Baptism

This article is about the Christian religious act of Baptism. For other uses, see Baptism (disambiguation).

Baptism in early Christian art.
Perhaps a representation of "the Spirit like a dove descending upon" (Mark 1:10)Jesus at his baptism

Baptism is a religious act of purification by water usually associated with admission to membership or fullness of membership of Christianity.

NARUTO RULES NOTHING!!!

By analogy, the word is used of any ceremony, trial and error, or experience by which one is initiated, purified, or given a name. It is thus used also of the Amrit (holy water) ceremony of Sikhism.

Because of the word's association with Christianity, the Jewish purification rite of Mikvah is not normally spoken of as baptism.

This article will consider chiefly the practices and beliefs of Christians with regard to this rite and in particular the forms in which they hold that it should be administered.

Meaning of the word

The Greek word βαπτίζω, from which baptize is derived, basically means "to immerse, submerge". In spite of the word's basic meaning, there is, as Strong's Concordance says, no unequivocal instance in the New Testament of its use to indicate full body immersion. There are two cases in which it clearly indicates instead a washing that did not involve complete immersion. One case is Luke 11:38, which recounts that, when Jesus ate at a Pharisee's house, "[t]he Pharisee was astonished to see that he did not first wash (literally, be "baptized" - βαπτίζω) before dinner." There was obviously no expectation that Jesus would immerse himself totally before eating, and so βαπτίζω does not have that meaning here. The word βαπτίζω appears also in Mark 7:3–4a of a before-meals ritual washing: "The Pharisees ... do not eat unless they wash (νίπτω, the ordinary word for washing) their hands thoroughly, observing the tradition of the elders; and when they come from the market place, they do not eat unless they wash themselves (literally, are "baptized" - βαπτίζω)".

Some religious groups understand the word baptism to mean whole-body immersion in water, including submersion and emergence. For others, the meaning is broad enough to encompass washing by pouring. For yet others, it is a symbolic term meaning "identification with" (e.g. Jesus) having no connection with earthly ritual.

Early Christian manner of administering baptism

Apostolic period

The Bible gives accounts of baptisms performed before this period, in the lifetime of Jesus, by John the Baptist in the Jordan River, and by Jesus himself, not personally but through his disciples.

In the apostolic period, it reports baptisms of about three thousand persons on the day of Pentecost in Jerusalem, of men and women in Samaria, of an Ethiopian eunuch, of Saul, who was later called Paul, of the household of Cornelius, of Lydia's household, of the Philippi jailer's household, of many Corinthians, of certain Corinthians baptized by Paul personally.

None of these accounts gives an exact description of how baptism was administered, but it is universally accepted that during this period and for many centuries later Christian baptism was, normally, by immersion.

As has been said, "the example of Our Lord baptized in the Jordan would naturally cause rivers to be chosen as the first places of baptism; nothing, elsewhere, could be more favorable than these large streams of water for the immersion of the crowds that converted to Christianity. But, as there were not rivers everywhere, the writers of the first centuries (Justin, Clement, Victor I, and Tertullian) took care to remark that seas, lakes, ponds and springs are equally proper for baptismal immersions."

At the same time, immersion, though the usual method of baptizing, was not the only one. One of the earliest non-Biblical statements of Christian faith is found in an anonymous book of 16 short chapters known as the Didache, or Teaching of the Twelve Apostles, which most scholars attribute to the first century (see Date of the Didache), predating the writers quoted in the preceding paragraph, who, with the exception of Clement, belong to the post-apostolic period. This document gives a quite explicit description of how baptism was administered:

Chapter 7. Concerning Baptism. And concerning baptism, baptize this way: Having first said all these things, baptize into the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, in living water. But if you have no living water, baptize into other water; and if you cannot do so in cold water, do so in warm. But if you have neither, pour out water three times upon the head into the name of Father and Son and Holy Spirit.

The image of "burial in baptism" used in Romans 6:4 and Colossians 2:12 is not interpreted by all as implying that total immersion was obligatory. The word "baptism" used in this context is often regarded as having a symbolic meaning.

On the separate, even if perhaps related, question of whether early Christians baptized infants, see the article on infant baptism. Some writers who believe that baptism of infants began to be practiced only after the first century - in the third century it was certainly the universal practice and was believed to be of apostolic origin - posit a link between it and the use of baptism by methods other than immersion, methods which, in spite of the evidence of the Didache, some claim did not at all exist in the first century.

Post-apostolic period

The following period of Early Christianity (down to 325) seems to have introduced no change. Immersion continued to be the usual method of baptism, and there is no evidence to suggest that the practice of the first century differed in any way from what is known more precisely with regard to the second and third. "In the case of the sick or dying, immersion was impossible and the sacrament was then conferred by one of the other forms. This was so well recognized that infusion or aspersion received the name of the baptism of the sick (baptismus clinicorum). St. Cyprian (Epistle 75) declares this form to be valid. From the canons of various early councils we know that candidates for Holy orders who had been baptized by this method seem to have been regarded as irregular, but this was on account of the culpable negligence supposed to be manifested in delaying baptism until sick or dying. That such persons, however, were not to be rebaptized is an evidence that the Church held their baptism to be valid. It is also pointed out that the circumstances under which St. Paul (Acts 16) baptized his jailer and all his household seem to preclude the use of immersion. Moreover, the acts of the early martyrs frequently refer to baptizing in prisons where infusion or aspersion was certainly employed."

Archaeological uncoverings of some early Christian baptisteries too small and narrow to immerse a person completely (as in Jesus' home town of Nazareth) and depictions of baptism in the Roman catacombs (see Images of Jesus) also indicate that baptism was, at least sometimes, administered by pouring water on the head of someone standing in a baptismal pool.

