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This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 137.70.12.59 (talk) at 18:42, 19 May 2023. The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Headbomb&action=edit&section=9 make reply


DONT LOSE THIS


User:BoogaLouie/sandbox/Islam in Saudi Arabia hadith (add summary of naskh to Hadith article)

Completed or completed more or less

Stuff that needs work

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_quietism_in_Islam (google quietism wahhabi and put in some quotes)

56:78 (Pickthall)

LOOK UP FOR WAHHABISM

http://conflictsforum.org/briefings/Wahhabism-Salafism-and-Islamism.pdf Wahhabism, Salafism and Islamism: Who Is The Enemy? |By Professor Ahmad Moussalli*

http://www.cerium.ca/IMG/pdf/WIKTOROWICZ_2006_Anatomy_of_the_Salafi_Movement.pdf |Anatomy of the Salafi Movement |QUINTAN WIKTOROWICZ Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 29:207–239, 2006

abstract: The Salafi movement (often referred to as the Wahhabis) includes such diverse figures as Osama bin Laden and the Mufti of Saudi Arabia and reflects a broad array of positions regarding issues related to politics and violence. This article explains the sources of unity that connect violent extremists with nonviolent puritans. Although Salafis share a common religious creed, they differ over their assessment of contemporary problems and thus how this creed should be applied. Differences over contextual interpretation have produced three major Salafi factions: purists [house ulama], politicos [close to MB], and jihadis.

http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a509109.pdf WAHHABISM: IS IT A FACTOR IN THE SPREAD OF GLOBAL TERRORISM? by Michael R. Dillon

|url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CHRG-108shrg91326/pdf/CHRG-108shrg91326.pdf Senate hearing on |title=TERRORISM: GROWING WAHHABI INFLUENCE IN THE UNITED STATES |quote=Journalists and experts, as well as spokespeople of the world, have said that Wahhabism is the source of the overwhelming majority of terrorist atrocities in today’s world, from Morocco to Indonesia, via Israel, Saudi Arabia, Chechnya. [JON KYL, A U.S. SENATOR FROM THE STATE OF OHIO]}}</ref>



Morality in Islam

incomplete list

There are 18 hadith on "Good Character" in Kitab 47 of Muwatta Malik https://sunnah.com/malik/47 256 hadith on "Good Manners and Form (Al-Adab)" (in Kitab #78) in Sahih al-Bukhari https://sunnah.com/bukhari/78 28 hadith in Kitab #38 "The Book of Manners and Etiquette" in Sahih Muslim https://sunnah.com/muslim/38

PROBLEM: there are LOTS of books like this. more than one book per hadith collector and their connection to morality/ethics/character/manners is not necessarily strong

========================================================
TO DO list
try and figure out points from the gobbledygook of "Origins of the Variant readings of the Quran" on google docs, and add to below draft
add stuff from google doc "Is the Quran preserved? with Abdullah Gondal" to the below draft

++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++

CLEANUP USING INDIVIDUAL CITES FOR EACH SUBSECTION OF YAZDI THING [1] citations for Mesbah-Yazdi, A Cursory Glance [2] [3]Mesbah-Yazdi, A Cursory Glance, 2010: Chapter 3</ref> [4] [2]


[5]Mesbah-Yazdi, A Cursory Glance, 2010: Chapter 3:The Role of the People in the Islamic Government. Searching for the correct view about the role of the people in the government during the period of occultation [‘asr al-ghaybah]</ref>

---Beginning of section----
NEW SUB-SECTION TO WORK ON.
WILL GO IN "TYPES" SECTION

Islamism in the Shia World

[Pasted from lede in Islamist Shi'ism]

Although most study and reporting on Islamism or political Islam has been focused on Sunni islamist movements,[note 1] Islamism exists in Twelver Shia Islam (Twelver Shia make up approximately 10% of Muslims)[note 2] -- sometimes called Islamist Shi'ism, (Persian: تشیع اخوانی). Islamist Shi'ism is primarily but not exclusively[note 3] associated with the thought of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, with the Islamist Revolution he led, Islamic Republic of Iran that he founded, and the religious-political activities and resources of the republic.

Twelver Shia Muslims form the majority in the countries of Iran, Iraq, Bahrain, Azerbaijan,[7] and substantial minorities in Afghanistan, India, Kuwait, Lebanon, Pakistan, Qatar, Syria, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.[8] In this global community of Shi'ism, Iran is "the de facto leader",[9] by virtue of being the largest Shia-majority state, having a long history of national cohesion and Shia-rule, being the site of the first and "only true"[10] Islamist revolution. With the financial resources of a major petroleum exporter, it has spread into the cultural-geographic area of "Irano-Arab Shiism" supported "Shia militias and parties beyond its borders",[8][note 4] intertwining assistance to fellow Shi'a with "Iranization" of them[10] and establishment of Iranian regional power.[note 5]

Similarities, influence, cooperation

While Shi'i Islamism has been influenced in Iran by the Sunni Islamists and their organizations, particularly Sayyid Rashid Rida,[13] Hassan al-Banna (founder of the Muslim Brotherhood organization),[14] Sayyid Qutb,[15] Abul A'la Maududi.[16]


Arguably the first prominent Islamist, Rashid Rida, published a series of articles in Al-Manar titled “The Caliphate or the Supreme Imamate” during 1922–1923. In this highly influential treatise, Rida advocated for the restoration of the Caliphate ruled by muslim jurists and proposed Islamic Salafiyya movement revival measures across the globe reforming education, and purifying Islam.[17] Ayatullah Khomeini's manifesto Islamic Government, Guardianship of the jurist, was greatly influenced by Rida's book (Persian: اسلام ناب) and by his analysis of the post-colonial Muslim world.[18]

Before the Islamic Revolution, today's Supreme Leader of Iran, Ali Khamenei, was an early champion and translator of the works of the Brotherhood jihadist theorist, Sayyid Qutb.[14] Other Sunni Islamists/revivalist who were translated into Persian include Sayyid's brother, Muhammad Qutb, and South Asian Islamic revivalist writer Abul A'la Maududi along with other Pakistani and Indian Islamists. "These books became the main source of nourishment for Iranian militant clerics’ sermons and writings during the pre-revolution era.”[14]

Differences between Sunni and Shi'i Islamism

Shi'i Islamism has also been described as "distinct" from Muslim Brotherhood Islamism, "more leftist and more clerical",[12] with its own historical influencers --

historical figures
  • Sheikh Fazlullah Nouri,[19] a cleric of the Qajar dynasty court and the leader of the anti-constitutionalists during the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911,[20] who declared the new constitution contrary to sharia law.[21] (and who is celebrated enough in the Islamic Republic to have an expressway named after him).
  • Navvab Safavi, a religious student who founded the Fada'iyan-e Islam, seeking to purify Islam in Iran by ridding it of 'corrupting individuals', i.e. assassinating certain leading intellectual and political figures (including both a former and current prime minister).[22] After Navvab Safavi and some other members of the group were executed in 1955,[23] surviving members reportedly chose Ayatollah Khomeini as a new spiritual leader,[24] and the organization was reportedly "reconstructed" by Khomeini disciple, (and later controversial "hanging judge"), Sadegh Khalkhali.[25]
  • Ali Shariati -- a non-cleric "socialist Shi'i" who absorbed Marxist ideas in France and had considerable influence on young Iranians preaching that Imam Hussein was not just a holy figure but the original oppressed one (muzloun), and his killer, the Sunni Umayyad Caliphate, the "analog" of the modern Iranian people's "oppression by the shah".[26]
  • Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, a Shi'i Islamic scholar in Iraq who critiqued Marxism, socialism and capitalism and helped lead Shi'i opposition to Saddam Hussein's Baath regime before being executed by them.
  • Mahmoud Taleghani, an ayatollah and contemporary of Khomeini, was less influential than him but known as more leftist, more tolerant and more sympathetic to democracy, He was deposed from revolutionary leadership[27] after warning of a "return to despotism".[28]


Differences in sociology, doctrine, history
  • Olivier Roy notes that unlike Sunni Islam, where clergy were largely if not entirely opponents of Islamism, in Shi'ism, clergy were often the leaders—not only Ruhollah Khomeini, but Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr and Mahmoud Taleghani.[12]
  • Features of Shi'i Islam that made it amendable to at least Khomeini's theory (if not other theories of Islamism) that Islamist theocratic rule by an Islamic jurist was necessary for the preservation of Islam , (a theory embraced only by Shia Islamists followers of Khomeini, and not by any Sunni.

Financial and geographic independence (Najaf and Karbala were outside the borders of the Iranian Empire); the right to interpretation, even to innovation on all questions; delegitimization of the state ... ; strong hierarchy and structure; all operated to make the clergy a political force.[29]

  • the victory of Usuli Shia over the Akhbari, meant most clerics were now usuli and high clerics now assumed the right of ijtihad or interpretation.[29]
  • Shi'i seminaries often had students from other countries, and these seminary cities could serve as refuge when a cleric felt political pressure at home. (Khomeini operated his anti-shah network in Iran out of Najaf Iraq.)
  • openness by the Shi'i clergy to non-Islamic writings and thought not found in Sunni Islam, "combining clear philosophical syncretism with an exacting casuistic legalism." (Ali Shariati or Mojahedin-e-Khalq making a hybrid of Islam and Marxism,[30] or making cooperation with them or Marxists possible.)[31] "The distinction between mullahs and intellectuals was not as sharp in Iran as in the Sunni world."[32]
  • the practice of every Shi'i Muslim following a marja' or high cleric and paying them zakat/tithe directly meant that "since the eighteenth century... the Shiite clergy have played a social and educational role with no parallel among Sunni clergy", and have had autonomy from the state unlike Sunni ulama.[29]
  • if it was felt (as Khomeini did) that the state should be a theocracy, the question of who should be the head theocrat had a ready answer in Shi'i Islam—the top ranked cleric—since Shi'i clergy had an internal hierarchy based on the level of the learning not found among Sunni clergy.[29]
  • the importance of the state in Shia Iran is reflected in the legislated criminal code which includes traditional sharia punishments -- "qisas, retaliation; diyat, bloodletting; hudud, capital punishment for an offense against God -- but it is to this code and not "directly to the sharia" that Judges in the Islamic Republic must refer.[33]
  • Nikki Keddie argues that "Iran's state religion since 1501, Shi'i Islam appears to have been even more resistant to foreign influences than Sunni Islam". There has been a "revulsion to foreign influence" and a "long-held belief that Western nonbelievers were out to undermine Iran and Islam". The Tobacco protest of 1890-92 "shared with later revolutionary and rebellious movements in Iran "a substantial anti-imperialist and antiforeign component".[34]

At least the Khomeini Islamist movement in its early years in power before Khomeini died, "third world solidarity took precedence over Muslim fraternity in an utter departure from all other Islamic movements". The Sandinistas, African National Congress, and Irish Republican Army, were promoted over neighboring Sunni Muslims in Afghanistan, who though fighting invading atheist Russians, were politically conservative.[30]

Olivier Roy speculates on what led Shiite minorities outside of Iran to "identify with the Islamic Revolution" and be subject to "Iranization".[35] He includes the fact that when modernization and economic change compelled them to leave their Shi'i "ghettos" they embraced pan-Shiism (Shiite Universalism) rather than nationalism;[36] that Iranian students for many years were banished from Iraqi and so studied in Qum not Najaf where Iranian influence intensified;[37] that so many Shiite students were Iranian that as clergy they ended up serving many non-Iranian Shi'a and exposed them to Iranian ways.[35]


Differences between traditional and Islamist Shi'ism

At least Khomeini's form of Islamism sees Islam as a political system working for the creation of an Islamist state during the occultation of the twelfth Imam,[38][39] a departure from the traditional Shi'i concept of waiting for the reemergence of the hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, in an age of injustice, aloof from the corruption of politics.[40] In contrast, Khomeini preached that it would not be injustice and suffering that would hasten the return of the Imam, but the just rule of the Islamic State.[41]

Historian Ervand Abrahamian argues that Khomeini and his Islamist movement not only created an new form of Shiism, but converted traditional Shi'ism "from a conservative quietist faith" into "a militant political ideology that challenged both the imperial powers and the country's upper class". [42] Khomeini himself followed traditional Shi'i Islamic attitudes in his writings during the 1940, 50s and 60s, only changing during the late 1960s.[43] What prompted his to change is unclear as he did not footnote his work or admit to drawing ideas from others, or for that matter even admit he had changed his views.[43]

A major tenant of Twelver Shīʿa Muslim belief is that that the prophesied Mahdi, (the twelfth Imam, Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi), is already on Earth in Occultation, and will return at the end of time. Prior to the spread of Khomeini's book Islamic Government after 1970, it was agreed that only the rule of an Imam, i.e. the Twelfth Imam for the contemporary world), was legitimate or "fully legitimate".[44] While waiting for his return and rule, Shia jurists have tended to stick to one of three approaches to the state, according to at least two historians (Moojan Momen, Ervand Abrahamian): cooperated with it, trying to influence policies by becoming active in politics, or most commonly, remaining aloof from it.[45][note 6]

For many centuries prior to the spread of Khomeini's book, "no Shii writer ever explicitly contended that monarchies per se were illegitimate or that the senior clergy had the authority to control the state." Clergy

were to study the law based on the Quran, the Prophet's traditions, and the teachings of the Twelve Imams. They were also use reason to update these laws; issue pronouncements on new problems; adjudicate in legal disputes; and distribute the khoms contributions to worthy widows, orphans, seminary students, and indigent male descendants of the Prophet."[47]

Even the revivalist Shi'i cleric Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri -- celebrated in the Islamic Republic as a martyr executed by agents of foreign powers for defending Islam, preaching for sharia and against democracy -- argued against democracy not because it was clerics that Iranians should obey, but because they should obey their monarch and not limit his power with a constitution and parliament.[48] Prior to 1970 Khomeini

"emphasized that no cleric had ever claimed the right to rule; that many, including Majlisi, had supported their rulers, participated in government, and encouraged the faithful to pay taxes and cooperate with state authorities. If jon rare occasions they had criticized their rulers, it was because they opposed specific monarchs, not the 'whole foundation of monarchy.' He also reminded his readers that Imam Ali had accepted 'even the worst of the early caliphs'"[49]

In his 1970 lectures, Khomeini claimed "Muslim ... have the sacred duty to oppose all monarchies. ... that monarchy was a 'pagan' institution that the 'despotic' Umayyads had adopted from the Roman and Sassanid empires".[50]

Some other differences between traditional Shi'i doctrine and that of Ruhollah Khomeini and his followers was on how to wait for the return the reemergence of the hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. Traditionally the approach was to wait patiently, as he would not return until "the world was overflowing with injustice and tyranny".[41][40] Turning this belief inside out, Khomeini preached that it would not be injustice and suffering that would hasten the return of the Imam, but the just rule of the Islamic State.[41]

Traditionally the Mecca of Muhammad and Imam Ali's caliphate were the "Golden Age of Islam" to be looked back on "longingly".[41] Khomeini preached that the Mahdi would return not when conditions were awful, but "when Muslims had returned to Islam, created a just society and exported their revolution to other countries", exactly what he argued his Islamic Republic was doing and should continue to do.[41]



