Nation of Islam

The Nation of Islam (NOI), is a religious and political organization founded in the United States by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930 with a declared aim of "resurrecting" the spiritual, mental, social and economic condition of the Black man and woman of America and the world.

Louis Farrakhan is currently the leader of The Nation of Islam and lives in Chicago, Illinois, at the former home of former NOI leader Elijah Muhammad. The Nation of Islam's headquarters in Chicago known as The National Center, houses Mosque No. 2 now known as Mosque Maryam in dedication to Mary, the mother of Jesus.

The Final Call is the official newspaper of the NOI in the United States.

History

NOI: 1930-1975

The original Nation of Islam was founded in the U.S. in 1930 by Wallace Fard (1877- 1934?). One of Fard's first disciples was Elijah Poole, whose name Fard later changed to Elijah Muhammad (1897-1975). Elijah Muhammad began preaching that W.F. Muhammad was literally God in person.

Elijah was born in Georgia, but later moved to Detroit, where he came into contact with Fard Muhammad and accepted his teachings. He eventually traveled the country, setting up mosques, or temples (as they were commonly called), and named them based upon his sequence of arrival. In New York, to this day, the mosque there is still referred to as Mosque No. 7, because that was the seventh place visited by Elijah Muhammad during his travels. Over time, Elijah Muhammad's teachings were spread by his followers, everywhere from the streets to correctional institutions.

Due to the Nation of Islam's belief that the public educational system could not adequately teach Black children, they decided to set up independent schools and refered to them as the University of Islam. The decision to set up their first independent school led to confrontations with the government. In 1934 a squad of Detroit police officers raided the school and arrested 12 teachers for "contributing to the delinquency of minors". According to reports, Nation of Islam members demonstrated for the teachers' release at Detroit Police headquarters.

Desiree Cooper: Helping turn a sect into a nation ', Detroit Free Press, March 31, 2005

Commenting on the confrontation and the Nation of Islam's decision to set up independent schools, Elijah Muhammad said:

In Detroit, Michigan, where we were first attacked outright by the Police Department in April, 1934, we were also unarmed. There were no deaths on the part of the Believers, however. They fought back against the policemen who attacked them for no just cause whatsoever but that they wanted our Muslim children to go to their schools. We refused to let children take their first courses in the public schools, although the high school children in their upper teens could do so. But let us shape our children first.

'Message to the Blackman in America', Muhammad's Temple No. 2, 1965 by Elijah Muhammad

One follower who was to become one of his most popular students was Malcolm Little, later to become known as Malcolm X. While serving a prison sentence for robbery, Malcolm was introduced to the Nation of Islam by his brother Philbert. Upon his release from prison in 1952, Little joined the Nation of Islam and, in the custom of the Nation, became known as Malcolm X. NOI doctrine explains that because in mathematics the 'X' represents an unknown variable, followers use it to represent their lost, unknown African surnames. The followers accept this 'X' as a symbol of the rejection of their slave names and the absence of a "proper" Muslim name. Eventually, the 'X' is replaced with an Arabic name more descriptive of a person's personality and character. Eventually, Malcolm X took the name El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz.

In 1955, another man destined to become one of Elijah Muhammad's most popular students was Louis Eugene Walcott, an up-and-coming calypso singer, and violinist. Louis first became acquainted with the teachings of Elijah Muhammad after accepting a friend's invitation to attend the Nation of Islam's annual Saviours' Day convention in Chicago. Walcott accepted Elijah Muhammad's teachings that day and became "Louis X" before years later being renamed "Louis Farrakhan" by Muhammad. After the assassination of Malcolm X in 1965, Farrakhan became [imam] of Mosque No. 7 and the official spokesman for the Nation. In the wake of a doctrinal schism in the organization after Elijah Muhammad's death ten years later, Farrakhan would become the leading voice of the "purist" faction, which sought to adhere to Muhammad's teachings and the black nationalist dogma.