These pools are described in the following terms: "Related to the later medieval baptismal font, this was an early basin often in the floor of a baptistery which allowed Early Christian baptisms to take place with a pouring of water over the person standing in the pool. Many different forms of baptismal piscinas follow Antique models, but only in the 5th or 6th century were they clearly related to Christian use with a definite form: e.g., the octagonal piscina with the ciborium in Cologne. More often round and square versions survive from Early Christian times."

The article Baptismal Font in the Catholic Encyclopedia remarks: "Their average depth of less than three feet points to the continued prevalence of but partial immersion down to the eighth century. Water was provided either by natural springs or by pipes leading into the basins, though there are many examples of its being poured in from above the font, over the heads of the neophytes. Drain pipes conducted the water into the earth or into a nearby stream after the ceremony. These early fonts were lined and paved with marble or other decorative stone and were often highly ornamented, features more common in the West than in the East where simpler fonts, sometimes even of wood, were used."

Practice of baptism today

Men awaiting baptism in the Jordan River near Lake Kinneret in Israel.

Today, water baptism is most readily identified with Christianity, where it symbolizes the cleansing (remission) of sins, and the union of the believer with Christ in His death, burial and resurrection so that he becomes one of Christ's faithful. Most Christian groups practice some form of literal water-based baptism and agree that it is important, yet strongly disagree with other groups regarding any or all of several aspects of baptism, such as:

• form of the baptism
• recipients of baptism
• meaning and effects of baptism

A few Christian groups assert that water-based baptism has been supplanted by the promised baptism of the Holy Spirit, and water baptism was unnecessarily carried over from the early Jewish Christian practice.

A baptism in a non-traditional setting.

Form of baptism

Christian baptism, whose origin may be linked with the Jewish religious act of mikvah purification, historically takes three forms, all of which can be and are simultaneously in use by many Christian denominations (Catholics, Orthodox, Anglicans, and most mainline Protestants); Baptists and other low church denominations tend to deny the efficacy of the first two of the following, particularly when administered to an infant or to one otherwise "not of the age of discernment".

Aspersion - sprinkling water over the head

Affusion - pouring water over the head

Immersion - dunking, lowering the entire body into a pool or (perhaps ideally) a "living" body of water (as a river)

For Christians who baptize by pouring or sprinkling, the washing with water from above pictures the cleansing of one's sins by the blood of Christ, by the Holy Spirit, who unites the baptized person to Christ in His death, and in His resurrection from the dead. It is administered from above to point to that gift of the life-giving Spirit, and to portray baptism as an act not of man, but of God. In contrast, a person baptized by immersion is enclosed under the water and brought out, to signify cleansing through death and burial with Christ and raising again in newness of life by the Holy Spirit. Regardless of the form, baptism is usually a public rite, in testimony to others of the grace of God bestowed upon the person, and as a seal of God's promises in Christ to those who believe.

Meaning and effects of baptism

There are differences in views about the effect of baptism for a Christian. Some Christian groups assert baptism is a requirement for salvation and a sacrament, and speak of "baptismal regeneration". This view is shared by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions, by Churches formed early during the Protestant Reformation such as Lutheran, Anglican and Methodist, and Restorationist Churches such as the Churches of Christ and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons). For example, Martin Luther stated in The Large Catechism of 1529,

"To put it most simply, the power, effect, benefit, fruit, and purpose of Baptism is to save. No one is baptized in order to become a prince, but as the words say, to 'be saved.' To be saved, we know, is nothing else than to be delivered from sin, death, and the devil and to enter into the kingdom of Christ and live with him forever."

For Catholics, baptism by water is a sacrament of initiation into the life of children of God. (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1212-13) It configures the person to Christ, (CCC 1272) and obliges the Christian to share in the Church's apostolic and missionary activity (CCC 1270). The Catholic Tradition holds that there are three types of baptism by which one can be saved: sacramental baptism (with water), baptism of desire (explicit or implicit desire to be part of the Church founded by Jesus Christ), and baptism of blood (martyrdom) (see topic below : Catholic baptism and salvation).

By contrast, Baptist groups espouse baptism as a worthy practice, but say that baptism has no sacramental power, and only testifies outwardly to the operation of God's power, which is invisible and internal, and completely 'separate' from the rite itself. Other Baptist groups teach that the baptism "ceremony" is "meaningful and necessary".

Background in Jewish ritual

Main article: Mikvah

Although the term "baptism" is not used to describe the Jewish rituals, the purification rites (or Mikvah - ritual immersion) in Jewish laws and tradition have some similarity to baptism. In the Tanakh, and other Jewish texts, immersion in water for ritual purification was established for restoration to a condition of "ritual purity" in specific circumstances. For example, Jews who (according to the Law of Moses) became ritually "defiled" by contact with a corpse had to use the mikvah before being allowed to participate in the Holy Temple. Immersion is required for converts to Judaism as part of their conversion to cleanse them from former practices. Immersion in the mikvah represents purification and restoration, and qualification for full religious participation in the life of the community, because the cleansed person will not impose uncleanness on property or its owners. (See Numbers Chapter 19. and Babylonian Talmud Tractate Chagigah page 12)

In modern times, views regarding the mikvah differ greatly among the Jewish denominations. Owing to the destruction of the Holy Temple, immersion in a mikvah no longer carries its original purpose. In modern times, Reform and Conservative Jews generally do not use the mikvah. Orthodox and Haredi still do. It is still a requirement of all Jewish converts (Orthodox, Conservative, Masorti, Reform, Liberal, and Reconstructionist Judaism) to immerse in a mikvah. Often those returning to Judaism after a time within another religion are required also. In more traditional communities a woman is required to immerse in a mikvah following menses to purify herself before resuming sexual relations with her husband.

Further information: Niddah

The mikvah is thus a rite that is meant to be carried out repeatedly, and is thus essentially different from baptism, which has a once-for-all unrepeatable character.