QIRAAT

Rationale for existence

Sources differ on why there are different qira'at. According to Oliver Leaman, the origin of the different readings or different qira'at "lies in the fact that the linguistic system of the Quran incorporates the most familiar Arabic dialects and vernacular forms in use at the time of the Revelation."[51] The Muslim apologetics website Bismika Allahuma,[Note 1] also states that at least according to one scholarly opinion there were seven ahruf because there were seven Arab tribes -- Quraysh, Hudhayl, Tameem, Hawaazin, Thaqeef, Kinaanah and Yemen[Note 2] -- each with there own dialects (lughaat) at the time the Quran was revealed. "Thus, under this opinion, various verses would be pronounced according to the pronunciation of that particular tribe, and words from one dialect would be replaced by other words used by that particular tribe."[52]

Questions

Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi, a conservative Muslim Islamic scholar had noted difficulties with issues of Quranic variants, in one youtube interview) calling them "very awkward",[53] "very, very difficult" even for "the most advanced of our scholars";[54] and so sensitive that it "should never be brought up in public” and is "not something you discuss among the masses".[55]

Regarding the theory that the different ahruf (styles) reflect the different tribal dialects, more than a few scholars[56] have dismissed it, noting that in the famous hadeeth of ahruf where two Companions of the Prophet of the same tribe recite differently but are assured by Muhammad that both are correct. "It was revealed thus; this Quran has been revealed in seven Ahruf. You can read it in any of them you find easy from among them." The salafi website Islam Question & Answer points out that both of the Companions (ʻUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and Hishaam ibn Hakeem) mentioned in the hadith are from the same (Quraysh) tribe and asks: "If the difference in ahruf (styles) had been a difference in dialects, why would two men of Quraysh have been different?"[56]

The hadith itself has been questioned. Suyuti, a noted 15th-century Islamic theologian, concluded the "best opinion" of this hadith is that it is "mutashabihat", i.e. its meaning "cannot be understood."[57][58]

Another critic, Shezad Saleem (quoted by Christian critic and scholar Sam Shamoun), questions the hadith's plausibility, since if it were true it would mean that "for almost twenty years even the closest Companions of the Prophet like ‘Umar were unaware of the Qur’an being revealed in some other reading." (This is because Hisham, the companion Umar challenged, accepted Islam on the day Makkah was conquered -- in 630 CE, a year before the death of Muhammad -- so that the events of the hadith could not have occurred before then.[59][60]

Still other reports of what the Prophet said (as well as some scholarly commentary) seem to contradict the idea that there are variant readings of the Quran.[61]

Abu Abd Al-Rahman al-Sulami (325—412 CE)[62] writes, "The reading of" the Quran by caliphs "Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Zayd ibn Thabit (the personal scribe of Muhammad), and that of all the Muhajirun and the Ansar" (i.e. all the companions) "was the same. They would read the Quran according to the Qira'at al-'ammah. This is the same reading which was read out twice by the Prophet to Gabriel in the year of his death. Zayd ibn Thabit was also present in this reading [called] the 'Ardah-i akhirah. It was this very reading that he taught the Quran to people till his death".[63] According to Ibn Sirin, "The reading on which the Quran was read out to the prophet in the year of his death is the same according to which people are reading the Quran today".[64]

Sam Shamoun also points out that at least two Sahih al-Bukhari hadith explicitly state the Qur'an was revealed in the dialect of the Quraysh (Muhammad's tribe) -- making no mention of other ahruf -- and that in case there are disagreements over recitation, this one dialect recitation should clear everything up.[60]

Narrated Anas bin Malik: (The Caliph 'Uthman ordered Zaid bin Thabit, Said bin Al-As, 'Abdullah bin Az-Zubair and 'Abdur-Rahman bin Al-Harith bin Hisham to write the Quran in the form of a book (Mushafs) and said to them. “In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit (Al-Ansari) regarding any dialectic Arabic utterance of the Quran, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, for the Quran was revealed in this dialect.” So they did it.[65][60]

Narrated Anas bin Malik: Hudhaifa bin Al-Yaman came to Uthman at the time when the people of Sham and the people of Iraq were waging war to conquer Arminya and Adharbijan. Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Sham and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Qur'an, so he said to 'Uthman, "O chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book (Quran) as Jews and the Christians did before." So 'Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Qur'an so that we may compile the Qur'anic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you." Hafsa sent it to 'Uthman. 'Uthman then ordered Zaid bin Thabit, 'Abdullah bin AzZubair, Said bin Al-As and 'AbdurRahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts in perfect copies. 'Uthman said to the three Quraishi men, "In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Qur'an, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, the Qur'an was revealed in their tongue." They did so, and when they had written many copies, 'Uthman returned the original manuscripts to Hafsa. 'Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied, and ordered that all the other Qur'anic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt. Said bin Thabit added, "A Verse from Surat Ahzab was missed by me when we copied the Qur'an and I used to hear Allah's Apostle reciting it. So we searched for it and found it with Khuzaima bin Thabit Al-Ansari. (That Verse was): ‘Among the Believers are men who have been true in their covenant with Allah.’ (33.23)”[66][60]

Furthermore, while some hadith refer to ahruf, the Quran never does. There is no mention of seven ahruf or of different ways of reciting the Quran in the Quran itself, nor does the Quran ever refer to itself in the plural, (for example, 75:16–19). Since there are multiple verses of the Quran declaring that "our revelations" have been "explained in detail", (6:98, 6:114, 41:3) some mention of the existence multiple recitation or variants there would be expected, according to Shamoun.[60]

Secular points

Some secular critics (such as Abdullah Gondal and Ali A. Rizvi) argue that ahruf and qira'at (and other variants in the Quran) violate the doctrine that the Quran is perfectly preserved, being the infallible, divine word of Allah, and something that Allah himself has promised to preserve.[67][Note 3]

They point to conservative Muslim Islamic scholar Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi (see above) -- who does believe the Quran is perfectly preserved -- but who (in a youtube interview) called the issues of Quranic variants "very awkward",[53] "very, very difficult" even for "the most advanced of our scholars";[54] and so sensitive that it "should never be brought up in public” and is "not something you discuss among the masses".[55]

1:21:45 "every single student of knowledge who studies …. Quran knows that the most difficult topics are ahruf and qiraat”

Though the issue "has troubled the ummah [Muslim community] from the beginning", according to Qadhi,[69] in recent years non-Muslim "academics outside of the great tradition" [70] have raised "some very pressing questions” about "the standard narrative"[71] that "the Ulama" (traditional Muslim Islamic scholars) are "not answering ... in the manner" that the questions need to be,[72]

Qadhi does not specify who the western scholars are or what exactly they have found, but Christian missionary David Wood has cited Qadhi and pointed to textual critic Daniel Brubaker who has photographed and examined thousands of early Quranic manuscripts in museums around the world,[73][74] and found "thousands" of variants from the standard contemporary Quran.[75] Most are relatively insubstantial issues such as mistakes made "at the time of first writing", corrections of mistakes, changes in Arabic "orthography" (which changes the way certain words are written but not pronounced), competing ahruf (someone following a different ahruf than the first scribe “correcting” what the first scribe wrote).[76] However, some corrections and "other textual issues ... don’t seem to fit into any of these categories",[75] (such as parchment from Sana’a manuscript from the 8th century where two words found in current Qurans are missing from verse Q.9:80.[Note 4]

Armin Navabi with fellow secularists Abdullah Gondal and Ali A. Rizvi and also argues that the rationale that the variants of ahruf and qira'at supplement each other with different but equally true interpretations, is a new explanation that arose 1400 years after Muslim first new about the variants and (he argues) in apparent response to criticism by the secular world.[78] Comparing the Hafs reading of the Quran (95% of contemporary qurans (21:24)) with the Warsh readings, difference by difference, these secularists argue that a simpler and more plausible explanation for the variants is copyist errors. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sNFn36KV2Oo&feature=youtu.be#t=17m36s


= ahruf= 

added to ahruf

But according to Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi

As for what is meant by these seven ahruf, there is a great deal of difference on this issue. Ibn Qutaybah (d. 276 A.H.) recorded thirty-five opinions on the issue, and as-Suyootee listed over forty. Ibn Sa'adan (d. 231 A.H.), a famous grammarian and reciter of the Qur'aan, even declared that the true meaning of the ahruf was known only to Allaah, and thus to attempt to investigate into this issue was futile![79]


==============================================================================
==================================================================================

Variants of the Quran

OUTLINE
  • Quran is perfect and preserved from error and corruption but has some variants
  • Qiraat summary
  • Ahruf summary
  • Ibn Mas‘üd and Ubayy
  • variants found in early manuscripts
traditional narrative of the Quran

According to Islamic narrative/historical tradition, the Quran -- bringing a message of uncompromising monotheism to humanity -- was passed down from heaven and revealed to an illiterate Arab trader, Muhammad, by the the angel Gabriel (Jabreel), in pagan Western Arabia from 610 to 632 CE.[80][Note 5] God's revelation, known as the Quran, came in seven styles or ahruf, and after its completion was given a ‘final review’ or al-ardah al-akhirah with Muhammad by the angel Jabreel to ensure its perfection and exclude all abrogated verses.[82] As the Prophet of Islam, Muhammad built up a following, many of whom wrote down his revelations and/or memorized them. From these memories and written scraps the Quran was carefully complied, edited and codified under the supervision of Caliph Uthman (the third successor of Muhammad) not long after Muhammad's death, around 650 CE.[83] Arab Muslims conquered the Persian Sasanian Empire and most of the Byzantine empire. According to tradition, seven copies of this standard Uthmanic codex edition or "Muṣḥaf" were made and sent to the major centers of this rapidly expanding empire.[84] This codex used only one rasm or consonontal skeleton so that only those ahruf conforming to the codex survived. All other incomplete or "imperfect" variants of the Quranic revelation were destroyed,[85] but ten different "readings" or Qiraat, that followed the Uthmanic codex and originated with Muhammad and Jibreel continued to be passed down.

Thus, according to Islamic teaching, it was insured that the wording of the Quranic text available today corresponds exactly to the literal, infallible,[86] "perfect, timeless", "absolute"[87] unadulterated word of God revealed to Muhammad.[88] That revelation in turn is identical to an eternal “mother of the book”[Note 6] the archetype[89]/prototype[90] of the Quran. This was not created/written by God, but an attribute of Him, co-eternal and kept with Him in heaven.[91][Note 7]

Historical criticism may question or contradict the Islamic historical tradition, and according to Firas Alkhateeb (writing in "Lost Islamic History" posted in Islamicity website), "one of the most dangerous aspects of Orientalism was the European study of the origins of the Quran."[92] "Muslims believe that Allah has already promised to protect the Quran from the change and error that happened to earlier holy texts," quoting Quran 15:9:

إِنَّا نَحْنُ نَزَّلْنَا الذِّكْرَ وَإِنَّا لَهُ لَحَافِظُونَ
"Indeed, it is We who sent down the Quran and indeed, We will be it's guardian."[92]


Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan also emphasize that the integrity of the Quran was protected during the era of Muhammad before it was written down in a manscript by "the centrality of the Qur’anic recitation and memorization in Muslim ritual practice." Something "Western academics who enter the arena of Qur’anic scholarship" have failed to understand. The vast number of Ḥuffāẓ -- Muslims who have completely memorized the Quran -- the recitation "out loud in daily congregational prayers and from cover to cover during congregational prayers in Ramadan". All this is "one of the reasons why revisionist Western narratives seem so fanciful to Muslim scholars".[82]

Criticism of traditional narrative

"Generally, Quran scholars take as an axiom that the modern Quran is exactly in its urtext [original] form, and so seeking out early evidence is assumed redundant. As such, the process of collecting early editions of the Quran and comparing/contrasting their content is fairly absent from Islamic literature."[93]

An examination of three suras of 20 different early Quranic manuscript folios by Keith Small, will disappoint "those who want some shocking reveal of corrupted meanings and mangled transmission ... The manuscripts might have variations, but many are explainable in terms of the nebulous writing system, copyist errors, or regional pronunciations"[93]


Michael Cook notes that narratives about the compilation do not agree. Some have Uthman collecting verses of the Quran, another only copying and editing what had been collected earlier.[94] Some have Uthman's predecessor Umar collecting bits of the Quran and creating a codex. In other narratives Umar only assembles what his predecessor Abu Bakr had collected. And in some Abu Bakr assembles a codex from bits collected in the time of the Prophet. [Note 8]

Which of these narratives is true is relevant because the earlier the Quran was compiled the less time there was for its source material to have been lost or altered; a concern (Cook believes) if you consider the admonition of the son of Umar: "Let none of you say that he has the whole Quran in his possession. ... Much of the Quran has gone."[98] (Pious Muslims argue Ibn ‘Umar is referring to verses deliberately abrogated (naskh) by God, not lost.)[99]

Despite Uthman's order to burn all other codices, some older ones with variant rasm apparently survived "well into the 4th century";[100] and even among those using the Uthman codex more than one "reading" of the text are possible because it did not include diacritical or vowel markings.[101] (see illustration above).