Elijah Muhammad's son, Wallace D. Muhammad, took over NOI as successor after his father's death. Although he had been suspended from NOI for "dissident views" and ideological rifts with his father over religious doctrine, Wallace had been restored to the organziation by 1974. Elijah Muhammad died on February 25, 1975. His son, Wallace, was unanimously approved during the annual Savior's Day celebrations on February 26 1975. [1]

Muslim American Society: 1975

When W.D. (Wallace) Muhammad was installed as Supreme Minister of Nation of Islam in 1975, he immediately began to reformulate his father's beliefs and practices to bring NOI closer to mainstream Sunni Islam. He renamed his organization a number of times, settling on the Muslim American Society, and many of his followers assimilated into mainstream Islam. Wallace Muhammad publicly shunned his father's theology and black separatist views, accepted whites as fellow worshipers and attempted to forge closer ties with mainstream Muslim communities in the US. Wallace later changed his own name to Warith Deen Muhammad.

A new NOI: 1978

At the outset of Wallace Muhammad's leadership of the Nation, many members were disturbed at the movement's new, moderate direction and withdrew to form more traditionalist splinter groups. The most important of them retained the old name, the Nation of Islam, and was led by Louis Farrakhan, who opposed Wallace's repudiation of his father's teachings. A leader among those adherents who wished to preserve traditional NOI doctrine and dogma, Farrakhan resigned from the organization. In 1978, after wrestling with the changes and consequent dismantling of the original NOI, Farrakhan, with a few others who supported him, decided to rebuild the Nation of Islam upon the foundation established by W. Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad.

In 1979, the Nation of Islam's newspaper, Muhammad Speaks was reestablished by Farrakhan under the name, The Final Call.

In 1981, Farrakhan publicly announced the restoration of the Nation of Islam, and went forward with Elijah Muhammad's NOI teachings.

In October of 1994, a 2,000-member delegation from the United States traveled to Accra, Ghana, for the Nation of Islam's first International Saviours' Day convention on the African continent. Ghanaian President Jerry Rawlings officially opened and closed the five-day convention.

The Million Man March: 1995

In 1995 Farrakhan convened what his followers say was the largest march in U.S. history, the Million Man March.

Beliefs and Theology

The official beliefs as stated by the Nation of Islam have been outlined books, documents and articles published the organization as well as speeches by Elijah Muhammed, Malcom X, Louis Farrakhan and other ministers. Many of Elijah Muhammad's teachings may be found in "Message to the Blackman in America" and "The True History of Jesus as Taught by the Honorable Elijah Muhammad" (Chicago: Coalition for the Remembrance of Elijah, 1992. Many of Malcom's X's teachings of NOI theology are in his "The End of White World Supremacy", while a later more critical discussion of those beliefs can be found in his "The Autobiography of Malcom X", co-written with Alex Haley.

Passed down via lessons written in 1930 from W. Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad, the Nation of Islam continues to teach it's followers that the present world society is segmented into three distinct categories. They teach that from a general perspective, 85% of the world's people of all races and faiths are the "deaf, dumb and blind" masses of the people who "are easily led in the wrong direction and hard to lead in the right direction". These 85% of the masses are said to be constantly manipulated by 10% of the people who are referred to as "the rich slave-makers" (mental and otherwise) of the masses of the people. Those 10% rich "slave-makers" manipulate the 85% masses of the people through ignorance, the skillful use of religious doctrine and the mass media.

The third group referred to as the 5% "poor righteous teachers" of the people of world (from a general perspective) who know the truth of the manipulation of the 85% masses of the people by the 10% and that 5% "righteous teachers" are at constant struggle and war with 10% in an effort to reach and "free the minds" of the masses of the people.

Black experience of slavery was Bible Prophecy

The NOI teaches that black people constitute a nation that through the institution of the Atlantic slave trade were systematically denied knowledge of their past history, language, culture and religion and in effect lost control of their lives. Central to this doctrine, NOI theology asserts that black people's experience of slavery was the fulfillment of Bible prophecy and are the seed of Abraham referred to in the Bible, in Genesis 15:13,14:

Know of a surety that thy seed shall be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them; and they shall afflict them four hundred years; And also that nation, whom they shall serve, will I judge and afterward shall they come out with great substance.

And Acts 7:6:

And God spake on this wise, That his seed should sojourn in a strange land; and that they should bring them into bondage, and entreat them evil four hundred years. And the nation to whom they shall be in bondage will I judge, said God: and after that shall they come forth, and serve me in this place.