Explanation

A Catholic baptism

The Christian explanation of baptism as the definitive rite, by which the baptized person is indicated to be fully-qualified for participation in the life of the Church, begins with the prophetic ministry of John the Baptist, whose mother was a cousin of Jesus's mother. Those who believe that John was indeed a prophet identify baptism with his message concerning repentance in preparation for the coming of the Messiah.

"He [John] went into all the country around the Jordan, preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. As is written in the book of the words of Isaiah the prophet: "A voice of one calling in the desert, 'Prepare the way for the Lord, make straight paths for him. Every valley shall be filled in, every mountain and hill made low. The crooked roads shall become straight, the rough ways smooth. And all mankind will see God's salvation.'" Luke 3:3–6

"Produce fruit in keeping with repentance." Luke 3:8

John declared that repentance was necessary, prior to forgiveness. There must be a return to God. This implies that the stain of sin is not ineradicable, but can be removed by putting off polluting acts and returning to "the way of the Lord", all of which was symbolized in his baptism.

Christians believe that John also taught that his baptism was not finally sufficient, and that repentance would not attain to its goal of separation from sin, apart from a greater baptism which it was not in his power to give. According to the Gospel of Luke, John taught, "I baptize you with water; but one comes who is stronger than I, of whom I am not worthy to untie the strap of his sandals; he will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire; his winnowing fork is in his hand to clean out his threshing floor and to gather the wheat into his storehouse, but the chaff he will burn with inextinguishable fire." (Luke 3,16-17) Christians believe that John's baptism shows that the effort to make oneself acceptable to God by repentance would be superseded, made complete by the coming of the Lamb of God that 'takes away' (not 'covers over') sins.

According to the Gospel of John, after John baptized Jesus, he testified concerning him,

"I have seen the Spirit coming down as a dove from heaven, and it remained upon him. And I had not known him, but the one who sent me to baptize with water, that one said to me, On whomever you see the Spirit coming down and remaining upon him, this is the one baptizing with the Holy Spirit. And I have seen, and I have testified that this is the son of God." (John 1,32-34)

"Behold the Lamb of God, that takes away the sins of the world."

From this point on, water baptism became identified with the followers of Jesus, who preached: "Repent, for the kingdom of God is near", and explicitly identified the coming of the kingdom with his own appearing.

At the end of his recorded ministry, Jesus charged the Apostles to baptize "in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" in the Great Commission (Matthew 28:19), which has become the common method for baptizing. The Apostles are recorded as baptizing "in the name of Jesus" in the Book of Acts (Acts 2:38 8:16 10:48 19:5) - a description of their baptizing that groups who reject the trinitarian formula frequently quote.

Ecumenical statement

The ecumenical paper Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, prepared by representatives across a spectrum of Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestants traditions of Christianity, attempts to express a common understanding of baptism, as it is derived from the New Testament.

" ... according to Acts 2:38, baptisms follow from Peter's preaching baptism in the name of Jesus and lead those baptized to the receiving of Christ's Spirit, the Holy Ghost, and life in the community: "They devoted themselves to the apostles' teaching and fellowship, to the breaking of bread and the prayers" (2:42) as well as to the distribution of goods to those in need (2:45). Those who heard, who were baptized and entered the community's life, were already made witnesses of and partakers in the promises of God for the last days: the forgiveness of sins through baptism in the name of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Ghost on all flesh (2:38). Similarly, in what may well be a baptismal pattern, 1 Peter testifies that proclamation of the resurrection of Jesus Christ and teaching about new life (1:3-21) lead to purification and new birth (1:22-23). This, in turn, is followed by eating and drinking God's food (2:2-3), by participation in the life of the community — the royal priesthood, the new temple, the people of God (2:4-10) — and by further moral formation (2:11 ff.). At the beginning of 1 Peter the writer sets this baptism in the context of obedience to Christ and sanctification by the Spirit (1:2). So baptism into Christ is seen as baptism into the Spirit (cf. 1 Cor. 12:13). In the fourth gospel Jesus' discourse with Nicodemus indicates that birth by water and Spirit becomes the gracious means of entry into the place where God rules (John 3:5)."

Baptism in most Christian traditions

The baptistry at St. Raphael's Cathedral, Dubuque, Iowa. This particular font was expanded in 2005 to include a small pool to provide for immersion baptism of adults. Eight sided font architectures are common symbology of the day of Christ's Resurrection: the "Eighth Day."

The liturgy of baptism in the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Lutheran, Anglican, and Methodist traditions makes clear reference to baptism as not only a symbolic burial and resurrection, but an actual supernatural transformation, one that draws parallels to the experience of Noah and the passage of the Israelites through the Red Sea divided by Moses. Thus baptism is literally and symbolically not only cleansing, but also dying and rising again with Christ. Catholics believe that baptism is necessary for the cleansing of the taint of original sin, and for that reason infant baptism is a common practice. The Eastern Churches (Eastern Orthodox Church and Oriental Orthodoxy) also baptize infants on the basis of texts such as Matthew 19:14, which are interpreted as supporting full Church membership for children, and so baptism is immediately followed by Chrismation and Communion at the next Divine Liturgy regardless of age. At least some Orthodox likewise believe that baptism removes what they call the ancestral sin (cf. An Excerpt from Exomologetarion). Anglicans believe that Baptism is also the entry into the Church and therefore allows them access to all rights and responsibilities as full members, including the privilege to receive Holy Communion. Most Anglicans agree that it also cleanses the taint of what in the West is called original sin, in the East ancestral sin.

Latin Rite Catholics generally baptize by affusion (pouring); Orthodox and Eastern Catholics usually by immersion, at least partial. However immersion is gaining in popularity within the Latin Catholic Church. In newer churches, the baptismal font may be designed to expressly allow for baptism by immersion. Older church building may feature this as well by either building a new baptismal font or expanding an existing one. Anglicans baptize by immersion, affusion or sprinkling.

