule, vol. 1, p. 65
  5. ^ Hymn to Kali: Preface
  6. ^ Dalal, Roshen (2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin UK. p. 224. ISBN 978-8184752779.
  7. ^ Roshen Dalal (18 April 2014). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books. p. 207. ISBN 9788184752779.
  8. ^ Uma Marina Vesci (1992). Heat and Sacrifice in the Vedas. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. p. 103. ISBN 9788131716779.
  9. ^ A. B. Gajendragadkar; R. D. Karmarkar, eds. (1998). The Arthasamgraha of Laugaksi Bhaskara. Motilal Banarsidas Publishers. p. 34. ISBN 9788120814431.
  10. ^ Arthur Berriedale Keith (2007). The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanishads. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. pp. 324–326. ISBN 9788120806443.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Keith1989 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Cite error: The named reference Arthur Berriedale Keith 2013 1035 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference James2002 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ Tom Regan (2004). Animal Sacrifices. Temple University Press. p. 201. ISBN 9780877225119.
  15. ^ Patton, Laurie L (1994). Authority, Anxiety, and Canon: Essays in Vedic Interpretation – Google Books. ISBN 9780791419373. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  16. ^ Rosen, Steve (2004). Holy Cow: The Hare Krishna Contribution to Vegetarianism and Animal Rights. Lantern Books. p. 24.
  17. ^ Vidyasagar, Ishvarchandra (13 August 2013). Hindu Widow Marriage – Īśvaracandra Bidyāsāgara – Google Books. ISBN 9780231526609. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  18. ^ Rod Preece (2001). Animals and Nature: Cultural Myths, Cultural Realities. UBC Press. p. 202. ISBN 9780774807241.
  19. ^ "Animal Sacrifice in the Age of Kali from the Chapter "The Vedas", in Hindu Dharma". kamakoti.org. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  20. ^ Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
  21. ^ Fuller 2004, p. 83. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  22. ^ Fuller 2004, pp. 83–4. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  23. ^ Olivia Lang (24 November 2009). "Hindu sacrifice of 250,000 animals begins | World news". The Guardian. London. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  24. ^ "Ritual animal slaughter begins in Nepal". CNN. Edition.cnn.com. 24 November 2009. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  25. ^ Ram Chandra, Shah. "Gadhimai Temple Trust Chairman, Mr Ram Chandra Shah, on the decision to stop holding animal sacrifices during the Gadhimai festival" (PDF). Humane Society International. Retrieved 29 July 2015.
  26. ^ Fuller 2004, p. 85. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  27. ^ "Kandhen Budhi" (PDF). Orissa.gov.in. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  28. ^ Georg Pfeffer; Deepak Kumar Behera (1997). Contemporary Society: Developmental issues, transition, and change. Concept Publishing Company. p. 312. ISBN 9788170226420.
  29. ^ "Komna ready for animal sacrifice". The Times of India. The Times Group. 2 October 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
  30. ^ "Bali Jatra of Sonepur" (PDF). Orissa.gov.in. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 January 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
  31. ^ (Barik, 2009:160–162).[full citation needed]
  32. ^ a b Christopher John Fuller (2004). The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India. Princeton University Press. pp. 46, 83–85. ISBN 978-0-691-12048-5.
  33. ^ Hardenberg, Roland (2000). "Visnu's Sleep, Mahisa's Attack, Durga's Victory: Concepts of Royalty in a Sacrificial Drama" (PDF). Journal of Social Science. 4 (4): 267. Retrieved 29 September 2015.
  34. ^ a b Hillary Rodrigues 2003, pp. 277–278. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFHillary_Rodrigues2003 (help)