Cook argues that a number of issues indicate that the text of the Quran was "not yet as firmly fixed in the decades after Uthman as it came to be later".[102] He writes of a verse found in an "early theological epistle" circa 700 CE that quoted a Quranic verse similar to, but not the same as two other verse in the Uthmanic codex,[103] and in a codex attributed to Abdullah ibn Masud yet another verse not found in the Uthmanic codex that is slightly different from the first three.[102] Coins from the Islamic empire dated 698 or 699 CE is inscribed with a "somewhat deviant" version of Q.9:33.[104] Fragments from the 7th or late 6th century Sanaʽa manuscript have a "considerably greater ... range of variants", though again not deviating in character from the Uthman muṣḥaf.[105]

Charles Adams states,

It must be emphasized that far from there being a single text passed down inviolate from the time of Uthman's commission, literally thousands of variant readings of particular verses were known in the first three (Muslim) centuries. These variants affected even the Uthmanic codex, making it difficult to know what its true form may have been. [106]

Qiraat summary

In Islam, Qirāʼah, (pl. Qiraʼat ) (Arabic: قِراءة, lit. 'recitations or readings') which are "different linguistic, lexical, phonetic, morphological and syntactical forms permitted with reciting" the holy book of Islam, the Quran.[51] Differences between Qiraʼat are slight and include varying rules regarding the "prolongation, intonation, and pronunciation of words",[82] but also differences in stops,[Note 9] vowels,[Note 10] consonants[Note 11] (leading to different pronouns and verb forms), and less frequently entire words.[Note 12] Qiraʼat also refers to the "branch of Islamic studies" that deals with these modes of recitation.[109]

There are ten different recognised schools of qiraʼat, each one deriving its name from a noted Quran reciter or "reader" (qāriʾ pl. qāriʾūn or qurr'aʿ),[Note 13] such as Nafi‘ al-Madani, Ibn Kathir al-Makki, Abu Amr of Basra, Ibn Amir ad-Dimashqi, Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud, Hamzah az-Zaiyyat, Al-Kisa'i. While these readers lived in the second and third century of Islam, the scholar who approved the first seven qira'at (Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid) lived a century later, and the readings themselves have a chain of transmission (like hadith) going back to the time of Muhammad.[109] Consequently, the readers/qurr'aʿ who give their name to Qira'at are part of a chain of transmition called a riwaya.[Note 14] The lines of transmission passed down from a riwaya are called turuq, and those passsed down from a turuq are called wujuh.[107]

Qiraʼat should not be confused with Tajwid -- the rules of pronunciation, intonation, and caesuras of the Quran. Each Qira'at has its own Tajwid.[111] Qiraʼat are called readings or recitations because the Quran was originally spread and passed down orally, and though there was a written text, it did not include most vowels or distinguish between many consonants, allowing for much variation.[112] (Qiraʼat now each have their own text in modern Arabic script.)[Note 15] Qira'at are also sometimes confused with Ahruf—both being variants of the Quran with "unbroken chain(s) of transmission" (Muslims believe) going "back to the Prophet",[82] and both often said to have seven different varieties.[56] There are multiple views on the nature of the ahruf and how they relate to the qira'at, a common one being that caliph Uthman eliminated all but one variety of ahruf sometime in the mid-7th century CE.[113] The seven readings, or Qira'at, were selected later and canonized in the 9-10th century CE.[114]

Even after centuries of Islamic scholarship, the variants of the Qira'at have been said to continue "to astound and puzzle" Islamic scholars (by Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan),[82] and along with Ahruf make up "the most difficult topics" in Quranic studies (according to Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi).[115] Qira'at may also seem to conflict with the doctrine that the Quran "exists exactly as it had been revealed to the Prophet; not a word - nay, not a dot of it - has been changed", which many Muslims assume means there must be only one reading of the Quran.[116]

The maṣḥaf Quran that is in "general use" throughout almost all the Muslim world today,[Note 16] is a 1924 Egyptian edition based on the Qira'at "reading of Ḥafṣ on the authority of `Asim", (Ḥafṣ being the Rawi, or "transmitter", and `Asim being the Qari or "reader").[118]

The eight volume collection of variants, Mu'jam al-qira'at al-qur'aniyyah, contains over ten thousand different "readings" of the Quran. While in most of these the variations are only of diacritical marks, "about a thousand are variants of or deviations in the rasm", according to Ibn Warraq.[119] In the contemporary world, three variants have circulation, Warsh (d.812) from Nafi of Medina, Hafs (d.805) from Asim of Kufa, and al-Duri (d.860) from Abu Amr of Basra (Hafs from Asim dominating everywhere except North Africa).[120] Charles Adams calls the differences "real and substantial",[121] Muslim scholar Alfred Guillaume, "not always trifling in significance".[122][120]

On the other hand while there are "some significant variants" in the qira'at literature, "we do not find long passages of otherwise wholly unknown text claiming to be Quran, or that appear to be used as Quran -- only variations within a text that is clearly recognizable as a version of a known Quranic passage"[123] Revisionist historian Michael Cook also states that the Quran "as we know it", is "remarkably uniform" in the rasm.[124]


Ahruf summary

According to Islamic tradition, the Quran was revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel (Jibril ) in seven ahruf (Arabic: أَحْرُف, romanized: aḥruf, sing. ḥarf), translated variously as "editions",[125] "styles",[126] "ways",[127] "forms" and "modes".[128] Although Muslim scholars differ on their exact nature, it is thought they constituted a degree of acceptable variation in the Quranic text.[129] The standardisation of the Quranic rasm c. 650 CE and destruction of non-conforming mus'hafs by Rashidun caliph Uthman has been held by some scholars to have eliminated all the ahruf except one,[113] although the extent to which the Uthmanic codex contains the seven ahruf has been a subject of debate.[130] The ahruf are distinct from the ten qira'at, which are other variant readings of the Quran that also are believed to go back to Muhammad but were canonized later and are still in use.[107][113]

According to Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan, the "vast majority of specialists in Qur’anic sciences" agree with their (Khatib and Khan's) argument on aḥruf and qiraat that (among other things) difference among aḥruf are manifested "in the following ways":

  • Singularity, duality, plurality, masculinity, and femininity.
  • Taṣrīf al-Afʿāl (Verbal Morphology)—verb tense, form, grammatical person.
  • Iʿrāb (grammatical case endings).
  • Omission, substitution, or addition of words.
  • Word order.
  • Ibdāl (alternation between two consonants or between words).

(The list is not "an exclusive or exhaustive categorization").[82]

Khatib and Khan explain the elimination of at least some ahruf after the death of the prophet and ‘final review’ of the Quran as having "no bearing on the preservation of the Qur’an" since the eliminated ahruf "were intended only as a concession" (rukhṣah) that could be abrogated when "no longer needed".[82]

Variants of the Companions

While the Qira'at variants are cannonized as slightly different versions ("readings") of the Quran, and ahruf variants not in the Qiraat are no longer considered readings of the Quran, the variants of the Companions, (i.e. readings of the companions of the Prophet aka ṣaḥābah, that vary from the ʿUthmānic codex) raise theological questions. Such as: 

CHCK TWO PARAGRPHS BELOW FOR REPETITION

"Did God speak all of these readings and did Jibrīl recite all of them to Muhammad ﷺ? Are they all considered ‘Qur’an’? Do they all exhibit the miraculous Qur’anic inimitability? Is it permissible to recite them in prayer?"[82]

We now arrive at the interesting question of how variant readings from ṣaḥābah (i.e., those which differ from the ʿUthmānic codex) are to be understood theologically, from within the Muslim tradition. Did God speak all of these readings and did Jibrīl recite all of them to Muhammad ﷺ? Are they all considered ‘Qur’an’? Do they all exhibit the miraculous Qur’anic inimitability? Is it permissible to recite them in prayer?


What are they, how many

There existed two independently preserved and copied Qur'anic codices from two Companions of the Prophet, those of Abdullah ibn Masud (d. 32 AH), and Ubayy ibn Ka'b (d. 30 AH).[131]

In addition there are other recitations of the Quran by companions of the Prophet Muḥammad -- Ibn ʿAbbās (d. 69 AH), ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (d. 40 AH), and ʿĀʾishah (d. 58 AH) -- reportedly differing from the ʿUthmānic codex.

The total number of these variants was estimated in "a comprehensive study of the primary sources" by one Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Raḥmān at-Ṭāsān,[132] [82] which found "592 instances where a companion’s reading of a verse has been narrated", with 52 identical to the ʿUthmānic codex, and 540 varying from the codex. However, the authors dismiss all but 20 of the variants on the grounds their chain of transmission is lacking or inadequate.[82] "Thus, the actual quantity of variants traceable to the companions is significantly smaller than may initially be supposed."[82] 

decopyrightize

These recitations were "recorded in books of qirāʾāt and classical works of tafsīr (commentary on the Qur’an) and occasionally works of jurisprudence and typically relate to the presence of additional explanatory words or word substitutions," and also in books of Ṣaḥīḥ Hadith including Ṣaḥīḥ al-Bukhārī.[82] (An example of one of these variants is a story about ʿAlqamah ibn Qays (d. 62 AH) who while traveling to Greater Syria, met a Companion Abū al-Dardāʾ. Abū al-Dardā asked ʿAlqamah how Ibn Masʿūd recited Sūrat al-Layl; "ʿAlqamah responded that Ibn Masʿūd recited verse 3 as “wa-al-dhakari wa-al-unthá” (and by the male and the female)".[82]



Why variants are not that important -- the orthodox view

Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan down play variants "reported from Companions" by companions in various ways: 

BELOW FIRST SENTENCE SUMMARY MAY BE BETTER

Citing a number of medieval scholars they argue the variant versions are illusory, are not as important as they seem, not that many in number as you think, or that reports of them are unreliable, sometimes forgeries. If the variants omitted parts of the Quran it is because everyone already knew them. Other variants were never intended to be read as Quran because they were actually study aids, or were tafsir (interpretation of the Quran), or were ahruf that were abrogated, or if not abrogated then "abandoned". 

DELETE THESE BULLET POINTS EVENTUALLY
  • there are not as many as you might think;
  • When a variant of companion does not include a surah its because everyone knew the surah already;
  • many variants are forgeries;
  • they are ahruf but abrogated ("no longer applicable or effective following the revelation of a later abrogating verse" or "The earliest Muslim community was thus exposed to some Qur’anic recitation that Allah in His infinite Divine Wisdom excluded from the composition of the Qur’an that would be recited until the end of time;"),
  • or if not abrogated then abandoned ahruf;
  • they were study aids;
  • they are actually tafsir (interpretation of the Quran), never intended to be read as Quran: "nothing more than a companion’s method of explaining the verse by simplifying the language". "Abū Ḥayyān al-Andalūsī was of the view that whatever was in conflict with the script of the muṣḥaf was in reality tafsīr, not Qur’anic recitation.[133] Imam al-Tirmidhī comments on a hadith with an added phrase after the verse by saying, “This appears to be a statement of Ibn ʿAbbās (i.e., rather than a variant reading).”[134]
  • they just aren't very important. …


NOT AS IMPORTANT

For example, codices is usually defined as "ancient manuscript texts in book form", but when Islamic history talks about "codices of companions (bāb ikhtilāf maṣāḥif al-ṣahābah)", such as muṣḥaf ʿUmar, muṣḥaf ʿAlī, muṣḥaf Ibn Masʿūd, doesn't mean the companions had some kind of physical codex, book/manuscript of their version of the Quran. It refers to "narrations of variant readings" from these companions, who "were simply heard reciting a verse in that reading".[82] 


FORGERIES

Some variants can be explained, Khatib and Khan claim, by forgeries, sold to gullible Quran collectors.

The divergent nature of the many ‘Muṣḥafs of Ibn Masʿūd’ that materialized after his death, with no two in agreement, shows that the wholesale ascription of these to him is erroneous, and the scholars who did so neglected to examine their sources well. Sadly the less scrupulous among antique dealers found it profitable, for the weight of a few silver pieces, to add fake Muṣḥafs of Ibn Masʿūd or Ubayy to their wares.[135][82]

IF the variants omitted parts of the Quran it is because everyone already knew them

Ibn Masʿūd’s codex reportedly did not include Sūrat al-Fātiḥah and al-Mūʿawwidhatayn (chapters 113 and 114) and some orientalists have suggested these were also variants. but this notion is "simply preposterous" to "anyone with passing familiarity of the Muslim tradition". Quoting scholars who wrote three and five centuries later (Abū Bakr ibn al-Anbārī (d. 328 AH), al-Māzirī (d. 536 AH)), the authors explain that Ibn Masʿūd omitted al-Fātiḥah because it is used so often by Muslims, or alternately that this wasn't true and his codex did so contain the al-Fātiḥah, and also that in general the codexes were intended as "memory aids for personal worship and recitation", not "complete official copies of the Qur’an".[82] 

ahruf but abrogated
  • they are ahruf but abrogated ("no longer applicable or effective following the revelation of a later abrogating verse" or "The earliest Muslim community was thus exposed to some Qur’anic recitation that Allah in His infinite Divine Wisdom excluded from the composition of the Qur’an that would be recited until the end of time;"),
tafsir
  • they are actually tafsir (interpretation of the Quran), never intended to be read as Quran: "nothing more than a companion’s method of explaining the verse by simplifying the language". "Abū Ḥayyān al-Andalūsī was of the view that whatever was in conflict with the script of the muṣḥaf was in reality tafsīr, not Qur’anic recitation.[133] Imam al-Tirmidhī comments on a hadith with an added phrase after the verse by saying, “This appears to be a statement of Ibn ʿAbbās (i.e., rather than a variant reading).”[134]

the Korans of Ibn Mas‘üd and Ubayy

sequence of suras in them (ibn Warraq, Which Quran) "The recension of Ibn Mas'Ud ... was particularly popular in Kufa" "information" describes al-Hajjaj and Ubaydallah ibn Ziyad being "staunch" in their "opposition to the recension" and may have been responsible for the destruction of many copies when they were in authority.[136]

Khatib and Khan propose that the variant readings from Ibn Masʿūd and Ubayy ibn Kaʿb were a ḥarf "that was originally revealed but subsequently abrogated" but admit this poses the question of why "Muslims in the subsequent generation continued to recite according to the ḥarf of Ibn Masʿūd at least in Kūfah, as reported by al-Aʿmash and others".[82]


Alleged variants of al-Hajjaj

Some (Ibn Abi Dawud) have claimed that Al-Hajjaj Ibn Yusuf Al-Thakafi (660-714 CE) -- a powerful governor during the reign of Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan -- had a text of the Quran that contained eleven "deliberate, albeit minute, changes".[137] However Nicolai Sinai finds this "less certain" "in some cases he may only have given preference to an already existing variant, while in other cases the supposedly original reading may in fact be secondary.[137] as Sadeghi has argued."[138]


variants found in early manuscripts

Sanaa manuscript
Further information: Sanaa manuscript

Gerd Puin, the German scholar most closely involved with the of the 16000 sheets or parchments of Koranic fragments discovered in San‘ä’, Yemen, has uncovered even more variants in the rasm that are not found in the mammoth work of eight volumes, Mu‘jam al-qirä’ät al-qur’äniyyah,[39] edited in Kuwait recently. This dictionary lists over ten thousand variants, of which about a thousand are variants of or deviations in the rasm. [139])

Some (Ibn Abi Dawud) have claimed that al-Hajjaj's text of the Quran "contained deliberate, albeit minute, changes", but Nicolai Sinai finds this "less certain" "in some cases he may only have given preference to an already existing variant, while in other cases the supposedly original reading may in fact be secondary[137] as Sadeghi has argued."[138]


[from Sanaa article] Before the Sana'a manuscript, no partial or complete Qur'anic codex in a tradition other than the 'Uthmanic standard had ever been found. And while early Islamic witnesses report readings found in the codices of Abdullah ibn Masud and Ubayy ibn Ka'b,[131] they do not collate their full texts. Elizabeth Puin and Asma Hillali report little or no correspondence between the variations from the 'Uthmanic Qur'an that they have found in the lower text with those reported for Abdullah ibn Masud or Ubayy ibn Ka'b, whereas Sadeghi and Goudarzi claim to be able to identify extra variations in the lower text of the Sana'a codex with similarities to the codex of Ibn Masud as well as differences. Hence they report an overlap between the variants of Ibn Masud and the Sana'a manuscript, although there are variants in Ibn Masud not found in the lower text and vice versa, with the differences much outnumbering the correspondences.[140] Additionally, the Sana'a manuscript puts sura Tawba after sura Anfal, whereas Ibn Masud's codex did the opposite.[141]


The Hijäzï Korans show differences in the system of counting of verses from the two dozen or so schools of counting; even the sequence of suras is often at variance with not only the Standard Egyptian edition but with the sequence of suras in the Korans of Ibn Mas‘üd and Ubayy. (ibn Warraq, Which Quran)

Scribal/copyist errors?