Although the New Testament contains no explicit instructions on how physically to administer the water of baptism (see Meaning of the word above), Fundamentalists argue that the Greek word βαπτίζω found in the New Testament originally meant "to immerse." They also state that only immersion reflects the symbolic significance of being "buried" and "raised" with Christ (see Romans 6:3-4).

Excavations of ancient baptistries and the artwork of third-century Christian catacombs provide evidence that early Christians were baptized by having water poured over their heads, while they stood in a pool.

Baptism by pouring is closely linked with the practice of infant baptism. The Bible does not explicitly say if infants were baptized; and though children may have been baptized, their exact ages have not been determined. Infant baptism is generally practiced by those who believe in the doctrine of original or ancestral sin; later Protestant denominations tend to practice baptism based upon the confession and faith of the child of an accountable age. Although they do not consider it wholly necessary for salvation, United Methodists and others baptize infants as a recognition of our complete dependence on God: that is to say, the wisest adult is no closer to understanding the mystery of baptism than a newborn is.

In some traditions, cold water is preferred over warm, as indicated in the above quotation from the Didache, which also said that the water should ideally be in a state of motion (living water implies motion), so immersion in stagnant water is thought less than pouring or even sprinkling.

The Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican Churches practice a triple immersion or pouring in the name of the Holy Trinity, in accordance with the "Great Commission" Matthew 28:18–20.

Comparative summary

Comparative Summary of Baptisms of Denominations of Christian Influence.

Denomination	Beliefs about Baptism	Type of Baptism	Baptize Infants?	Baptism regenerates, gives spiritual life	Standard
Anglicans	A sign of profession and a mark of separation which, received rightly, affirms the forgiveness received by a believer through faith.	By immersion or pouring.	Yes.	Anglo-Catholic Yes, "Low church" No.	Trinity
Apostolics	Necessary for salvation because it conveys spiritual rebirth.	By immersion only.	No.	Yes.	Jesus
Baptists / Disciples of Christ	A divine ordinance, a symbolic ritual, a sign of having already been saved, but not necessary for salvation. See Baptist - Believer's Baptism.	By immersion only.	No.	No.	Trinity
Christadelphians	Christadelphians believe that baptism is essential for the salvation of a believer. It is only effective if somebody believes in the things concerning the Kingdom of God and the Name of Jesus Christ. (Jesus means "He who shall save" Christ means the "Jewish Messiah". So if somebody does not believe he will rule the Kingdom of God from Jerusalem, over the Jewish Kingdom of God, then their baptism means nothing).	By immersion only	No	Yes	Jesus
Churches of Christ	Baptism is a must for salvation as commanded by Jesus, Mark 16:16; Matt. 28:19. One receives forgiveness of sin, the gift of the Holy Spirit, and addition to God's church. Acts 2:38-41. This is done after one has expressed their faith in Jesus Christ as the Son of God and repented from their sins.	Immersion only	No	Yes	Trinity
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints	An ordinance essential to enter the highest degree of heaven and preparatory for receiving the Gift of the Holy Ghost by the laying on of hands.	By immersion performed by a person holding proper priesthood authority.	No	Yes	Father, Son, and Holy Ghost (The LDS church doesn't believe in the general notion of the trinity)
Eastern Orthodox	The old man dies the "New Man" is born free from ancestral sin. A new name is given. All previous commitments and sins are null and void.	By 3-fold immersion (other forms only in emergency, must be corrected by priest if possible).	Yes. Confirmation and communion immediately follows.	Yes	Trinity
Episcopalians	Necessary to participate in communion of the Lord's Supper. The Rite of Holy Baptism is the initiation into the Church universal. (See "Anglicans")	By pouring or immersion	Yes	Yes	Trinity
Jehovah’s Witnesses	Baptism is necessary for salvation as part of the entire baptismal arrangement: as an expression of obedience to Jesus' command (Matthew 28:19,20), as a public symbol of the saving faith in the ransom sacrifice of Jesus Christ (Romans 10:10), and as an indication of repentance from dead works and the dedication of one's life to Jehovah. (1 Peter 2:21) However, baptism does not guarantee salvation.	By immersion only; typical candidates are baptized at district and circuit conventions.	No	Yes	Jesus
Lutherans	Baptism is how God miraculously delivers a person from sin, death, and the devil; gives new life; and brings one into Christ’s kingdom forever (Titus 3:5).	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes	Yes	Trinity
Methodists (Arminians, Wesleyans)	Baptism not necessary to salvation, since it is an outward sign of one’s membership in the Christian community.	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes	No	Trinity
Pentecostal (Various “Holiness” groups, Christian Missionary Alliance, Assemblies of God)	Water Baptism is an ordinance, a symbolic ritual used to witness to having accepted Christ as personal Savior.	By immersion. Also stress the necessity of a “second” Baptism of a special outpouring from the Holy Spirit.	No	Varies	Varies
Presbyterians	An ordinance, a symbolic ritual, and a seal of the adult believer’s present faith.	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant.	No	Trinity
Quakers (Religious Society of Friends)	Only an external symbol that is no longer to be practiced.	Do not believe in Baptism of water, but only in an inward, ongoing purification of the human spirit in a life of discipline led by the Holy Spirit.	—	—	—
Roman Catholic	"Necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament" (Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1257)	Usually by pouring in the West, by immersion in the East; sprinkling admitted only if the water then flows on the head.	Yes	Yes	Trinity
Salvation Army	Do not baptize anyone today. Believe it was to be done only at the time of Christ.	—	—	—	—
Seventh-day Adventists	Not stated as the way to salvation, but a prerequisite for salvation since it symbolizes the acceptance of Jesus as your savior. A time for person to express personal faith in Christ.	By immersion only.	No	No	Jesus
United Church of Christ (Evangelical and Reformed Churches and the Congregationalist Churches)	Not necessary for salvation because it is only an outward ritual. However, is listed as one of a handful of ways of obtaining membership with a local church.	By sprinkling, pouring, or immersion.	Yes, to indicate membership in the New Covenant.	No	Trinity