Whites are an inferior race

The Nation of Islam teaches that black people were the original humans. Louis Farrakhan has stated that "White people are potential humans…they haven’t evolved yet." (Philadelphia Inquirer, 3/18/00 -Quoted by Anti-Defamation League report)

The Black man is the original man. From him came all brown, yellow, red and black people. By using a special method of birth control law the Black man was able to produce the white race. This method of birth control was developed by a black scientist known as Yakub, who envisioned making and teaching a nation of people who would be diametrically opposed to the original people. A Race of people who would one day rule the original people and the earth for a period of 6000 years. Yakub promised his followers that he would graft a nation from his own people, and he would teach them how to rule his people, through a system of tricks and lies whereby they use deceit to divide and conquer, and break the unity of the darker people, put one brother against another and then act as mediators and rule both sides.

'Message to the Blackman in America', Muhammad's Temple No. 2, 1965 by Elijah Muhammad

'Yakub & The Origins Of White Supremacy', Lushena Books, 2001 by Dorothy Blake Fardan, Ph.D.

In an interview on NBC's Meet the Press, Louis Farrakhan said the following in response to host Tim Russert's question on the Nation of Islam's teachings on race:

"You know, it's not unreal to believe that white people-who genetically cannot produce yellow, brown or black-had a black origin. The scholars and scientists of this world agree that the origin of man and mankind started in Africa and that the first parent of the world was black. The Qur'an says that God created Adam out of black mud and fashioned him into shape. So if white people came from the original people, the black people, what is the process by which you came to life? That is not a silly question. That is a scientific question with a scientific answer. It doesn't suggest that we are superior or that you are inferior. It suggests, however, that your birth or your origin is from the black people of this earth; superiority and inferiority is determined by our righteousness and not by our color." [2]

Pressed by Russert on whether he agreed with Elijah Muhammad's preaching that whites are blue-eyed devils, Farrakhan responded:

"Well, you have not been saints in the way you have acted toward the darker peoples of the world and toward even your own people. But, in truth, Mr. Russert, any human being who gives themself over to the doing of evil could be considered a devil. In the Bible, in the Book of Revelation, it talks about the fall of Babylon. It says Babylon is fallen because she has become the habitation of devils. We believe that that ancient Babylon is a symbol of a modern Babylon which is America."

While Malcom X was a member of the Nation of Islam he also preached that black people were genetically superior to white people. He later repudiated this belief.

Thoughtful white people know they are inferior to black people. Even Eastland knows it. Anyone who has studied the genetic phase of biology knows that white is considered recessive and black is considered dominant

The Playboy Interview: Malcolm X, Alex Haley, Playboy Magazine, May, 1963

Beliefs about God and creation

The Nation of Islam teaches that the universe was created seventy-eight trillion years ago. At this time the first God was self-created on this planet, Earth. "He was the only One in the whole entire dark Universe. He had to wait until the atom of life produced brains to think what He needed. How long was that? I don't know, Brothers. But He was a Black man, a Black man! (Our Saviour Has Arrived)

In contrast to the beliefs of all other monotheistic faiths, Elijah Muhammed taught that the original physical manifestation of God in man died however the essense of God is infinite. Since then our entire universe has been ruled by a coucil of twenty four black scientists, the head scientist being known as Allah or the Supreme Being. (Elijah Muhammed, Message to the Blackman in America)

One god would come after another, and every 25,000 years these successive gods would create a new civilization. These gods themselves were finite, and would eventually die however their infinite essence or spirt is ever-living and does not pass away. Elijah Muhammed writes "Allah . . . taught me that there are not any gods Who live forever. Their wisdom and work may live six thousand or twenty-five thousand years, but the actual individual may have died within a hundred or two hundred years, or the longest that we have a record of, around a thousand years." (Muhammad, Our Saviour p.96)

Six thousands years ago an evil black scientist named Yakub developed the white race as a result of genetic experimentation. According to NOI doctrine, they were designed to be liars and murderers. These white demons lived as cavement in Europe, until Moses - whom the NOI believes was black - brought them to civilization.

There have been a succession of gods, each a black man, and in our current time the Supreme God incarnate is W.D. Fard. Fard disappeared in 1933, but is believed to be still alive, and will return with a final holy book.