These deviations [" Puin discovered at least 5000 deviations in the rasm, never recorded before, not even in the Seven, Ten or Fourteen Readings tolerated by orthodoxy" in Sanaa fragments] cannot be dismissed as mere scribal errors (lapsus calami) since the so-called errors are repeated with the same word several times in several fragments studied by Puin. Thus, as Puin emphasizes, it makes common philological sense to look for a rationale. The recurrent deviations from the Standard Egyptian text must be taken seriously, and cannot be swept under the carpet, and attributed to scribal inadequacy.[40]



Why were/are there variants?

Qiraat

Talking about qirāʾāt, Oliver Leaman states, "the origin" of the differences of qira'at "lies in the fact that the linguistic system of the Quran incorporates the most familiar Arabic dialects and vernacular forms in use at the time of the Revelation."[51] According to Okvath Csaba, "Different recitations [different qira'at] take into account dialectal features of Arabic language ..." [142] (Oxford Islamic Studies Online writes that "according to classical Muslim sources", the variations that crept up before Uthman created the "official" Quran "dealt with subtleties of pronunciations and accents (qirāʿāt) and not with the text itself which was transmitted and preserved in a culture with a strong oral tradition.")[143]

But scholar Aisha Abdurrahman Bewley writes that "the different words" in the different Qiraat "compliment other recitations and add to the meaning, and are a source of exegesis."[144] Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan contend that qirāʾāt "multiplies" the "eloquence and aesthetic beauty" of the Quran, and "in certain cases" they "add nuances in meaning, complementing one another" (but provide no examples of this).[82]


Ahruf

Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan explain the purpose of ahruf with a hadith: “‘O Jibrīl! I have been sent to an illiterate nation among whom are the elderly woman, the old man, the boy and the girl, and the man who cannot read a book at all.’ He said: ‘O Muḥammad! Indeed the Qur’an was revealed in seven aḥruf (i.e., seven different ways of reciting).’”[145] (Again, Khatib and Khan give no illustrations of how different readings helped different groups of Muslims understand and believe.)

Ex-Muslim Ibn Warraq, citing non-Muslim Andrew Rippin, writes that "many hundreds of variants, though not all, were invented by Muslim grammarians, philologists, and exegetes of the 3rd and 4th Muslim centuries to

  • explain all sorts of obscurities of the Koran, whether of sense or reference, Koranic grammatical aberrations,[146]
  • or even more seriously, for doctrinal reasons to defend some particular theological position.[147]

A. Rippin says:

  • “… the variants still show traces of their original intention: to explain away grammatical and lexical difficulties. While obviously this is not true of all variant readings in the Qur’än, many variants being too slight to alleviate any problem, in Sura 21: 95 and in many others the exegetical nature of Qur’änic variants is apparent.”[146]
  • “Variants such as those for Surah Q7:40 were created when polemically –based pressures on the exegetes were the strongest and the attitudes towards the Qur’änic text less confining.”[147]

or even more seriously, for doctrinal reasons to defend some particular theological position.[147] 



END OF VARIANTS OF THE QURAN
===================================================================================================================================
===========================================================================================

Attempting to create a link to a point in a youtube video

INSTRUCTIONS

FOR NOTES FAILED (11/10/2020)

TEST (11/10/2020) (ABDULLAH GONDAL - variants are to introduce different but equally perfect and wise revelation)

WORKS (HOLLAND) [148]

WORKS (ABDULLAH GONDAL) [149] TEST (11/10/2020) (ABDULLAH GONDAL) [150]

  • id=sNFn36KV2Oo&t=17m53s (ID in link)

FAILED (IN THE HOT SEAT) [54]

also FAILED (IN THE HOT SEAT) [54]

WORKS (BUT HAS ADS)
(IN THE HOT SEAT)

WORKS (MORE OR LESS CAUSE IT GOES TO DIFFERENT WHERE I LEFT OFF)
(IN THE HOT SEAT)

USE FOR NOW UNTIL I HAVE A BETTER LINK
<ref name= "every single">{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Dc1HJ8Uif4#t=81m45s |title=In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi}} Yasir Qadhi |date=8 June 2020 |quote=every single student of knowledge knows who studies ilm of Quran that the most difficult topics are ahruf and qiraat and the concept of ahruf and the reality of ahruf .... | video at 1h21m45s |ACCESSDATE=}}</ref>

[115] 

Daniel Brubaker

[151] 

Daniel Brubaker (channel)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IMa5tqfdNzw Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video) Jun 15, 2020

References

Notes

  1. ^ "Bismika Allahuma is a Muslim apologetics website and our purpose is to facilitate Muslim responses to the various mendacious polemics and distortions of Islam."[52]
  2. ^ other scholars gave the names of other tribes[52]
  3. ^ the verse usually cited as indicating divine protection of the Quran from corruption is: "We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption)."[68]
  4. ^ The words "seventy times" are missing from: “If you should ask forgiveness for them seventy times - never will Allah forgive them.”[77]
  5. ^ Muhammad relayed God's revelation to the early Muslims, and many of his contemporary nonbelievers/opponents maintained he (Muhammad) was the true origin of the Quran. Numerous verses of the Quran (Q.6:50, 7:203, 10:15, 10:37, 10:109, 13:38 and 33:2) vehemently deny that the Qur’an was Muhammad's own work, or that he was doing anything other than following what was revealed to him by God.[81]
  6. ^ “mother of the book” (umm al-kitab)43:4 and 13:3), also “well-guarded tablet” (lawh mahfuz85:22) and “concealed book” (kitab maknun56:78)
  7. ^ As God's speech, the Quran was not created or written by God but is an "uncreated" attribute of God
  8. ^ Ahadith sources differ over who was the first to collect the revelations of the Quran Zaid b. Thabit said:

    The Prophet died and the Qur'an had not been assembled into a single place.[95]

    It is reported... from Ali who said:

    May the mercy of Allah be upon Abu Bakr, the foremost of men to be rewarded with the collection of the manuscripts, for he was the first to collect (the text) between (two) covers.[96]

    It is reported... from Ibn Buraidah who said:

    The first of those to collect the Qur'an into a mushaf (codex) was Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah.[97]
  9. ^ for example, in Surat al-Baqara (1): "Dhalika'l-Kitabu la rayb" or "Dhalika'l-Kitabu la rayba fih" [107]
  10. ^ an example being "suddan" or "saddan"[107]
  11. ^ (due to different diacritical marks, for example, yaʼ or taʼ (turjaʼuna or yurjaʼuna) or a word having a long consonant or not (a consonant will have a shadda making it long, or not have one).[107]
  12. ^ For example "fa-tabayyanu" or "fa-tathabbatu" in Q4.94[108]
  13. ^ According to one source (the Saudi Salafi site "Islam Question and Answer"), while there are four other modes of recitation in addition to the ten recognized ones, these are "odd (shaadhdh), according to scholarly consensus":
    "The seven modes of recitation are mutawaatir according to consensus, as are the three others: the recitations of Abu Ja‘far, Ya‘qoob and Khalaf, according to the more correct view. In fact the correct, favoured view, which is what we learned from most of our shaykhs, is that the recitations of the other four – Ibn Muhaysin, al-Yazeedi, al-Hasan and al-A‘mash, are odd (shaadhdh), according to scholarly consensus."
    The article then goes on to quote the medieval scholar An-Nawawi saying:
    " it is not permissible to recite, in prayer or otherwise, according to an odd mode of recitation, because that is not Qur’an."
    The article separates the ten qira'at into "the seven": "The seven modes of recitation are mutawaatir according to the four imams and other leading Sunni scholars";
    and "the three others" which are also mutawaatir, though apparently not having the same level of endorsement.[110]
  14. ^ Thus it is more accurate to identify a Qirāʼah of the Quran by saying "this is the riwaya of [insert name of reciter]", rather than "this is [insert name of reciter]". An example being, "this is the riwaya of Hafs", and not "this is Hafs" -- Hafs being the reading used by most of the Muslim world.[107]
  15. ^ most of the varieties are not commonly used but can be found on pdf with English translation at quranflash.com -- https://app.quranflash.com/?en
  16. ^ about 95% according to Muslimprophets website.[117]

Citations

  1. ^ Abrahamian, Iran between two revolutions, 1982: p.534-5
  2. ^ a b Mesbah-Yazdi, A Cursory Glance ..., 2010: Chapter 1
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference MYCGaToWF2010:Chapter-3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ Mesbah-Yazdi, A Cursory Glance, 2010: Chapter 4. Is wilayat al-faqih founded on imitation [taqlid] or on research [tahqiq]?
  5. ^ Cite error: The named reference MYCGaToWF2010:Chapter-3-Role, correct was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  6. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Valbjørn-POMEPS was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Samadov, Bahruz (18 July 2022). "Will new Azerbaijani Islamist movement share the fate of its predecessors?". Eurasia Net. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
  8. ^ a b "Sunnis and Shia: Islam's ancient schism". BBC News. 4 January 2016. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
  9. ^ Bokhari, Kamran; Senzai, Farid (2013). Political Islam in the Age of Democratization. Palgrave Macmillan. p. abstract. doi:10.1057/9781137313492_9. Retrieved 27 January 2023.
  10. ^ a b Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: p. 168
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  50. ^ Abrahamian, Khomeinism, 1993: p.24
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  58. ^ Islam. Pedia press. p. 106. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
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  61. ^ Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Mizan, Principles of Understanding the Qu'ran Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Al-Mawrid
  62. ^ "al-Sulami, Abu 'Abd al-Rahman". Oxford Reference. Retrieved 15 July 2020.
  63. ^ Zarkashi, al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1980), p. 237.
  64. ^ Suyuti, al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Baydar: Manshurat al-Radi, 1343 AH), p. 177.
  65. ^ "Virtues of the Qur'an. Book 61, Number 507". Sahih al-Bukhari. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  66. ^ "Virtues of the Qur'an. (Book 61, Number 510)". Sahih al-Bukhari. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  67. ^ "Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal". YouTube. Secular Jihadists, youtube, 26 June 2020
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  70. ^ In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi. 8Dc1HJ8Uif4t=85m50s – via YouTube. YouTube, Yasir Qadhi, 8 June 2020, video at 85m50s
  71. ^ In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi. 8Dc1HJ8Uif4t=1h26m44s – via YouTube. YouTube, Yasir Qadhi, 8 June 2020, video at 1h26m44s
  72. ^ In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi. YouTube, Yasir Qadhi, 8 June 2020, video at 87m40s
  73. ^ Daniel Brubaker. "Variant Quran (YouTube channel)". https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCP-g6LEOwXpMwu5PhMCIxhw?pbjreload=101. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |url= (help)
  74. ^ "About". Daniel Brubaker Official Website. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  75. ^ a b Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video) on YouTube Daniel Brubaker, 15 June 2020, video 6:46
  76. ^ Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video) on YouTube Daniel Brubaker, 15 June 2020, video 5:52
  77. ^ Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video) on YouTube Daniel Brubaker, 15 June 2020, video 12:59
  78. ^ Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal on YouTube Secular Jihadists, 26 June 2020, video 55:38
  79. ^ Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi (1999). An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur'aan (PDF). UK: Al-Hidaaya Publishing. p. 175. ISBN 1898649324. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  80. ^ Cite error: The named reference Ayaz-response was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  81. ^ Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur’an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur’an", GJAT, 7, 2017: p.69
  82. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Khatib, Ammar; Khan, Nazir (23 August 2019). "The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an". Yaqueen Institute. Retrieved 21 July 2020. Cite error: The named reference "Khatib-variant-2019" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  83. ^ Lippman, Understanding Islam, 1982: p.63-4
  84. ^ Cite error: The named reference Rose-75 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  85. ^ Holland, In the Shadow of the Sword, 2012: p.304
  86. ^ Guillaume, Islam, 1954: p.55
  87. ^ Cite error: The named reference what-atlantic-1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  88. ^ John Esposito, Islam the Straight Path, Extended Edition, p.19-20
  89. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.127
  90. ^ Hitti, Philip K. "The First Book". aramco world. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  91. ^ Guillaume, Islam, 1954: p.59
  92. ^ a b ALKHATEEB, FIRAS. "How Do We Know the Quran is Unchanged?". Islamicity. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  93. ^ a b "Book Review: "Textual Criticism and Qur'an Manuscripts" by Keith E. Small". twopennyposts. 22 May 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  94. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.123-5
  95. ^ Ahmad b. Ali b. Muhammad al 'Asqalani, ibn Hajar, Fath al Bari [13 vol., Cairo 1939], vol. 9, p. 9.
  96. ^ John Gilchrist, Jam' Al-Qur'an. The Codification of the Qur'an Text A Comprehensive Study of the Original Collection of the Qur'an Text and the Early Surviving Qur'an Manuscripts, [MERCSA, Mondeor, 2110 Republic of South Africa, 1989], Chapter 1. "The Initial Collection of the Qur'an Text", p. 27 – citing Ibn Abi Dawud, Kitab al-Masahif, p. 5.
  97. ^ (Ibid., citing as-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fii Ulum al-Qur'an, p. 135).
  98. ^ A narration from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar quoted by Hafidh as-Suyuti (d. 911 A.H.) in his al-Itiqan fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’an
  99. ^ Waqar Akbar Cheema; Gabriel Al Romaani (June 17, 2013). "Meaning of Ibn 'Umar's statement, "Much of the Qur'an is Gone"". Islamic Center for Research and Academics. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
  100. ^ Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 1995: p.109
  101. ^ Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 1995: p.106
  102. ^ a b Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.121
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  104. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.59, 121
  105. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.122
  106. ^ C.J. Adams, "Quran: The Text and Its History" in Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade (New York, Macmillan, 1987), pp.157-76
  107. ^ a b c d e f The Seven Qira'at of the Qur'an by Aisha Bewley
  108. ^ Younes, Munther (2019). Charging Steeds or Maidens Performing Good Deeds: In Search of the Original Qur'an. Routledge. p. 3. ISBN 9781351055000. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
  109. ^ a b Salahi, Adil (16 July 2001). "Scholar Of Renown: Ibn Mujahid". Arab News. Retrieved 26 March 2021.
  110. ^ "The seven modes of recitation are mutawaatir and it is not permissible to cast aspersions on them. Question 178120". Islam Question and Answer. 24 November 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
  111. ^ "Basic Introduction to the 10 Recitations and 7 Ahruf". Ideal Muslimah. Retrieved 15 March 2021.
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  113. ^ a b c Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Tafseer Soorah Al-Hujuraat, 1990, Tawheed Publications, Riyadh, pp. 28-29.
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  115. ^ a b "In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi". YouTube. Yasir Qadhi |date=8 June 2020 |quote=every single student of knowledge knows who studies ilm of Quran that the most difficult topics are ahruf and qiraat and the concept of ahruf and the reality of ahruf .... | video at 1h21m45s |ACCESSDATE=}}
  116. ^ Abul A`la Maududi, Towards Understanding Islam. International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations Gary, Indiana , 1970. p.109
  117. ^ "Quran - Comparing Hafs & Warsh for 51 textual variants". Muslim prophets. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
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  119. ^ Ibn Warraq, What the Koran Really Says, 2002: p.65
  120. ^ a b Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 1995: p.110
  121. ^ Adams, C.E. "Quran: The Text and Its History" in Encyclopedia of Religion, pp.157-176
  122. ^ Guillaume, Alfred, Islam, 1954, p.189
  123. ^ Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.42-3
  124. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.119
  125. ^ Sale G, Preliminary discourse 3
  126. ^ "The revelation of the Qur'aan in seven styles (ahruf, sing. harf). Question 5142". Islam Question and Answer. 28 July 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
  127. ^ Khatib, Ammar; Khan, Nazir (23 August 2019). "The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an". Yaqeen Institute.
  128. ^ Abu Ameenah Bilal Philips, Tafseer Soorah Al-Hujuraat, 1990, Tawheed Publications, Riyadh, pp. 29–30.
  129. ^ Dutton 2012, p. 21.
  130. ^ Dutton 2012, p. 28, quoting Ibn al-Jazari from his work al-Nashr fī l-qiraʾāt al-ʿashr: "Whether theʿUthmānī muṣḥafs contain all the seven aḥruf is a major issue (masʿala kabīra) about which all the ʿulamā have different opinions."
  131. ^ a b Nöldeke, Theodor; Schwally, Friedrich; Bergsträsser, Gotthelf; Pretzl, Otto (2013). "The Genesis of the Authorized Redaction of the Koran under the Caliph ʿUthmān". In Behn, Wolfgang H. (ed.). The History of the Qurʾān. Texts and Studies on the Qurʾān. Vol. 8. Translated by Behn, Wolfgang H. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 251–275. doi:10.1163/9789004228795_017. ISBN 978-90-04-21234-3. ISSN 1567-2808. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
  132. ^ Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd ul-Raḥmān al-Ṭāsān, al-Masāḥif al-manṣuba lil-ṣaḥābah wa-al-radd ʿalā shubuhat al-muthārah (Riyadh: Dar al-Tadmuriyyah, 2016; quoted in
  133. ^ a b Abū Ḥayyān, al-Baḥr al-muḥīṭ (Beirut: Dār al-Fikr, 2010), 1:260.
  134. ^ a b Sunan al-Tirmidhī, no. 3314, https://sunnah.com/urn/740400.
  135. ^ Al-Azami, History of the Qur’anic Text, 215.
  136. ^ Al-Hajjaj is said to have threatened to behead anyone reciting Ibn Mas'ud's recension and to "remove it from the codex, if need be even be [by scraping it off ] with the rib of a pig" (Ibn Asakir, al-Tarikh al-kabir), v.4 ed. Abd al-Qadir Badran, Damascus: Matba at Rawdat al-Sham, 1332, 69; cited in Sinai, Nicolai (2014). "When did the consonantal skeleton of the Quran reach closure? Part I". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 77 (2): 283. JSTOR 24692711. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  137. ^ a b c see also Sinai, Nicolai (2014). "When did the consonantal skeleton of the Quran reach closure? Part I". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 77 (2): 284. JSTOR 24692711. Retrieved 25 March 2021.
  138. ^ a b Behnam Sadeghi and Uwe Bergmann "Codex of a companion of the Prophet and the Quran of the Prophet, Arabica 57, 2010, 343-436, at 365 n.36
  139. ^ Ibn Warraq (February 2008). "Which Koran?". New English Review. Retrieved 19 March 2021.
  140. ^ Sadeghi & Goudarzi 2012, p. 19-20.
  141. ^ Sadeghi & Goudarzi 2012, p. 26.
  142. ^ Cite error: The named reference Csaba-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  143. ^ "Qurʿān". Oxford Islamic Studies. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  144. ^ Cite error: The named reference IIUM was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  145. ^ Jāmiʿ al-Tirmidhī, no. 2944, https://sunnah.com/urn/731900.
  146. ^ a b See A. Rippin, Qur’än 21 :95: A Ban is Upon any Town JSS ( 24 ) 1979, 43-53; Ibn Warraq (February 2008). "Which Koran?". New English Review. Retrieved 19 March 2021. Cite error: The named reference "[42]" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  147. ^ a b c See A. Rippin, Qur’än 7: 40, Until the camel Passes through the Eye of the Needle, Arabica, Tome xxvii, Fasc 2 , pp 107-113 ;Ibn Warraq (February 2008). "Which Koran?". New English Review. Retrieved 19 March 2021. Cite error: The named reference "[43]" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  148. ^ Tom Holland on The Origins of Islam on YouTube Rancho Mirage Writers Festival, 28-29 January 2017, video 52:50
  149. ^ Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal on YouTube Secular Jihadists, 26 June 2020, video 52:50
  150. ^ Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal on YouTube Secular Jihadists, 26 June 2020, video 52:50
  151. ^ "Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video)". YouTube. Retrieved 25 July 2020. {{cite web}}: Text "video at 5m52s" ignored (help) Daniel Brubaker