Catholic baptism and salvation

In Catholic teaching, baptism plays an essential role in salvation. This teaching dates back to the teachings and practices of first-century Christians, and the connection between salvation and baptism was not, on the whole, an item of major dispute until Martin Luther's teachings regarding grace. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states:"Baptism is necessary for salvation for those to whom the Gospel has been proclaimed and who have had the possibility of asking for this sacrament." Accordingly, a person who knowingly, willfully and unrepentantly rejects baptism has no hope of salvation. This teaching is based on Jesus' words in the Gospel according to John : "Truly, truly, I say to you, unless one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter into the Kingdom of God." As stated earlier, three forms of baptism are acknowledged by the Church. Baptism by water refers to the traditional baptism whereby the individual is immersed water or has water poured over his head in the name of the Trinity.

Catholics are baptized in the name (singular) of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit — not three gods, but one God subsisting in three Persons. While sharing in the one divine essence, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct, not simply three "masks" or manifestations of one Person. The faith of the Church and of the individual Christian is based on a relationship with these three Persons of the one God.

It is claimed that Pope Stephen I and Pope Nicholas I declared that baptism not in the name of Father, Son and Holy Spirit, but in the name of Jesus only was valid. The correct interpretation of their words is disputed. Current canonical law requires the Trinitarian formula and water for validity.

The Church recognizes two other forms of baptism: "baptism of blood" and "baptism of desire." Baptism of blood refers to unbaptized individuals who are martyred for the Faith, while baptism of desire generally refers to catechumens who die before they can be baptized. The Catechism of the Catholic Church describes these two forms:

The Church has always held the firm conviction that those who suffer death for the sake of the faith without having received Baptism are baptized by their death for and with Christ. This Baptism of blood, like the desire for Baptism, brings about the fruits of Baptism without being a sacrament. (1258)

For catechumens who die before their Baptism, their explicit desire to receive it, together with repentance for their sins, and charity, assures them the salvation that they were not able to receive through the sacrament. (1259)

Non-Christians who seek God with a sincere heart and, moved by grace, try to do His will as they know it through the dictates of conscience can also be saved without water baptism; they are said to desire it implicitly. (cf. Catechism, 1260). As for unbaptized infants, the Church is unsure of their fate; "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism, 1261).

Conditions of the validity of a baptism

Baptism - Saint Calixte Catacomb - 3rd century.

Since the Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican Churches teach that baptism is a sacrament having actual spiritual and salvific effects, certain criteria must be complied with for it to be valid (i.e., to actually have those effects.) These criteria are actually broader than the ordinary practice. Violation of some rules regarding baptism renders the baptism illicit (in violation of the Church's laws) but still valid. For example, if a priest introduces some variation in the authorized rite for the ceremony, the baptism may still be valid (provided certain key criteria are met).

One of the criteria for validity is that the correct form of words be used. Latin Rite Roman Catholics and Episcopalians/Anglicans use the form "I baptize you..."; some Eastern Catholic Churches and other Eastern Churches not in communion with Rome use the form "Let this servant of Christ be baptized..." or "This person is baptized by my hands...". However, all these Churches recognize each other's form as valid. The Catholic Church teaches that the use of the verb "baptize" is essential.

It is also considered essential that the Trinitarian formula ("in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit") be used; thus they do not accept as valid baptisms of non-Trinitarian churches such as Oneness Pentecostals. There was an ancient controversy over baptism using the formula that Oneness Pentecostals use, with some ancient authorities holding it to be valid.

Invalid forms for baptism include "I baptize thee in the name of the Trinity", "I baptize thee in the name of Jesus", and "I baptize thee in the name of the Creator, Redeemer, and Sanctifier", for example. If these forms are used, the Sacrament of Baptism does not take place.

Another condition is that water be used. Some Christian groups historically have rejected the use of water for baptism, for example the Albigensians. These baptisms would not be valid, nor would a baptism in which some other liquid was used.

Another requirement is that the celebrant intend to perform baptism. This requirement entails merely the intention "to do what the Church does", not necessarily to have Christian faith, since it is not the person baptizing, but the Holy Spirit working through the sacrament, who produces the effects of the sacrament. Doubt about the faith of the baptizer is thus no ground for doubt about the validity of the baptism.

Some conditions expressly do not affect validity — for example, whether immersion, affusion or aspersion is used. However, if water is sprinkled, there is a danger that the water may not touch the skin of the unbaptized. If the water does not flow on the skin, there is no ablution and so no baptism.

If the water is poured, not on the head, but over another principal part of the body, such as the chest, in a case of emergency, validity is uncertain and the person will be conditionally baptized later.

In many communions it does not affect validity for a single immersion to be performed rather than a triple, but in Orthodoxy this is controversial.

According to the Catholic Church, baptism imparts an indelible "seal" upon the soul of the baptized. Thus, once baptized, an individual cannot be baptized again. This teaching was affirmed against the Donatists, who practiced rebaptism.

Recognition of baptism by other denominations

The Roman Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, Presbyterian and Methodist Churches accept baptism performed by other denominations as valid, subject to certain conditions. It is only possible to be baptized once, thus people with valid baptisms from other denominations may not be baptized again upon conversion or transfer. Such people are accepted upon making a profession of faith and, if they have not yet validly received the sacrament of confirmation, by being confirmed. In some cases it can be difficult to decide if the original baptism was in fact valid; if there is doubt, conditional baptism is administered, with a formula on the lines of "If you are not yet baptized, I baptize you...".