The Mother Plane

Elijah Muhammad taught about a belief in the "Mother Plane", a UFO. This plane is linked to the visions seen by the prophet Ezekiel in the Book of Ezekiel, in the Hebrew Bible. Louis Farrakhan commenting on this teaching said the following:

"The Honorable Elijah Muhammad told us of a giant Motherplane that is made like the universe, spheres within spheres. White people call them unidentified flying objects (UFOs). Ezekial, in the Old Testament, saw a wheel that looked like a cloud by day but a pillar of fire by night. The Hon. Elijah Muhammad said that that wheel was built on the island of Nippon, which is now called Japan, by some of the original scientists. It took 15 billion dollars in gold at that time to build it. It is made of the toughest steel. America does not yet know the composition of the steel used to make an instrument like it. It is a circular plane, and the Bible says that it never makes turns. Because of its circular nature it can stop and travel in all directions at speeds of thousands of miles per hour. He said there are 1,500 small wheels in this mother wheel which is a half mile by a half mile. This Mother Wheel is like a small human built planet. Each one of these small planes carry three bombs.

"The Honorable Elijah Muhammad said these planes were used to set up mountains on the earth. The Qur'an says it like this: We have raised mountains on the earth lest it convulse with you. How do you raise a mountain, and what is the purpose of a mountain? Have you ever tried to balance a tire? You use weights to keep the tire balanced. That's how the earth is balanced, with mountain ranges. The Honorable Elijah Muhammad said that we have a type of bomb that, when it strikes the earth a drill on it is timed to go into the earth and explode at the height that you wish the mountain to be. If you wish to take the mountain up a mile, you time the drill to go a mile in and then explode. The bombs these planes have are timed to go one mile down and bring up a mountain one mile high, but it will destroy everything within a 50 square mile radius. The white man writes in his above top secret memos of the UFOs. He sees them around his military installations like they are spying.

"That Mother Wheel is a dreadful looking thing. White folks are making movies now to make these planes look like fiction, but it is based on something real. The Honorable Elijah Muhammad said that Mother Plane is so powerful that with sound reverberating in he atmosphere, just with a sound, she can crumble buildings."

Minister Louis Farrakhan, The Divine Destruction of America: Can She Avert It?,” (Finalcall.com News, Illinois: FCN Publishing, 1996)

Mythmaking and history

Like many religions, the NOI teaches its adherents its theology and beliefs through sermons, lectures, and in-house publications (such as newspapers.) Like many religions, the method in which NOI teachers develop and teach their beliefs is not in accord with modern critical historical methods.The first book analyzing the Nation of Islam was The Black Muslims in America (1961) by C. Eric Lincoln. He describes how religious services use myths and over-generalizations to indoctrinate NOI adherents.

Often the minister reads passages from well-known historical’ sociological or anthropological works and finds in them inconspicuous references to the Black Man’s true history in the world.... Occasionally the minister chides the audience for its skepticism: "I know you don’t believe me because I happen to be a Black Man. Well, you can look it up in a book I’m going to tell you about that was written by a white man." He then reads off references which his hearers are challenged to check for themselves. A single documented statement, however, may become the basis of a wide range of generalized non-sequiturs.The fact that a North Carolina slaveholder had an Arabic-speaking Moslem slave of unusual mathematical ability may be offered as evidence that all slaves brought to America were Moslem, Arabic-speaking and learned. Similarly, historical facts may be indiscriminately mingled with myths and countermyths (C. Eric Lincoln, pp. 120-121)

Divergence from mainstream Islam

NOI is viewed by many Muslims as a heretical cult. The reason cited most often by traditional Muslims is that the NOI has taught that God would manifest himself in a human being (Fard Muhammad) -- in Islam, the most central article of faith is the statement, "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is His Prophet," -- and that one race (the black race) is superior to other races, whereas Islam believes in the total transcendence of God, and that people of all races are created as equals and viewed as such by God.

Many Muslims reject and disapprove of this group because of its divergence, sometimes extreme, from the teachings of mainstream Islam. Some Muslims refer to NOI with the pejorative term Farrakhanism in order to distinguish themselves from it.