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Preservation of the Quran

According to Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan, there are "pre-ʿUthmānic" variant readings of the Quran, attributed to the different Companions of the Prophet, "ʿUthmānic variants", which are "differences between the regional codices ʿUthmān sent to different cities"; and "post-ʿUthmānic readings", which are the "differences between the qirāʾāt traditions".[1]

Belief in the preservation of the Quran

HOW MUSLIMS THINK THE QURAN IS PRESERVED

According to Charles Adams, "Almost without exceptions Muslims consider that the Quran we now possess goes back in its text and in the number and order of the chapters to the work of the commission that ‘Uthman appointed."[2]

Qur’an verse 15:9[3] states “We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption)”. This has been interpreted as proof the Quran revealed to Muhammad is the same as we read today, or "that Allah has preserved the Quran after it was revealed and that He will continue to preserve it until the end of times..." [4][5][6]

The book Demystifying the Quran states: "Logically, if God wished to send down a Message for all of humanity from the time of the Prophet Muhammad till the Day of Judgment, it would reasonably have to be protected from any changes, be they additions or subtractions." While "any English Bible is actually a translation of a translation!" one of the characteristics of the Quran" is that it "has been preserved not only in writing from the time of the Prophet, but also in the hearts of thousands, even millions, of devoted worshippers ever since the time of its revelation."[7]

Muslims and non-Muslims both agree that no change has ever occurred in the text of the Qur’an. The above prophecy for the eternal preservation and purity of the Qur’an came true not only for the text of the Qur’an, but also for the most minute details of its punctuation marks as well. . . . It is a miracle of the Qur’an that no change has occurred in a single word, a single [letter of the] alphabet, a single punctuation mark, or a single diacritical mark in the text of the Qur’an during the last fourteen centuries.[8]

Other testimonies to the Quran's preservation from Islamic proselytizing websites include:

  • "The Book has been handed down to our age in its complete and original form since the time of Prophet Muhammad .... " (Islamic Circle of North America)[9]
  • "the Holy Qur’an is the only ancient book which has been immaculately preserved for 1400 years."[10]
  • Of all the "hundreds of religions flourishing around the world ... None of them ... possess their scriptures in its entirety BOTH in writing AND in memory from the day of its revelation until our time ... except one: This unique scripture is the Qur'an - revelation bestowed to Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) 1,400 plus years ago. (gain peace website)[11]
  • "The bearers of" earlier scripture, such as the Torah, "failed in their task of preserving them, and hence they lost their original qualities. As for the Qur'an, God having taken it upon Himself to provide His special divine succour for its safeguarding, it remained in its pristine state." (Centre for Peace and Spirituality)[12]
  • "apart from the development of new calligraphy styles and publishing methods, every Qur’an from then [caliphate of ‘Uthman] until today has been exactly the same ... " (One Path Network)[13]

Traditional account of how the Quran was preserved

According to the traditional Islamic account of the revelation, compilation and propagation of the Quran, different readings of the Quran arose from the instruction of the Prophet of Islam Muḥammad himself.[1]

The holy book was passed down from heaven by God and revealed to his prophet Muhammad, an illiterate Arab trader living in the deserts of Western Arabia, by the the angel Gabriel (Jabreel).[14][Note 1] As revelations progressed and Muhammad built up a following, the revelations were both written down and memorized by his followers.

Not long after Muhammad's death (around 644 CE) as the Islamic empire spread and conflict arose from "divergences in Quranic recitation" that appeared among the now larger and more diverse Muslim population,[16] Caliph Uthman (644–656 CE) thought it necessary to make one standard and official Quran (i.e. to codify the Quran). A committee of five copied the scraps into a single volume, "monitoring the text as they went", resolving disagreements about verses, tracking down a lost verse.[17] While the Qur’an was taught in different ways/styles (aḥruf) during the lifetime of the Muhammad, it was unified and standardized in this muṣḥaf -- that became know as the "Uthmanic codex". It was finished around 650 CE,[18] (the date was not recorded by early Arab annalists),[16] whereupon according to (part of) a hadith from Sahih al-Bukhari:

... 'Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied, and ordered that all the other Quranic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt. ...[Bukhari Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:61:510][19]

Thus, according to Islamic teaching, it was insured that the wording of the Quranic text available today corresponds exactly to the literal, infallible,[20] "perfect, timeless", "absolute"[21] unadulterated word of God revealed to Muhammad.[22] That revelation in turn is identical to an eternal “mother of the book”[Note 2] the archetype[23]/prototype[24] of the Quran. This was not created/written by God, but an attribute of Him, co-eternal and kept with Him in heaven.[25][Note 3] [26]

*Rasm (in black) was the only script found in the earliest surviving fragments of the Quran, including Uthman's codex.[27] There are only 18 "letters" of rasm so many consonant sounds share the same letter.
*I‘jām or nuqat al-I'jam (examples in red) was added in later arabic (possibly around 700 CE)[28] so that consonants letters such as ـبـ ـتـ ـثـ ـنـ ـيـ (y, n, th, t, b) could be distinguished. This provides a "consonantal skeleton" that is sufficient for most educated Arab readers.[29] (y in arabic can be both the consonant y and the long vowel ee.)
*Ḥarakāt or nuqaṭ ali'rab (examples in blue) indicate short vowels. These are not found in most written arabic, but are in (today's) Quran. They were added to the arabic language even later than I'jam, around "the first half of the tenth century", according to Gerhard Böwering.[30]
(The phrase illustrating the markings is from Al-Fatiha, the first surah of the Quran, is pronounced Alhamdu lillaahi Rabbil 'aalameen and translated as "Praise to Allah, Lord of the worlds".)
The script of Uthman Codex of the Quran is more likely to use this Hijazi script (from the Sanaʽa manuscript), than the Naskh script used above.

After the variant maṣḥaf copies were ordered destroyed, there were still differences in rasm "readings" of the Quran still cropped up.[Note 4] In the 10th century, scholar Abu Bakr Ibn Mujāhid canonized one system of consonants (one rasm) and limited the variation of vowels (Ḥarakāt, see graphic) to seven different recognised schools of Qira'at (recitation).

Today, "for all practical purposes", one Quranic version is in "general use" in the Muslim world — an Egyptian standard edition of the Qur'an originally "produced in 1924".[32][Note 5] It is a descendant of one of the readings of the Quran — namely the reading of Ḥafṣ (d 190/805) for the reading of ʾĀṣim (d.127/744)) (or going back even farther to 'Ali ibn Abi-Talib according to one scholar).[Note 6] Thus (Muslims believe), the official Uthman compilation, carefully collected and redacted by followers -- at least some of whom had learned it at the time of the revelation, committed it to memory and recited it regularly -- has been scrupulously preserved for 1400 odd years until the present day.

Difference from bible

The Quran contrasts with the Christian holy book the Gospel, which were probably written 30-80 years after the death of the central figure of Christianity, Jesus,[36][37][38] by Christians hindered by persecution and writing in Greek rather than the language Jesus used.[39][40]


Defense and rationale for variants

Defense of traditional view

The view that the Quran authentically attests to what Muhammad taught, and "expressed in his own words" during his mission in Mecca and Medina is supported by some Western academics as well as Muslims.

Furthermore, studies of early Quranic manuscripts, "appear to suggest" the Quran was codified "around the time of its traditional historical date", according to Gabriel Said Reynolds.[Note 7] [41] thus (according to Muslim convert and scholar Joseph Lumbard) "render[ing] the vast majority of Western revisionist theories regarding the historical origins of the Quran untenable".[42]

Rationale for variant texts

According to Oliver Leaman, "the origin" of the differences of qira'at "lies in the fact that the linguistic system of the Quran incorporates the most familiar Arabic dialects and vernacular forms in use at the time of the Revelation."[43] According to Okvath Csaba, "Different recitations [different qira'at] take into account dialectal features of Arabic language ..." [44] (Oxford Islamic Studies Online writes that "according to classical Muslim sources", the variations that crept up before Uthman created the "official" Quran "dealt with subtleties of pronunciations and accents (qirāʿāt) and not with the text itself which was transmitted and preserved in a culture with a strong oral tradition.")[45]

But scholar Aisha Abdurrahman Bewley writes that "the different words" in the different Qiraat "compliment other recitations and add to the meaning, and are a source of exegesis."[46] Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan contend that qirāʾāt "multiplies" the "eloquence and aesthetic beauty" of the Quran, and "in certain cases" they "add nuances in meaning, complementing one another".[1]


Questions and contradictions

Agreement on difficulty

According to Ammar Khatib and Dr. Nazir Khan, researchers are astounded and puzzled by the "diverse ‘modes of recitation’ (qirāʾāt)" of the Qur’an, and an explanation of why these differences exist and where they come from is a "burning questions for both researchers and laity alike".[1]

Conservative Islamic scholar Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi stated in a 2020 interview that "every single student of knowledge ... who studies ulm of Quran" knows "that the most difficult topics are ahruf and qira’at",[47] so vexing that even "the most advanced of our scholars, they are not quite fully certain how to solve all of it and answer questions in there",[48] and so sensitive that it "should never be brought up in public” and is "not something you discuss among the masses".[49]

Disagreement over source of differences between the ahruf

Ahruf ceased to exist about 1400 years ago, according to Islamic literature, when Uthman destroyed all but the official copies of the Quran, so the variants cannot be compared today. According to some, the differences were of differences in dialects, differences in tribe differences.

Differences in dialect, same meaning

The Australian Islamic da‘wah (prosletizing) media network OnePath Network states that hundreds of Companions of the Prophet (ṣaḥābah) "memorised the complete Quran in seven official dialects, all of which were considered valid ways of reciting the Quran", the seven dialects being the seven ahruf.[13]

According to Bilal Philips the downfall of ahruf came from "a rivalry" of "some Arab tribes" over which ahruf was superior,[50][51] and that in the end only the harf of the Quraysh tribe remained.