Practice in the Eastern Orthodox Church for converts from other communions is not uniform, but even a convert received without administration of baptism is considered to have his previous baptism retroactively filled with grace by whatever form is used to accept him, such as by chrismation or confession. The exact procedure is dependent on local canons and is the subject of some controversy.

In the eyes of the Catholic Church, the baptism conferred by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is invalid. An article published together with the official declaration to that effect gave reasons for that judgement, summed up in the following words: "The Baptism of the Catholic Church and that of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints differ essentially, both for what concerns faith in the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, in whose name Baptism is conferred, and for what concerns the relationship to Christ who instituted it."

Who may administer a baptism

In the Latin Rite Catholic Church, the ordinary minister of baptism is a bishop, priest or deacon , but in normal circumstances, only the Parish Priest of the person to be baptized, or someone authorized by the Parish Priest may do so licitly. "If the ordinary minister is absent or impeded, a catechist or some other person deputed to this office by the local Ordinary, may lawfully confer baptism; indeed, in a case of necessity, any person who has the requisite intention may do so

By "a case of necessity" is principally meant imminent danger of death because of either illness or an external threat. "The requisite intention" is, at the minimum level, the intention "to do what the Church does" through the rite of baptism.

In the Eastern Catholic Churches, a deacon is not considered an ordinary minister. Administration of the sacrament is reserved, as in the Latin Rite, to the Parish Priest. But, "in case of necessity, baptism can be administered by a deacon or, in his absence or if he is impeded, by another cleric, a member of an institute of consecrated life, or by any other Christian faithful; even by the mother or father, if another person is not available who knows how to baptize" .

The discipline of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy and the Assyrian Church of the East is similar to that of the Eastern Catholic Churches. They require the baptizer, even in cases of necessity, to be of their own faith, on the grounds that a person cannot convey what he himself does not possess, in this case membership in the Church. The Latin Rite Catholic Church does not insist on this condition, considering that the effect of the sacrament is not produced by the person who baptizes, but by the Holy Spirit.

The discipline of Anglicanism is similar to that of the Latin Rite Catholic Church. For Methodists and many other Protestant denominations, too, the ordinary minister of baptism is a duly ordained or appointed minister of religion.

Newer movements of Protestant Evangelical churches, particularly non-denominational, have begun to allow those persons most instrumental in one's faith to baptize. The rationale for such a practice lies in the New Testament accounts of John the Baptist baptizing his own disciples, Christ his own, Phillip his own (such as the Ethiopian eunuch), etc.

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, only a man holding the priesthood office of Priest or higher office may administer baptism.

Anabaptist and Baptist baptism

A river baptism in North Carolina at the turn of the 20th century. Full-immersion baptism continues to be a common practice in many African-American Christian congregations today.

Baptist groups derive their name either from the restrictions that they traditionally place on the mode and subjects of the ordinance of baptism or from a shortening of the term Anabaptist which means to rebaptize. Anabaptists were labeled such because they re-baptized people who had received infant baptism, sprinkling, or baptism of any sort by another denomination. Modern Baptists do not believe baptism by immersion is the only legitimate form of baptism, they simply require that you be baptized by immersion to join the Baptist church. It does not imply that any previous form of baptism, like sprinkling, is invalid. It is just a requirement of membership similar to any other organization which has an initiation ritual, only with theological meaning.

Baptist theologians (such as John Gill) teach that baptism is only for those who can understand and profess their faith. This is called believer's baptism. Some, such as Gill, argue that the regulative principle of worship, which many paedobaptists also advocate and which states that elements of worship (including baptism) must be based on explicit commands of Scripture, is violated by infant baptism. Some would argue that according this understanding, the re-baptisms that Baptists generally perform if a person was not regenerate when baptized also violate the Regulative Principle for Worship. Furthermore, because the New Covenant is described in Jeremiah 31:31-34 as a time when all who were members of it would have the law written on their hearts and would know God, Baptist theology teaches that only those who are born again, as indicated by a profession of faith, are members of the New Covenant. They view this text as speaking of the visible church in the present age, rather than as a prophetic text of God's New Covenant in Christ administered to all saints from Genesis to the present, which will be fulfilled when Christ returns to earth. Baptism is therefore not administered to those unable to make a credible confession of saving faith in Christ prior to being baptized; but it will be administered upon making this confession, regardless of the confessor's age. Some Baptist churches take exception to this and are very hesitant to baptize young children because they want to confirm whether or not they are regenerate. A confession alone is not enough for these churches, they want to see fruit of regeneration in the life of the person to be baptized, which some argue violates the example set forth in the book of Acts, which performed immediate baptisms.

Those who hold views influenced by the Baptists may perform the ceremony indoors in a baptismal, a swimming pool, or bathtub, or outdoors in a creek or river: as long as there is water, nothing prevents the performance of Baptism. Protestant groups influenced by these convictions usually emphasize that it memorializes the death, burial and resurrection of Jesus (Romans 6), which according to the grace of God has become the basis of repentance and new life for those who have professed belief in Him, symbolizing spiritual death with regard to sin and a new life of faith in God. They typically teach that baptism does not accomplish anything in itself, but is an outward sign or testimony, a personal act, indicating the invisible reality that the person's sins have already been washed away by the cross of Christ, and applied to their life according to their profession of faith. It is also understood to be a covenantal act, signifying entrance into the New Covenant of Christ (Jeremiah 31:31-34; Hebrews 8:8-12, Romans 6). For Baptists, baptism is a requirement for church membership, rather than a necessary requirement for salvation. Once baptized, a Baptist may move their membership to another congregation by letter.

The above description applies not just to those denominations using Baptist in their title, but also to a wide variety of other Protestant denominations deriving from the Anabaptist tradition, including some Mennonites and Pentecostals.