Like mainstream Islam, the Nation of Islam preaches adherence to the "five pillars of the (Islamic) faith": salat, or prayer, five times daily facing due East, toward the holy city of Mecca; zakat il-fitr, charity to the poor; fasting during the holy month of Ramadan; and that every Muslim who is physically and financially able must make Hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in one's lifetime. The NOI also teaches morality and personal decorum, emphasizing modesty, mutual respect and discipline in dress and comportment. NOI adherents do not consume pork, stress a healthy diet and physical fitness, and the consumption of alcohol and tobacco is frowned upon. In these respects, the NOI is in general agreement with mainstream Islamic tradition. However, the Nation of Islam argues that because of the unique experience of the oppression and degradation of slavery, Elijah Muhammad used unique methods for introducing Islam to his people.

In other matters, NOI teachings diverge markedly from traditional Islam.

God's incarnation
- NOI: Teaches that "Allah (God) appeared in the Person of Master W. Fard Muhammad, July, 1930; the long-awaited Messiah of the Christians and the Mahdi of the Muslims."
- Mainstream Islam: Teaches that it is heretical and blasphemous to believe that God would manifest Himself in human form (or any material form).

Resurrection of the dead
- NOI: Teaches the resurrection of the dead—not in physical resurrection—but in mental resurrection. They believe that the black man and woman of America are most in need of mental resurrection; therefore they will be resurrected first.
- Mainstream Islam: teaches that there will literally be a physical resurrection of the billions and billions of dead people worldwide, and that resurrected souls (or bodies) will be sent to paradise or hell.

Relations with Caucasians
- NOI: Teaches that the black man is the original man of the planet Earth and that Caucasians were created by a grafting (selective breeding) process devised by a scientist called Yakub. They teach that Caucasian Muslims are their brothers in the faith of Islam and should be honored as such.
- Mainstream Islam: Teaches that all races are created equal in the eyes of God. Islam recognizes a biblical and Quranic figure, the patriarch Jacob, but this Jacob is viewed by Muslims as a prophet, and is not connected to the Yakub of the NOI.

Actions and programs

The NOI's has a "Do for self" philosophy, which resulted in the NOI owning and operating hundreds of businesses nationwide, employing thousands of people. The NOI has purchased and now operates food industry services, bakeries and restaurants. It owns a large amounts of farmland in Georgia, USA. It owns and operates hair care shops. Some of these business ventures have been success stories. Others have been criticised as Amway-style marketing schemes that have not benefited most of their employees.

The NOI has worked to clean up drug addicts, reform prostitutes, and keep black youth out of gangs. It has helped some newly released ex-convicts make a new start and stay out of jail.

The Fruit of Islam is a paramilitary, self-defense, security arm of the NOI. The United States Department of Housing and Urban Development employed the FOI as a security team in predominantly black public housing during the crack cocaine epidemic of the 1980's. When paychecks were late one week, the NOI blamed "the Jews" for placing a virus in the Dept. of HUD computers. (Eric Pemnont, Cornerstone)

These actions have given the NOI significant street credibility in much of the black community. It is these positive aspects of the Nation that many (most?) African-Americans associate with the NOI -- and not its religious dogma.

Controversies

Labeled a hate group

In 1998, the Southern Poverty Law Center declared the Nation of Islam a hate group. The Anti-Defamation League has also made similar claims. These contentions were rejected by the Nation of Islam and met with skepticism by many Black leaders and organizations.

Relations with Jewish and Christian Communities

According to most Jewish groups, some Humanist groups, and many Christian groups, the Nation of Islam has a history of anti-Jewish rhetoric. Responding to accusations of anti-Semitism, on occasions the Nation of Islam stated that some weathy Zionist Jews participated in the financing of Nazi Germany such as Goldman Sachs & Company of New York. Some Jewish, Asian and Arab merchants in predominantly black inner-city ghettos in the United States have been described as "bloodsuckers" for alleged profitting from the communities without giving back to those communties. The Nation of Islam has also stated that many Jews had a role in the slave trade. Some aspects of this subject is discussed in fuller detail in Nation of Islam and anti-Semitism.