  35. ^ a b June McDaniel 2004, pp. 204–205. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFJune_McDaniel2004 (help)
  36. ^ Ira Katznelson; Gareth Stedman Jones (2010). Religion and the Political Imagination. Cambridge University Press. p. 343. ISBN 978-1-139-49317-8.
  37. ^ Rachel Fell McDermott (2011). Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals. Columbia University Press. pp. 204–205. ISBN 978-0-231-12919-0.
  38. ^ Harlan, Lindsey (2003). The goddesses' henchmen gender in Indian hero worship. Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford University Press. pp. 45 with footnote 55, 58–59. ISBN 978-0195154269. Retrieved 14 October 2016.
  39. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf; Erndl, Kathleen M. (2000). Is the Goddess a Feminist?: the Politics of South Asian Goddesses. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press. p. 77. ISBN 9780814736197.
  40. ^ Harlan, Lindsey (1992). Religion and Rajput Women. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 61, 88. ISBN 978-0-520-07339-5.
  41. ^ Harlan, Lindsey (1992). Religion and Rajput Women. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 107–108. ISBN 978-0-520-07339-5.
  42. ^ Rodrigues, Hillary (2003). Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of the Durga Puja with interpretation. Albany, New York, USA: State University of New York Press. p. 215. ISBN 978-07914-5399-5. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  43. ^ Hiltebeitel, Alf (February 1980). "Rāma and Gilgamesh: the sacrifices of the water buffalo and the bull of heaven". History of Religions. 19 (3): 187–195. doi:10.1086/462845. JSTOR 1062467. S2CID 162925746.
  44. ^ Gadgil, M; VD Vartak (1975). "Sacred Groves of India" (PDF). Journal of the Bombay Natural History. 72 (2): 314.
  45. ^ Gadgil, Madhav; Malhotra, K.C> (December 1979). "Indian Anthropologist" (PDF). Indian Anthropologist. 9 (2): 84. Retrieved 21 October 2014.
  46. ^ Kosambi, Damodar Dharmanand (2002). An introduction to the study of Indian history (Rev. 2. ed., repr ed.). Bombay: Popular Prakashan. p. 36. ISBN 978-8171540389. Retrieved 9 December 2016.
  47. ^ Kumar Suresh Singh (2004). People of India: Maharashtra. Popular Prakashan. p. 962. ISBN 978-81-7991-101-3.
  48. ^ a b Blurton, 125
  49. ^ Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions. Lantern Books. 2011. p. 60. ISBN 9781590562819. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  50. ^ Fuller 2004, pp. 95–6. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  51. ^ Fuller 2004, p. 90. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  52. ^ Fuller 2004, pp. 91. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFuller2004 (help)
  53. ^ K. K. Kusuman (1990). A Panorama of Indian Culture: Professor A. Sreedhara Menon Felicitation Volume. Mittal Publications. pp. 127–128. ISBN 978-81-7099-214-1.
  54. ^ Gouyon Anne; Bumi Kita Yayasan (30 September 2005). "The Hidden Life of Bali". The natural guide to Bali: enjoy nature, meet the people, make a difference. Equinox Publishing (Asia) Pte Ltd. p. 51. ISBN 978-979-3780-00-9. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
  55. ^ Smith, David Whitten; Burr, Elizabeth Geraldine (28 December 2007). "One". Understanding world religions: a road map for justice and peace. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-7425-5055-1. ASIN 0742550559.
  56. ^ Kamphorst Janet (5 June 2008). "9". In praise of death: history and poetry in medieval Marwar (South Asia). Leiden University Press. p. 287. ISBN 978-90-8728-044-4. ASIN 9087280440.
  57. ^ Bali Today: Love and social life By Jean Couteau, Jean Couteau et al – p.129 [3]
  58. ^ Indonesia Handbook, 3rd, Joshua Eliot, Liz Capaldi, & Jane Bickersteth, (Footprint – Travel Guides) 2001 p.450 [4]
  59. ^ "Is Sacrificial Killing Justified? from the Chapter "The Vedas", in Hindu Dharma". kamakoti.org. Retrieved 11 July 2020.

Bibliography

Further reading

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal_sacrifice_in_Hinduism&oldid=1092407624"