Reformed and Covenant Theology view

Main article: Covenant Theology § Baptism

Paedobaptist Covenant theologians see the administration of all the biblical covenants, including the New Covenant, as including a principle of familial, corporate inclusion or "generational succession." The biblical covenants between God and man include signs and seals that visibly represent the realities behind the covenants. These visible signs and symbols of God's covenant redemption are administered in a corporate manner (for instance, to households), not in an exclusively individualistic manner.

Baptism is considered by the Reformed churches as the visible sign of entrance into the New Covenant and therefore may be administered individually to new believers making a public profession of faith. Paedobaptists further believe this extends corporately to the households of believers which typically would include children, or individually to children or infants of believing parents (see Infant baptism). In this view, baptism is thus seen as the functional replacement and sacramental equivalent of the Abrahamic rite of circumcision and symbolizes the internal cleansing from sin, among other things.

Baptism in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

This section is a part of a series on The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.

See also: Baptism for the dead and Rebaptism (Latter Day Saints)

In the Latter Day Saint movement (Mormonism), baptism is recognized as one of the four basic principles of the gospel, in addition to faith in Jesus, repentance, and the gift of the Holy Spirit. As with many other Restorationist faiths, baptism must be by immersion for the remission of sins (meaning that through baptism, past sins are forgiven), and occurs after one has shown faith and repentance. LDS baptism does not intend to remit any sins other than personal ones, as the LDS Church does not believe in original sin.

Latter Day Saint baptisms also occur only after an "age of accountability", or the age at which a child begins to know right from wrong, which is defined by the church as the age of eight years. Mormonism rejects infant baptism. In addition, Mormonism requires that baptism may only be performed with one who has been called and ordained by God with priesthood authority. Since the LDS Church has a lay priesthood, children raised in an LDS family are usually baptized by a father or close male friend or family member who has achieved the office of Priest which is conferred to "worthy" male members at the age of 16.

Latter Day Saints do not believe that the gift of the Holy Spirit occurs immediately after baptism; rather, the gift is given by the laying on of hands in a separate confirmation ritual after baptism. This ritual is confirmed by Paul's actions in Acts 19:6, where, following the baptism of several followers of Christ, he "laid his hands upon" those who were baptized and they then received the Holy Ghost.

The process of repentance and sanctification continues by partaking of the Sacrament every Sunday which Latter Day Saints consider to be a renewal of one's baptismal covenant with God. They also believe that baptism is symbolic both of Jesus's death, burial and resurrection and of the death and burial of the natural or sinful man and rebirth as a disciple of Jesus of the one baptized.

In The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (or "Mormon" Church), baptism and confirmation are only the first of several ordinances believed to be required for exaltation. Membership into the LDS Church is granted only by baptism whether or not a person has been raised in the church. As Latter-day Saints do not recognize the validity of baptisms of other faiths, all who come into the church as converts are baptized, even if they have previously received baptism in another faith. The person being baptized must be at least eight years old. The church also practices baptism for the dead (along with all other ordinances) "vicariously" or "by proxy" in their temples for anyone who did not receive these ordinances while living.

Baptisms inside and outside the temples are usually done in a font, although they can be performed in any body of water in which the person may be completely immersed. In Latter-day Saint temples, where proxy baptisms are performed for the dead, the fonts rest on the sculptures of twelve oxen representing the twelve tribes of Israel, following the pattern of the "molten sea" in the Temple of Solomon (see 2 Chronicles 4:2-5). Great care is taken in the execution of the baptism; if the baptism is not executed properly it must be redone. The person administering the baptism must recite the prayer exactly, and immerse every part, limb, hair and clothing of the person being baptized. If there are any mistakes, or if any part of the person being baptized is not fully immersed, the baptism must be redone. In addition to the baptizer, two priesthood holders witness the baptism to ensure that it is performed properly.

Jehovah's Witnesses

Baptism is also practised by Jehovah's Witnesses, who believe that it should be performed by complete immersion only when one is old enough to understand the significance of it. They teach that water baptism is an outward symbol that one has made a complete, unreserved, and unconditional dedication through Jesus Christ to do the will of Jehovah God. Jehovah's Witnesses usually baptize converts at large conventions rather than at the local Kingdom Halls.

Baptism in Churches of Christ

There is no single statement of conformity on the doctrine of baptism as practiced by Churches of Christ, yet there are several similarities among the vast majority of congregations: Basically, Churches of Christ believe in the age of accountability and believer's baptism. Churches of Christ practice immersion baptism only and do not baptize infants. However, they also believe that baptism is necessary for salvation. There is no restriction upon who may perform a baptism, but it is usually done by an adult male. Adult converts are baptized, as are children who are old enough to understand that they are accountable for their sins and to understand the sacrifice of Christ and the meaning of his death, burial, and resurrection.

Scriptural Basis: The Great Commission (Matthew 28:18–20) is interpreted as requiring that baptism be by a full immersion in water. Romans 6:3–5describes that New Testament baptism was a "burial," indicating along with other descriptions in the gospels and Acts of the occurrence of baptism that it was an immersion. Acts 2:38 teaches that repentance precedes baptism and the remission of sins occurs at baptism. Churches of Christ often cite Acts 2:38 when discussing the doctrine of baptism, yet some disagree on what the phrase "the gift of the Holy Spirit" that comes after baptism should mean. However, most understand it as meaning the gift of salvation promised by God through the Spirit (cf. Acts 2:21, Romans 6:23, Titus 1:1–2). It is equally contended that this baptismal burial is in water and not some spiritual or figurative element as Acts 8:36 and other passages assert.

"Now as they went down the road, they came to some water. And the eunuch said, "See, here is water. What hinders me from being baptized?" (Acts 8:36, NKJV).

Churches of Christ site 1Peter 3:21, which states that "Baptism doth also now save us," and take it to mean that baptism is essential to salvation. However, in the same verse, it goes on to say, "not the removal of dirt from flesh [ie, with water], but the appeal of a clean conscience to God." Romans 6:3 also states that baptism puts one into the death of Christ; Baptism clothes one in Christ (Galatians 3:27). John 3:1-7 has also been cited to exclude salvation without baptism. The correct interpretation of these verses are disputable.