The NOI has criticized Christianity insofar has it has been a tool for the enslavement and oppression of black people. However, many Christian leaders and Churches—particularly black clergy and black congregations— throughout America have a history of close relations with the Nation of Islam, including Rev. Jesse Jackson, Jr. and Rev. Al Sampson. United Pentecostal Churches of Christ Bishop Larry Trotter, in explaining his willingness to work together with the Nation of Islam, said:

We brought Brothers from all over the country to meet with Minister Farrakhan, so we could go in his home to begin that process of dialogue. Our Bible teaches us, “In all of our getting, get an understanding.” Our Bible says a friend will stick closer than a Brother. Minister Farrakhan has not only been a Brother, but he’s been a friend to our community. Many of our Brothers have seen Minister Farrakhan through the lens and eyes of people who want to misinterpret and misrepresent his words, spirit and heart. ..A tremendous segment of our community loves Minister Farrakhan, but does not have an understanding of Islam. They love our Christian Brothers and do not have a true understanding of what all of us believe. We could all do a great service to our community in putting down our differences and highlighting our similarities and common ground, and allowing our people the freedom and right to choose whatever they want to believe.[3]

The Secret Relationship Between Black and Jews

In the 1990s the Nation of Islam published an anonymous work, which at the time was presented as an academic, scholary study of the historical relationship between blacks and Jewish people. This book collectively accused the Jewish people of causing anti-Semitism, of having racist hatred towards blacks, and of being largely responsible for the slave trade. This book was widely accepted as factual among many NOI adherents and was sold on college campuses.

This book was roundly criticised by Jewish groups as anti-Semitic. Many historians claimed that the book systematically misquoted individuals, falsified quotes, forged figures, and presented facts out of context.

The following is a quote from Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Professor of the Humanities at Harvard University, stated:

The Secret Relationship itself is an invidious document of anti-Semitism; that is, it’s hard to think of any historical motivation for it other than the fomenting of hostility toward Jews and as a defense for anti-Semitic rhetoric. Unfortunately, its ‘scholarly apparatus’ is likely to impress lay persons who aren’t familiar with the relevant historiography...."Now, nobody who is familiar with the vast body of archival material on slavery is likely to be impressed by the book’s approach. … But that’s how this book works: the accretion of anecdotes, with no honest attempt to place them in an historical or demographic perspective.... And the generalizations it makes are unsupported by the ‘evidence’ it provides. "The Secret Relationship charges that Jews were ‘key operatives,’ incurring ‘monumental culpability’ in slavery; given its historical method, they could as easily have concluded the same about the left handers... or Scotsmen... or (had the tract considered the African side of the trade) Blacks themselves....

While the book is considered to be debunked by all mainstream scholars in American and European universities, Farrakhan still preaches the ideas in this book as factual. For insrance, in February 2005 he gave a speech in which he stated that:

Listen, Jewish people don’t have no hands that are free of the blood of us. They owned slave ships, they bought and sold us. They raped and robbed us. If you can’t face that, why you gonna condemn me for showing you your past, how then can you atone and repent if somebody don’t open the book with courage, you don’t have that, but I’ll be damned, I got it.

Louis Farrakhan, speech, Saviours’ Day: Chicago, 02/27/05

Alleged relationship with dictators

It is alleged by the Anti-Defamation League that the organization at times has become dependent on funding by world leaders widely considered to be dictators, however many have rejected that notion citing the fact that the Anti-Defamation League has never substantiated the allegations.

In January 1996 Louis Farrakhan went on a 27-day world tour. Farrakhan met publicly and privately with leaders in Mali, Palestine, Niger, Zimbabwe, Malawi, Cuba Iran, Iraq, Sudan, Libya and Nigeria, as well as meeting with former President Nelson Mandela in South Africa. The Nation of Islam's chronicalization of the world tour is documented online at [4].

Attitude to Hezbollah

According to Anti-Defamation League documents, the Nation of Islam believes that groups such as Hezbollah are freedom-fighters, as do many governments around the world, including most of the Arab world and many Lebanese, while the U.S. State Department and several groups within the European Union view them as terrorists. Farrakhan believes that a Zionist conspiracy controls much of the world, and thus black people should support groups that oppose the putative conspiracy.

The Anti-Defamation League provides the following quote:

"They call them [Hezbollah] terrorists, I call them freedom fighters...No one asks why they would do such a thing. Why would they do such a thing? What has driven them to this point? That's what the UN, the U.S. and Europe doesn't want to deal with because the Zionists have control in England, in Europe, in the United States and around the world."

Farrakhan, Speech at the District Council 33 Union Hall, Philadelphia, PA, 4/22/96

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