Bismika Allahuma,[Note 8] also states that at least according to one scholarly opinion there were seven ahruf because there were seven Arab tribes -- Quraysh, Hudhayl, Tameem, Hawaazin, Thaqeef, Kinaanah and Yemen[Note 9] -- each with there own dialects (lughaat) at the time the Quran was revealed. "Thus, under this opinion, various verses would be pronounced according to the pronunciation of that particular tribe, and words from one dialect would be replaced by other words used by that particular tribe."[52]

Oxford Islamic Studies Online writes that "according to classical Muslim sources", the variations that crept up before Uthman created the "official" Quran "dealt with subtleties of pronunciations and accents (qirāʿāt) and not with the text itself which was transmitted and preserved in a culture with a strong oral tradition."[53]

Differences in wording, same meaning

However, at least a few scholars (Islam Question & Answer[54] and Javed Ahmad Ghamidi)[55] have dismissed the theory that the different ahruf reflect the different tribal dialects noting that in the famous hadeeth of ahruf (see above) where two Companions of the Prophet recite differently but are assured by Muhammad that both are correct -- both are (ʻUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb and Hishaam ibn Hakeem) are from the same tribe (Quraysh). "It was revealed thus; this Quran has been revealed in seven Ahruf. You can read it in any of them you find easy from among them." The salafi website Islam Question & Answer asks: "If the difference in ahruf (styles) had been a difference in dialects, why would two men of Quraysh have been different? ... the Quraysh had only one dialect"[54] Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, writes that people from same tribe cannot have different pronunciation.[55]

Islam Question & Answer asserts, that instead of different dialects, the ahruf had "different wordings", which would agree with the hadith since in it ‘Umar’s complains about "the style, not the meaning" of Hishaam's recitation. Instead of the ahruf being in "contradiction and opposition", the differences in the words they use are synonymous, "as Ibn Mas’ood said: 'It is like one of you saying halumma, aqbil or ta’al (all different ways of saying ‘Come here’).'” 

BELOW ALREADY USED

According to Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan the "vast majority of specialists in Qur’anic sciences" agree with their (Khatib and Khan's) argument on aḥruf and qiraat that (among other things) difference among aḥruf are manifested "in the following ways":

  • Singularity, duality, plurality, masculinity, and femininity.
  • Taṣrīf al-Afʿāl (Verbal Morphology)—verb tense, form, grammatical person.
  • Iʿrāb (grammatical case endings).
  • Omission, substitution, or addition of words.
  • Word order.
  • Ibdāl (alternation between two consonants or between words).

(The list is not "an exclusive or exhaustive categorization").[1]

Doubts about scriptural basis of ahruf

Is the traditional story of divinely revealed variant ahruf readings true?

Other reports of what the Prophet said (as well as some scholarly commentary) seem to contradict the presence of variant readings.[55]

Abu Abd Al-Rahman al-Sulami writes, "The reading of Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Zayd ibn Thabit and that of all the Muhajirun and the Ansar was the same. They would read the Quran according to the Qira'at al-'ammah. This is the same reading which was read out twice by the Prophet to Gabriel in the year of his death. Zayd ibn Thabit was also present in this reading [called] the 'Ardah-i akhirah. It was this very reading that he taught the Quran to people till his death".[56] According to Ibn Sirin, "The reading on which the Quran was read out to the prophet in the year of his death is the same according to which people are reading the Quran today".[57]

Examining the hadith of Umar's surprise in finding out "this Quran has been revealed in seven Ahruf", Suyuti, a noted 15th-century Islamic theologian, concludes the "best opinion" of this hadith is that it is "mutashabihat", i.e. its meaning "cannot be understood."[58]

Another critic, Shezad Saleem (quoted by Christian critic and scholar Sam Shamoun), has doubts about the validity of the hadith:

it is known that Hisham had accepted Islam on the day Makkah was conquered. If this Hadith is accepted, it would mean that for almost twenty years even the closest Companions of the Prophet like ‘Umar were unaware of the Qur’an being revealed in some other reading.[59][60]

Sam Shamoun raises a number of questions about the basis of Qira'at.[60]

At least two Sahih al-Bukhari hadith explicitly state the Qur'an was revealed in the dialect of the Quraysh (Muhammad's tribe) -- making no mention of other ahruf—and that in case there are disagreements over recitation, this should clear everything up.

Narrated Anas bin Malik: (The Caliph 'Uthman ordered Zaid bin Thabit, Said bin Al-As, 'Abdullah bin Az-Zubair and 'Abdur-Rahman bin Al-Harith bin Hisham to write the Quran in the form of a book (Mushafs) and said to them. “In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit (Al-Ansari) regarding any dialectic Arabic utterance of the Quran, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, for the Quran was revealed in this dialect.” So they did it.[61][60]

Narrated Anas bin Malik: Hudhaifa bin Al-Yaman came to Uthman at the time when the people of Sham and the people of Iraq were waging war to conquer Arminya and Adharbijan. Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Sham and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Qur'an, so he said to 'Uthman, "O chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book (Quran) as Jews and the Christians did before." So 'Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Qur'an so that we may compile the Qur'anic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you." Hafsa sent it to 'Uthman. 'Uthman then ordered Zaid bin Thabit, 'Abdullah bin AzZubair, Said bin Al-As and 'AbdurRahman bin Harith bin Hisham to rewrite the manuscripts in perfect copies. 'Uthman said to the three Quraishi men, "In case you disagree with Zaid bin Thabit on any point in the Qur'an, then write it in the dialect of Quraish, the Qur'an was revealed in their tongue." They did so, and when they had written many copies, 'Uthman returned the original manuscripts to Hafsa. 'Uthman sent to every Muslim province one copy of what they had copied, and ordered that all the other Qur'anic materials, whether written in fragmentary manuscripts or whole copies, be burnt. Said bin Thabit added, "A Verse from Surat Ahzab was missed by me when we copied the Qur'an and I used to hear Allah's Apostle reciting it. So we searched for it and found it with Khuzaima bin Thabit Al-Ansari. (That Verse was): ‘Among the Believers are men who have been true in their covenant with Allah.’ (33.23)”[62][60]

Furthermore, while some hadith refer to ahruf, there is no mention of seven ahruf or of different ways of reciting the Quran in the Quran itself, nor does the Quran ever refer to itself in the plural, (for example, 75:16–19). Since there are multiple verses of the Quran declaring that "our revelations" have been "explained in detail", (6:98, 6:114, 41:3) some mention of the existence multiple recitation or variants there would be expected, according to Shamoun.[60]

Problems with rationale and explanation

adding wisdom and understanding

Secular critics Abdullah Gondal (Quranic researcher), Ali A. Rizvi and Armin Navabi (authors and youtube channel hosts), question the argument (made above) that the Qira'at mus'haf are all true interpretations but their differences supplement each other,[63] pointing out

  • this argument was not made by early scholars, i.e. though the Ahruf and Qira'at have existed for 1400 years, this wondrous feature was unknown until very recently;[64] and
  • the discovery of this characteristic seems to have occurred suspiciously soon after discoveries of variant texts in early manuscripts, and the raising of questions by secular scholars as to how the Quran could have been perfectly preserved;[Note 10]
  • upon examination, the variants in Qira'at and elsewhere do not appear to supplement each other, add any "additional meaning or value to the words",[65] or otherwise have any "purpose"; they do, however, come in the same form as we would expect human copyist errors to appear.[66]
Examples of differences in qira'at

Examples of differences between readings

Gondal has comparing 30+ differences between Hafs reading of the Quran and other qira'at (mainly Warsh but also Douri and Shubah readings) and found few substantive differences, and many differences that look very much like copyist errors, i.e. violations of divine preservation.

Most of the differences between the various readings involve consonant/diacritical marks (I‘jām) and vowels marks (Ḥarakāt), but not in the rasm or "skeleton" of the writing. The examples below show differences between the Hafs Qari and two others—Al-Duri and Warsh. All have differences in the consonantal/diacritical marking (and vowel markings), but only one has a difference in the rasm: "then it is what" v. "it is what", where a "fa" consonant letter is added to the verse.

Al-Duri and Ḥafs
رواية ضوري عن أبو عمر رواية حفص عن عاصم Ḥafs Al-Duri verse
سَيَقُولُونَ ألِلَّهِ سَيَقُولُونَ لِلَّهِ they will say it belongs to Allah they will say to Allah Al-Muminoon 23:89
Ḥafs and Warsh
رواية ورش عن نافع رواية حفص عن عاصم Ḥafs Warsh verse
وَتَوَ كَّلْ عَلى ألْعَرِيرِإْلرَّحِيمِ فَتَوَ كَّلْ عَلى ألْعَرِيرِإْلرَّحِيمِ so rely upon the almighty, the most Merciful And rely upon the almighty, the most Merciful, Al-Shu'ara 26:217
مَا تَنَزَّلُ مَا نُنَزِّلُ we do not send down... they do not come down... Al-Ḥijr 15:8
قُل قَالَ he said Say! Al-Anbiyā' 21:4
كَثِيرًا كَبِيرًا mighty multitudinous Al-Aḥzāb 33:68
نُدْخِلْهُ يُدْخِلْهُ he makes him enter we make him enter Al-Fatḥ 48:17
يَعْمَلُونَ تَعْمَلُونَ you do they do Al-Baqara 2:85[67][68]

Gondal has comparing 30+ differences between Hafs reading of the Quran and other qira'at (mainly Warsh but also Douri and Shubah readings) and found few substantive differences, and many differences that look very much like copyist errors, i.e. violations of divine preservation.


Some examples are Q.3:133, where Hafs reading includes a “wa”, and Warsh does not;[69]

Q.26:217, were Hafs reads "wa tawaqal" and Warsh reads "fa tawaqal", wa and fa looking two letters a copyist might confuse and making a difference in the skeletal structure rasm, but adding nothing to the verses meaning.)[70] Q.91:15 also has a wa in hafs were there is a fa in Warsh reading[71]

There are some substantive differences in Qiraat, though. In Q.72:20 (Say, [O Muhammad], "It has been revealed to me that a group of the jinn listened and said, 'Indeed, we have heard an amazing Qur'an.) “qul” (the imperitive “say”) is found in hafs reading; the past tense “Qaala” (“he said”) is found in Warsh, so that hafs has Allah commanding Muhammad while Warsh has Allah quoting muhammad.[72] This presents a problem in that Qiraat differences in verses about what God proclaims may be explained as pieces of wisdom supplementing each other, it is more problematic to explain why Qiraat give different mutually contradictory descriptions of the same event.[73] The same difference between warsh and hafs is found in Q.21:4.[74]

Some verses were diacritical consonant marks differ between qiraat but there is no significant change in meaning include

  • Q.7:57 (Bushra v. nushra);
  • Q.3:13 (yaraunahum v. taraunahum they will see v. you will see);
  • Q.48:17 (yudkhilhu v. nudkhilhu; he will admit him v. we will admit him);
  • Q.2:85 (taamalun v. yaamalun; what you do v. what they do);[75]
  • Q.2:259 (za v. ra); Q2:58 (naghfirlakum v. yaghfirlakum).[76]

One difference with a change in meaning and possible doctrinal difference is in verse Q.2:184 (about how if you can’t fast during Ramadan you have to compensate by feeding another person). A change in harakat (voweling) makes Hafs says you should feed one more person. Warsh says more than one but how many more).[77]

Are the variants in text irrelevant?

Secularist such as Armin Navabi complain that while apologists may be right that there are few doctrinal implications in the differences between Qira'at, it is a contradiction to say that changing a single dot in the Quran is an unimaginable sin, but at the same time defend changes in dots and words in Qira'at on the grounds that the meaning hasn't changed.[78]

How could the Uthmanic codex solve the problem of disunity?

A mentioned above the OnePath Network explains the seven ahruf as different dialects.[13] But the seven dialects all shared the same written work:

However, the dialect of the Quraishi tribe that the Prophet ﷺ spoke in was not the only dialect of the Arabian peninsula, and as the religion was adopted by a growing number of tribes, they began to struggle with understanding the Qur’an. To overcome this, the Prophet ﷺ was given permission to teach the Qur’an in 7 of the main dialects in the region, allowing the message to be understood more widely. These dialects didn’t affect the written records, as they were only different when the Qur’an was actually vocalised.

... but OnePath also keeps to the traditional story that Uthman needed to create an official written version of the Quran and destroy other versions to prevent disunity:

those 7 official dialects began to cause some issues. Variant readings were beginning to crop up, and in order to stamp out the issue, the then Caliph ‘Uthman decided that the original Quraishi dialect would become the official reading of the Qur’an ... Once completed, this final copy was read out to ‘Uthman and the companions, who all agreed upon its accuracy, and decided to burn the original sources in order to avoid any future divergence with the text.


Problems with Uthman compilation narrative

Differences over when Quran was compiled

Michael Cook notes that the traditional Islamic narratives about the compilation often contradict each other. Some have Caliph Uthman collecting verses of the Quran, another only copying and editing what had been collected earlier.[79] Some have Uthman's predecessor Caliph Umar collecting bits of the Quran and creating a codex. In other narratives Umar only assembles what his predecessor Abu Bakr had collected. And in some Abu Bakr assembles a codex from bits collected in the time of the Prophet. [Note 11]

Which of these narratives is true matters because the earlier the Quran was compiled the less time there was for its source material to have been lost or altered; a concern (Cook believes) if you consider the admonition of the son of Umar: "Let none of you say that he has the whole Quran in his possession. ... Much of the Quran has gone."[83] (Pious Muslims argue Ibn ‘Umar is referring to verses deliberately abrogated (naskh) by God, not lost.)[84]

Despite Uthman's order to burn all other codices, some older ones with variant rasm apparently survived "well into the 4th century";[85] and even among those using the Uthman codex more than one "reading" of the text are possible because it did not include diacritical or vowel markings.[86] (see illustration above).

Disagreements among Companions over compilation

According to John Burton, there was disagreement among some of the companions of Muhammad (earliest supporters of Muhammad), over the form the compilation of the Quran took.[87] Specifically, Abdullah ibn MasudAbdullah ibn Masud, Ubay ibn Ka'b and Abu Musa al-Ash'ari objecting to the compilation done by Zayd ibn Thabit. Some believing ibn Thabit had omitted parts of several verses or even a surah.[Note 12]

John Burton's work The Collection of the Quran claims that disputes between schools of fiqh (human understanding of Sharia) led to the altering of the wording of certain Quranic texts.[87][100]

Problems with fixed text by mid 7th century

Cook argues that a number of issues indicate that the text of the Quran was "not yet as firmly fixed in the decades after Uthman as it came to be later".[101] He writes of a verse found in an "early theological epistle" circa 700 CE that quoted a Quranic verse similar to, but not the same as two other verse in the Uthmanic codex,[17] and in a codex attributed to Abdullah ibn Masud yet another verse not found in the Uthmanic codex that is slightly different from the first three.[101] Coins from the Islamic empire dated 698 or 699 CE is inscribed with a "somewhat deviant" version of Q.9:33.[102] Fragments from the 7th or late 6th century Sanaʽa manuscript have a "considerably greater ... range of variants", though again not deviating in character from the Uthman muṣḥaf.[103]

Charles Adams states,

It must be emphasized that far from there being a single text passed down inviolate from the time of Uthman's commission, literally thousands of variant readings of particular verses were known in the first three (Muslim) centuries [622-922 CE]. These variants affected even the Uthmanic codex, making it difficult to know what its true form may have been. [104]

The eight volume collection of variants, Mu'jam al-qira'at al-qur'aniyyah, contains over ten thousand different "readings" of the Quran. While in most of these the variations are only of diacritical marks, "about a thousand are variants of or deviations in the rasm", according to Ibn Warraq.[105] In the contemporary world, three variants have circulation, Warsh (d.812) from Nafi of Medina, Hafs (d.805) from Asim of Kufa, and al-Duri (d.860) from Abu Amr of Basra. Of the three, "Hafs from Asim" dominates everywhere in the Muslim world except North Africa).[106] Charles Adams calls the differences "real and substantial",[107] Muslim scholar Alfred Guillaume, "not always trifling in significance".[108][106]

Codification time controversy

Fred Donner argues that (as of 2008) there is evidence for both the hypotheses that the Quran was codified earlier than the standard narrative and for codification later.[109] The large numbers of qira'at or variant readings of the Quran. ... multiple recensions of each of the fourteen collections of variants stemming from early "regional traditions" of Medina, Kufa, Basra, Syria, etc. While many of the variants vary only by "voweling of the text", some vary by the rasm (usually consonants) "as well".[109] Logically then, Donner argues, the large number of qira'at means that the Quran could not have been "crystalized into a single , immutable codified form .. within one generation of Muhammad".[109]

But Donner also says that despite the presence of "some significant variants" in the qira'at literature, there are not "long passages of otherwise wholly unknown text claiming to be Quran, or that appear to be used as Quran -- only variations within a text that is clearly recognizable as a version of a known Quranic passage".[110] Revisionist historian Michael Cook also states that the Quran "as we know it", is "remarkably uniform" in the rasm.[16]

Examining early manuscripts

Keith Small

Scholar Keith Small has examined of textual variants in small sections (specifically, six verses in surah 14 (35-41)) of 22 of the earliest Quranic manuscripts[Note 13] analysing "orthographic variants involving long vowels, copyist mistakes, diacritical mark variants and variants affecting grammar, rasm (i.e. consonantal) variants, variant verse divisions, physical corrections to manuscripts."[111]

In his book (Textual Criticism and Qurʼān Manuscripts), Small states:

"'Though Muslims may take pride in the fidelity of the preservation of this text, it does not reproduce precisely what was originally considered to be the Qur'an in the early seventh century. Because of the standardizations of the text in 653-705/33-86 AH and 936/324 AH, together with the constant pressure throughout Islamic history to have one text match their dogma, many texts which had equally good claims to containing authentic readings were suppressed and destroyed. And, because of the emphasis on oral transmission and the vagaries of Arabic as it developed, the written text was constantly vocalized in new ways which did not preserve the original vocalization. The original vocalization must have been lost very early on if it did indeed exist. While bearing testimony to the careful preservation of one particular consonantal text, the history of the transmission of the text of the Qur'an is at least as much a testament to the destruction of Qur'an material as it is to its preservation. It is also testimony to the fact that there never was one original text of the Qur'an.'"[112][113]

According to Fred Donner Small's study of the Quranic verses demonstrates "that there was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission. [...] After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established,"[114] Donner also states that Small's conclusions are tentative, because similar work on larger passages of the Quran may give different results.[115]

Daniel Brubaker

Scholar Daniel Brubaker, who has traveled extensively to view photos of or inperson early Quranic manuscripts, has found "thousands"[116] of corrections of and additions to the original writing.[117] Some of these correct mistakes, some "are due to changes in orthography" (which doesn't change meaning or pronunciation of the text), some change the manuscripts original ahruf for another one, but some "don’t seem to fit into any of these categories".[116] Brubaker gives as an example text from a parchment from Sana’a manuscript circa 8th century,[118] where in verse Q.9:80 the phrase “seventy times” has been omitted out of the line “If you should ask forgiveness for them seventy times - never will Allah forgive them.” Brubaker finds it significant that not only did the original copyist omit the phrase, but a later person who made two other corrections to the text on parchment did not add it.[119]


Quranic readings of the companions

Ammar Khatib and Nazir Khan, explain that

Muslims believe that the Qur’an was taught in different ways during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad, known as different aḥruf (plural of ḥarf) ... The famous ten qirāʾāt studied today represent only a limited assortment of the variations that existed prior to the ʿUthmānic codex. There are a number of reported readings that differ from the ʿUthmānic codex and were recited by companions of the Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ, including ʿAbd Allāh ibn Masʿūd (d. 32 AH), Ibn ʿAbbās (d. 69 AH), ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib (d. 40 AH), Ubayy ibn Kaʿb (d. 30 AH), and ʿĀʾishah (d. 58 AH), among others رضي الله عنهم. These variant readings[3] in a select number of verses have historically been recorded in books of qirāʾāt and classical works of tafsīr (commentary on the Qur’an) and occasionally works of jurisprudence and typically relate to the presence of additional explanatory words or word substitutions. Perhaps one of the most fascinating discoveries of the past century has been the study of ancient Qur’anic manuscripts that demonstrate wordings that precisely match those wordings attributed to the companions in the classical tradition.[1]

Defense of orthodoxy

Ammar Khatib and Dr. Nazir Khan believe Orientalists fail to understand "the importance of ritual memorization and oral recitation" to Muslims. "The Qur’an is recited out loud in daily congregational prayers and from cover to cover during congregational prayers in Ramadan. ... This practice of teaching the recitation of the Qur’anic text became embedded within the culture and the Qur’an was passed on in the same manner, generation after generation."[1]

References

Notes

  1. ^ Muhammad relayed God's revelation to the early Muslims, and many of his contemporary nonbelievers/opponents maintained he (Muhammad) was the true origin of the Quran. Numerous verses of the Quran (Q.6:50, 7:203, 10:15, 10:37, 10:109, 13:38 and 33:2) vehemently deny that the Qur’an was Muhammad's own work, or that he was doing anything other than following what was revealed to him by God.[15]
  2. ^ “mother of the book” (umm al-kitab)43:4 and 13:3), also “well-guarded tablet” (lawh mahfuz85:22) and “concealed book” (kitab maknun56:78)
  3. ^ As God's speech, the Quran was not created or written by God but is an "uncreated" attribute of God
  4. ^ "Did the 'Uthmaanic four or eight mus'hafs match each other letter for letter? Surprisingly, contrary to popular opinion, the evidence indicates otherwise.
    "The different copies that 'Uthmaan ordered to be written differed from each other in a few letters [sic]. There is no extra verse in any one of the mus-hafs. This was not done accidentally or by chance. Rather, these slight changes were done in order to accommodate the variations of a particular verse (the ahruf). If the Prophet had recited the verse in a number of ways, and it was possible to accommodate all of these recitations in one particular spelling, then the word was written with that spelling. The example of 'maaliki' and 'maliki' has already been given before. However, if the recitations could not all be accommodated in one spelling, then it was written with one of the recitations in one mus-haf, and another recitation in another mus-haf. The Companions did not write both recitations in one mus-haf for fear of confusion between the two."[31]
  5. ^ Some other versions with minor divergences, namely those of Warsh (d.197/812) ....circulate in the northwestern regions of African.[33][34]
  6. ^ one scholar (Ahmed El-Wakil of the Qatar Faculty of Islamic Studies) argues that the Quran as read by Hafs we have today is exactly the same as the one compiled by 'Ali ibn Abi-Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad. The Quranic reading of Hafs (one of the seven or ten or fourteen recognised methods of recitation, known as qira'at), was learnt from two sources: 'Asim who was his main teacher, and Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq who provided him with a corrective of 'Asim's reading. Hafs learned his reading from his teacher 'Asim who learned from his teacher, Abu 'Abd al-Rahman al-Sulami, who learnt the Quran from 'Ali. Furthermore, Hafs was a Companion of Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq and it is claimed that the latter had inherited 'Ali's Master Copy of the Quran which (the study argues) formed the basis of the 'Uthmanic canon. "If future research can validate these preliminary findings, then this could very well mean that the reading of Hafs from Asim is the de facto reading of 'Ali which he inherited from the Prophet till the very last dot."[35])
  7. ^ Gabriel Said Reynolds not being a partisan of the traditional history.
  8. ^ "Bismika Allahuma is a Muslim apologetics website and our purpose is to facilitate Muslim responses to the various mendacious polemics and distortions of Islam."[52]
  9. ^ other scholars gave the names of other tribes[52]
  10. ^ Arman Navabi: "you guys only figured this out after the secular world is embarrassing you that the Quran is not preserved ... you only figure this out now?"[64]
  11. ^ Ahadith sources differ over who was the first to collect the revelations of the Quran Zaid b. Thabit said:

    The Prophet died and the Qur'an had not been assembled into a single place.[80]

    It is reported... from Ali who said:

    May the mercy of Allah be upon Abu Bakr, the foremost of men to be rewarded with the collection of the manuscripts, for he was the first to collect (the text) between (two) covers.[81]

    It is reported... from Ibn Buraidah who said:

    The first of those to collect the Qur'an into a mushaf (codex) was Salim, the freed slave of Abu Hudhaifah.[82]
  12. ^ Companions of the Prophet who were early Islamic experts disagreed among themselves, some complaining about Uthman codices and specifically Zaid ibn Thabit (who was one of the compilers of the Quran appointed by Uthman).[88] Abdullah ibn Masud was one of four people Muhammad recommends learning the Quran from (according to two hadith related by Al-Bukhari). But in a Tabaqat (طبقات) (a book of Islamic biographical literature) written by Ibn Sa'd, Ibn Masud calls the Uthman/Zaid ibn Thabit codices a deception: “The people have been guilty of deceit in the reading of the Qur’an. I like it better to read according to the recitation of him [i.e. Muhammad] whom I love more than that of Zayd ibn Thabit.” [89] Another source (Jami` at-Tirmidhi, one of the Kutub al-Sittah)[90] has him declaring “O you Muslim people! Avoid copying the Mushaf and recitation of this man [Zayd ibn Thabit]," urging Muslims to keep and hide their own versions (Muṣaḥif) of the Quran. Another companion of the prophet, Ubay ibn Ka'b, known for his beautiful recitation of the Quran,[91][92][93] believed that Zayd’s Qur’an was missing parts of several verses.[94] Ibn Umar stated “Let none of you say, ‘I have learned the whole of the Koran,’ for how does he know what the whole of it is, when much of it has disappeared? Let him rather say, ‘I have learned what is extant thereof.’”[95][96] Abu Musa al-Ash’ari also talked of forgotten surah, a long and difficult as Surah Bara’at[97] According to Muhammad’s wife Aisha “Surat al-Ahzab (33) had 200 verses at the time of the Prophet, but only 73 verses were known when Uthmanic codex was compiled.[98] According to another well known hadith Aishah maintains that verse on stoning adulterers and regulations for breastfeeding have been lost because their notes were eaten by a sheep.[99] The source for the complaints above about Zaid ibn Thabit along with other hadith by companions suggesting text of the true Quran was missing or misquoted, were raised not by Burton but by Christian missionary David Wood to debunk the interpretation of 15:9 “We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption)” that holds it is proof that the Qur’an has been "perfectly preserved for nearly fourteen centuries".[88]
  13. ^ "nineteen from Islam's first four centuries and three from within the last two centuries' (p. 15). Manuscripts considered include ones from Istanbul, San'a, Samarkand, the British Library (including of course BL Or. 2165), and eleven from the Bibliotheque nationale de France"

Citations

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Khatib, Ammar; Khan, Nazir (23 August 2019). "The Origins of the Variant Readings of the Qur'an". Yaqueen Institute. Retrieved 21 July 2020. Cite error: The named reference "Khatib-variant-2019" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  2. ^ Eliade, Mircea; Adams, Charles J. (1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 12. Macmillan. p. 163. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  3. ^ "15:9, "Indeed, it is We who sent down the Qur'an and indeed, We will be its guardian."". Quran.com. Retrieved 11 July 2020.
  4. ^ Bin Ahmad Bin Saaleh Ad-Dausaree, ‎, Mahmood (2014). "Chapter 1, Topic 2, Section 4". The Magnificence of Quran. ‎Darussalam. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  5. ^ Al-Tarafi, Ali (2016). "one". You Think You Know Islam. Xlibris. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  6. ^ Qaradawi, Yusuf (2010). Sources of Islam. Islamic Book Trust. p. 375, 382. Retrieved 14 July 2020.
  7. ^ Shehata, Ali (2019). Mair, Julie S. (ed.). Demystifying Islam Your Guide to the Most Misunderstood Religion of the 21st. Century (PDF). pp. 45–6. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  8. ^ Kazi, Mazhar (1997). 130 Evident Miracles in the Qur'an. Richmond Hill: Crescent Publishing House. pp. 42–43.; quoted in Wood, David. "Has the Qur'an Been Perfectly Preserved?". NAMB. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  9. ^ "The Preservation of the Glorious Quran". why Islam, ICNA. 9 November 2014. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  10. ^ Iqbal, Farhan (31st January 2019). "Preservation of the Holy Qur'an". Review of Religions. Retrieved 12 July 2020. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ "Proof of The Preservation of the Quran". Gain peace. Islamic Circle of North America. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  12. ^ "Divine Arrangement". Centre for Peace and Spirituality International. Retrieved 12 July 2020.
  13. ^ a b c "How Do We Know The Quran Hasn't Changed?". OnePath. 5 April 2019. Retrieved 12 July 2020. Cite error: The named reference "OnePath" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
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  15. ^ Abdul-Rahim, "Demythologizing the Qur’an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur’an", GJAT, 7, 2017: p.69
  16. ^ a b c Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.119
  17. ^ a b Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.120
  18. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.6
  19. ^ (Burton, pp. 141–42 – citing Ahmad b. `Ali b. Muhammad al `Asqalani, ibn Hajar, "Fath al Bari", 13 vols, Cairo, 1939/1348, vol. 9, p. 18).
  20. ^ Guillaume, Islam, 1954: p.55
  21. ^ Cite error: The named reference what-atlantic-1999 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  22. ^ John Esposito, Islam the Straight Path, Extended Edition, p.19-20
  23. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.127
  24. ^ Hitti, Philip K. "The First Book". aramco world. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
  25. ^ Guillaume, Islam, 1954: p.59
  26. ^ Holland, In the Shadow of the Sword, 2012: p.304
  27. ^ Cite error: The named reference Rose-75 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  28. ^ Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.35-6
  29. ^ Cite error: The named reference Crone-2008 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  30. ^ Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p.73
  31. ^ Abu Ammaar Yasir Qadhi (2003). "8. The Compilation of the Qur'aan, IV. The Different Mus-hafs, C. Were These Mus-hafs The Same?". An Introduction to the Sciences of the Qur'aan (Second Print ed.). Birmingham UK: al-Hidaayah Publishing and Distribution. pp. 147–148. quoted in Shamoun, Sam. "Pt. 2 Examining the Modifications, Changes, Alterations and Editing of the Islamic Text". Answering Islam. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  32. ^ Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p.74
  33. ^ QA. Welch, Kuran, EI2 5, 409
  34. ^ Böwering, "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran", 2008: p.84
  35. ^ Ahmed El-Wakil (Autumn 2015). "New Light on the Collection and Authenticity of the Qur'an: The Case for the Existence of a Master Copy and how it Relates to the Reading of Hafs ibn Sulayman from 'Asim ibn Abi al-Nujud". Journal of Shi'a Islamic Studies. 8 (4): 409–448. doi:10.1353/isl.2015.0046. S2CID 146912655.
  36. ^ Perkins 1998, p. 241.
  37. ^ Reddish 2011, pp. 108, 144.
  38. ^ Lincoln 2005, p. 18.
  39. ^ PRUITT, SARAH (30 March 2020). "What Language Did Jesus Speak?". History.com. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  40. ^ Estes, Yusuf; Miller, Gary. "Bible vs. Quran". Bible Islam. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
  41. ^ Reynolds, "Quranic studies and its controversies", 2008: p.11
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  48. ^ In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi. YouTube, Yasir Qadhi, 8 June 2020, video at 1h24m17s
  49. ^ In the Hot Seat: Muḥammad Hijāb Interviews Dr. Yasir Qadhi. YouTube, Yasir Qadhi, 8 June 2020, video at 1h29m29s
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  52. ^ a b c BISMIKA ALLAHUMA TEAM (9 October 2005). "The Ahruf Of The Qur'aan". BISMIKA ALLAHUMA Muslim Responses to Anti-Islam Polemics. Retrieved 6 July 2020.
  53. ^ "Qurʿān". Oxford Islamic Studies. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  54. ^ a b "The revelation of the Qur'aan in seven styles (ahruf, sing. harf). Question 5142". Islam Question and Answer. 28 July 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
  55. ^ a b c Javed Ahmad Ghamidi. Mizan, Principles of Understanding the Qu'ran Archived September 27, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, Al-Mawrid
  56. ^ Zarkashi, al-Burhan fi Ulum al-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1980), p. 237.
  57. ^ Suyuti, al-Itqan fi Ulum al-Qur'an, 2nd ed., vol. 1 (Baydar: Manshurat al-Radi, 1343 AH), p. 177.
  58. ^ Suyuti, Tanwir al-Hawalik, 2nd ed. (Beirut: Dar al-Jayl, 1993), p. 199.
  59. ^ Shezad Saleem, Collection and Transmission of the Quran
  60. ^ a b c d e Shamoun, Sam. "The Seven Ahruf and Multiple Qiraat – A Quranic Perspective". Answering Islam. Retrieved 5 July 2020.
  61. ^ "Virtues of the Qur'an. Book 61, Number 507". Sahih al-Bukhari. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  62. ^ "Virtues of the Qur'an. (Book 61, Number 510)". Sahih al-Bukhari. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  63. ^ Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal on YouTube YouTube | Secular Jihadists| 26 June 2020 |55m28s
  64. ^ a b Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal on YouTube YouTube | Secular Jihadists| 26 June 2020 |55m57s
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  67. ^ رواية ورش عن نافع - دار المعرفة - دمشق Warsh Reading, Dar Al Maarifah Damascus
  68. ^ رواية حفص عن عاصم - مجمع الملك فهد - المدينة Ḥafs Reading, King Fahd Complex Madinah
  69. ^ Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal on YouTube YouTube | Secular Jihadists| 26 June 2020| 21m38s
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  78. ^ Is the Qur'an Preserved? With Abdullah Gondal on YouTube YouTube | Secular Jihadists| 26 June 2020 |36m40s
  79. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.123-5
  80. ^ Ahmad b. Ali b. Muhammad al 'Asqalani, ibn Hajar, Fath al Bari [13 vol., Cairo 1939], vol. 9, p. 9.
  81. ^ John Gilchrist, Jam' Al-Qur'an. The Codification of the Qur'an Text A Comprehensive Study of the Original Collection of the Qur'an Text and the Early Surviving Qur'an Manuscripts, [MERCSA, Mondeor, 2110 Republic of South Africa, 1989], Chapter 1. "The Initial Collection of the Qur'an Text", p. 27 – citing Ibn Abi Dawud, Kitab al-Masahif, p. 5.
  82. ^ (Ibid., citing as-Suyuti, Al-Itqan fii Ulum al-Qur'an, p. 135).
  83. ^ A narration from ‘Abdullah bin ‘Umar quoted by Hafidh as-Suyuti (d. 911 A.H.) in his al-Itiqan fi ‘Uloom al-Qur’an
  84. ^ Waqar Akbar Cheema; Gabriel Al Romaani (June 17, 2013). "Meaning of Ibn 'Umar's statement, "Much of the Qur'an is Gone"". Islamic Center for Research and Academics. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
  85. ^ Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 1995: p.109
  86. ^ Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 1995: p.106
  87. ^ a b Burton, John (1979). The Collection of the Quran. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 0521214394.
  88. ^ a b Wood, David (30 March 2016). "Has the Qur'an Been Perfectly Preserved?". North American Mission Board. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
  89. ^ Ibn Sa’d, Kitab al-Tabaqat al-Kabir, Vol. 2, p. 444
  90. ^ Jami At-Tirmidhi. Book of Tafsir Of The Qur'an Hadith 3104
  91. ^ Tirmidhi, Manaqib: 90.
  92. ^ Questions on Islam Ubayy bin Ka’b (r.a.)
  93. ^ Sahih al-Bukhari 5005. 66. Virtues of the Qur'an (8) Chapter: The Qurra from among the Companions of the Prophet (saws)
  94. ^ cf. Nِöldeke 3.83; 3:85. Jeffery, p.120, 127
  95. ^ Abu Ubaid, Kitab Fada’il-al-Qur’an.
  96. ^ Jeffery, Arthur (1998). "Abu 'Ubaid on the Verses Missing from the Koran". In Ibn Warraq (ed.). The Origins of the Koran: Classic Essays on Islam's Holy Book. N.Y.: Prometheus Books. p. 151. ISBN 1-57392-198-X. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  97. ^ Sahih Muslim 2286. 12) The Book of Zakat. 39) Chapter: If the Son of Adam had two valleys, he would desire a third
  98. ^ Abu Ubaid, Kitab Fada’il-al-Qur’an.
  99. ^ Sunan Ibn Majah Vol. 3, Book 9, Hadith 1943.
  100. ^ Burton 1979, pp. 29–30.
  101. ^ a b Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.121
  102. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.59, 121
  103. ^ Cook, The Koran, 2000: p.122
  104. ^ C.J. Adams, "Quran: The Text and Its History" in Encyclopedia of Religion, ed. M. Eliade (New York, Macmillan, 1987), pp.157-76
  105. ^ Ibn Warraq, What the Koran Really Says, 2002: p.65
  106. ^ a b Ibn Warraq, Why I Am Not a Muslim, 1995: p.110
  107. ^ Adams, C.E. "Quran: The Text and Its History" in Encyclopedia of Religion, pp.157-176
  108. ^ Guillaume, Alfred, Islam, 1954, p.189
  109. ^ a b c Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.42
  110. ^ Donner, "Quran in Recent Scholarship", 2008: p.42-3
  111. ^ (Textual Criticism and Qur’ān Manuscripts, a 2011 book by Keith E. Small, of the Centre for Islamic Studies and Muslim–Christian Relations at the London School of Theology)
  112. ^ Small, Keith E. (2011). Textual Criticism and Qur'ān Manuscripts. Lanham MD: Lexington Books. p. 179.
  113. ^ Small, Keith E. (7/23/2011 6:22 pm). Textual criticism and Qur'ān manuscripts. Retrieved 2 March 2020. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  114. ^ Donner 2014, p. 168.
  115. ^ Donner, Fred M. (2014). "Review: Textual Criticism and Qurʾān Manuscripts, by Keith E. Small". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 73 (1): 169. doi:10.1086/674909.
  116. ^ a b "Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video)". YouTube. Retrieved 25 July 2020. {{cite web}}: Text "video at 6m46s" ignored (help) Daniel Brubaker
  117. ^ "Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video)". YouTube. Retrieved 25 July 2020. {{cite web}}: Text "video at 5m52s" ignored (help) Daniel Brubaker
  118. ^ "Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video)". YouTube. Retrieved 25 July 2020. {{cite web}}: Text "video at 10m50s" ignored (help) Daniel Brubaker
  119. ^ "Missing Words In A Quran Manuscript (video)". YouTube. Retrieved 25 July 2020. {{cite web}}: Text "video at 13m00s" ignored (help) Daniel Brubaker

Bibliiography

Islamism (also often called Political Islam or Islamic fundamentalism)[1] refers to a "broad set of political ideologies"[2] that share the goal of revitalizing Islam so that it guides society and politics as well as personal life,[3][4][5] and opposing Western-style secularization of society[6] -- though they often vary in how to reach those goals.[7][8]

Differences include the desired pace (immediate, gradual, or somewhere in between), details of doctrine of "Islamic order" or sharia (strict or tolerant, or somewhere in between), (literalist interpretation of the textual tradition or interpretations derived from independent reasoning) (Sunni or Shia),[8] means to the end (non-violent, violent attacks only on government targets, or violent attacks on civilian targets as well), political objective (focus on personal changes of belief and practice, seize state power and Islamize society from above).[7]

BETTER DEFINITION

Ideologies dubbed Islamist

advocate a "revolutionary" strategy of Islamizing society through exercise of state power, or alternately a "reformist" strategy to re-Islamizing society through grass-roots social and political activism.[9] Islamists may emphasize the implementation of sharia;[10] pan-Islamic political unity,[10] including an Islamic state;[11] or selective removal of non-Muslim, particularly Western military, economic, political, social, or cultural influences in the Muslim world that they believe to be incompatible with Islam.[10] Others (Graham E. Fuller) describe it as a form of identity politics, involving "support for [Muslim] identity, authenticity, broader regionalism, revivalism, [and] revitalization of the community."[12]

The meaning of the term has been debated in public and academic contexts.[4] It has been criticized by at least many Islamists and academics who believe the Western mass media have given the term connotations of violence, extremism, and violations of human rights, leading to Islamophobia and stereotyping.[1] Some authors prefer the term "Islamic activism",[13] and one prominent Islamist politician (Rached Ghannouchi) uses the term "Islamic movement" rather than Islamism.[14]


Central and prominent figures in twentieth-century Islamism include Hassan al-Banna, Sayyid Qutb,[15] Syed Rezaul Karim, Abul A'la Maududi,[16] and Ruhollah Khomeini.[17] Many Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, have been willing to pursue their ends by peaceful political processes, rather than revolutionary means.[18] Others, Sayyid Qutb in particular, called for violence, and his followers are generally considered Islamic extremists, although Qutb denounced the killing of innocents.[19] According to Robin Wright, Islamist movements have "arguably altered the Middle East more than any trend since the modern states gained independence", redefining "politics and even borders".[20] Following the Arab Spring, some Islamist currents became heavily involved in democratic politics,[20][21] while others spawned "the most aggressive and ambitious Islamist militia" to date, ISIS.[20]

  1. ^ a b William E. Shepard; FranÇois Burgat; James Piscatori; Armando Salvatore (2009). "Islamism". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195305135. The term "Islamism/Islamist" has come into increasing use in recent years to denote the views of those Muslims who claim that Islam, or more specifically, the Islamic sharīʿah, provides guidance for all areas of human life, individual and social, and who therefore call for an "Islamic State" or an "Islamic Order." [...] Today it is one of the recognized alternatives to "fundamentalist," along with "political Islam" in particular. [...] Current terminology usually distinguishes between "Islam," [...] and "Islamism," referring to the ideology of those who tend to signal openly, in politics, their Muslim religion. [...] the term has often acquired a quasi-criminal connotation close to that of political extremism, religious sectarianism, or bigotry. In Western mainstream media, "Islamists" are those who want to establish, preferably through violent means, an "Islamic state" or impose sharīʿah (Islamic religious law)—goals that are often perceived merely as a series of violations of human rights or the rights of women. In the Muslim world, insiders use the term as a positive reference. In the academic sphere, although it is still debated, the term designates a more complex phenomenon.
  2. ^ Zeidan, Adam. "Islamism". Britannica. Retrieved 5 May 2021.
  3. ^ Cite error: The named reference Berman, S 2003, p. 258 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  4. ^ a b Emin Poljarevic (2015). "Islamism". In Emad El-Din Shahin (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Islam and Politics. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 1 February 2017. Islamism is one of many sociopolitical concepts continuously contested in scholarly literature. It is a neologism debated in both Muslim and non-Muslim public and academic contexts. The term "Islamism" at the very least represents a form of social and political activism, grounded in an idea that public and political life should be guided by a set of Islamic principles. In other words, Islamists are those who believe that Islam has an important role to play in organizing a Muslim-majority society and who seek to implement this belief.
  5. ^ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Islamist". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Term used to describe an Islamic political or social activist. Coined in preference to the more common term "Islamic fundamentalist." Islamists (al-Islamiyyun) are committed to implementation of their ideological vision of Islam in the state and/or society.
  6. ^ Tibi, Bassam (2007-03-01). "The Totalitarianism of Jihadist Islamism and its Challenge to Europe and to Islam". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 8 (1): 35–54. doi:10.1080/14690760601121630. ISSN 1469-0764.
  7. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference Nugent-Wapo-23-6-2014 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ a b Krämer, Gudrun. "Political Islam." In Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World. Vol. 6. Edited by Richard C. Martin, 536–540. New York: Macmillan, 2004. via Encyclopedia.com
  9. ^ Roy, Failure of Political Islam, 1994: p. 24
  10. ^ a b c Qutbism: An Ideology of Islamic-Fascism Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine by Dale C. Eikmeier From Parameters, Spring 2007, pp. 85–98. Accessed 6 February 2012
  11. ^ Soage, Ana Belén. "Introduction to Political Islam." Religion Compass 3.5 (2009): 887–96.
  12. ^ Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p. 21
  13. ^ "Understanding Islamism" (PDF). International Crisis Group. p. 5. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 7, 2013.
  14. ^ Rashid Ghannouchi (31 October 2013). "How credible is the claim of the failure of political Islam?". MEMO. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
  15. ^ Shaykh al Fawzān Warns Against The Books of Sayyid Quṭb | Shaykh Ṣāliḥ al Fawzān, retrieved 2021-04-22
  16. ^ Fuller, Graham E., The Future of Political Islam, Palgrave MacMillan, (2003), p. 120
  17. ^ Coming to Terms, Fundamentalists or Islamists? Martin Kramer originally in Middle East Quarterly (Spring 2003), pp. 65–77.
  18. ^ Hamid, Shadi (October 1, 2015). What most people get wrong about political Islam. Brookings. Retrieved December 2, 2017.
  19. ^ p. 296 Sayyid Qutb and the Origins of Radical Islamism by John Calvert
  20. ^ a b c Wright, Robin (10 January 2015). "A Short History of Islamism". Newsweek. Retrieved 23 December 2015.
  21. ^ Roy, Olivier (April 16, 2012). "The New Islamists". foreignpolicy.com.


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