Baptism in Hyperdispensationalism

Hyperdispensationalists assert:

• The great commission (Matthew 28:18-20) and its baptism is directed to early Jewish believers, not the Gentile believers of mid-Acts or later.

• The baptism of Acts 2:36-38 is Peter's call for Israel to repent of complicity in the death of the Messiah; not as an Gospel announcement of atonement for sin, a later doctrine revealed by Paul.

Water baptism found early in the book of Acts is, according to this view, now supplanted by the one baptism (1 Cor 12:13) foretold by John the Baptist (Luke 3:16, John 1:33, Matt 3:11, Acts 1:5). The one baptism for today, it is asserted, is the "baptism of the Holy Spirit" (Acts 11:15-16). This, however, is unlikely given the fact that the baptism which the Ephesians underwent was water by content (Ephesians 5:26; Acts 19:1–5). Likewise, Holy Spirit Baptism is recorded as only occurring twice in all the book of Acts to selected individuals (Acts 2:1-4; Acts 10:44-46). Finally, it is argued that the fact that only Jesus is said to have possessed the power to baptize with the Holy Spirit and with Fire would eliminate any mortal doing so today.

"John answered, saying to all, "I indeed baptize you with water; but One mightier than I is coming, whose sandal strap I am not worthy to loose. He will baptize you with the Holy Spirit and fire" (Luke 3:16, NKJV)

Many in this group also argue that John's promised baptism by fire is pending, referring to the destruction of the world by fire (Matthew 3:12, Luke 3:17, 2 Peter 3:10).

John, as he said "baptized with water", as did Jesus's disciples to the early, Jewish Christian church. Jesus himself never personally baptized with water, but did so through his disciples (John 4:1–2). Unlike Jesus' first Apostles, Paul, his Apostle to the Gentiles, was sent to preach rather than to baptize (1 Cor 1:17) but did occasionally baptize, for instance in Corinth (1 Cor 1:14–16) and in Philippi (Acts 16:13), in the same manner as they (cf. Math 28:19Template:Bibleverse with invalid book). In Romans 6:4 he also taught the spiritual significance of the submerging in baptism and how one contacts the atoning death of Christ in such.

Other baptisms

Non-Christian religions

Many cultures practice or have practiced rites similar to Christian baptism, including the ancient Egyptian, the Hebraic/Jewish, the Babylonian, the Mayan, and the Norse cultures. The modern Japanese practice of Miyamairi is not entirely dissimilar. In some, such evidence may be archaeological and descriptive in nature, rather than a modern practice.

Mystery religion initiation rites

Apuleius, a second-century Roman writer, described his initiation into the mysteries of Isis:

The priest brought me to the next baths, surrounded by the pious troop, and after I had had an ordinary bath, he prayed for the grace of the gods and cleansed me completely, sprinkling me with water from all sides.

Akin to catechumenical practices in Christianity, Apuleius' entry into the mysteries was accomplished only after a significant period of study to demonstrate his loyalty and trustworthiness.

Mandaean baptism

Mandaeans, who abhor Jesus and Moses as false prophets, revere John the Baptist and practice frequent baptism.

Sikh baptism ceremony

Main article: Amrit Sanskar

• The Sikh baptism ceremony, dating to 1699, was established when the religion's tenth leader (Guru Gobind Singh) baptized 5 followers of his faith and then was baptized himself by his followers. The Sikh baptism ceremony is called Amrit Sanchar or Khande di Pahul. The Sikh has taken Amrit once they have been baptized. In Sikhism, the baptized Sikh is also called an Amritdhari literally meaning Amrit Taker or one who has Taken on Amrit.

• Khande Di Pahul (Amrit ceremony) was initiated in the times of Guru Gobind Singh when Khalsa was inaugurated at Sri Anandpur Sahib on the day of Baisakhi in 1699. Guru Gobind Singh asked a gathering of Sikhs, who was prepared to die for God? At first, the people hesitated, and then one man stepped forward, and he was taken to a tent. After some time, Guru Gobind Singh came out of the tent, with blood dripping from his sword. He asked the same question again. After the next four volunteers were in the tent, he reappeared with the four, who were now all dressed like him. These five men came to be known as Panj Pyares or the Beloved Five. These five were initiated into the Khalsa by receiving Amrit. These five were Bhai Daya Singh, Bhai Mukham Singh, Bhai Sahib Singh, Bhai Dharam Singh and Bhai Himmat Singh. Sikh men were then given the name "Singh" meaning "lion" and the women received the last name "Kaur" meaning "princess".

Filling an iron bowl with clean water, he kept stirring it with a two-edged sword (called a Khanda) while reciting over it five of the sacred texts or banis — Japji, Jaap, Savaiyye, Benti Chaupai and Anand Sahib. The Guru’s wife, Mata Jito (also known as Mata Sahib Kaur), poured into the vessel sugar crystals, mingling sweetness with the alchemy of iron. The five Sikhs sat on the ground around the bowl reverently as the holy water was being churned to the recitation of the sacred verses.

With the recitation of the five banis completed, khande di pahul or amrit, the Nectar of Immortality, was ready for administration. Guru Gobind Singh gave the five Sikhs five palmsful each of it to drink.

Ritual washing in Islam

Islam recommends a sort of washing called Ghosol (Arabic word means washing) which should include the washing of the whole body in special order or immersion of the whole body in a river for instance. This Ghosol is required for an adult when adopting Islam, after each sexual intercourse or a wetdream or a menstrual cycle. Also is required to be done for dead bodies.

Metaphorical baptisms

Baptism of objects

Although it is technically an improper use of the term, the word baptism is sometimes used to describe other non-sacramental ceremonies.

• The name Baptism of Bells has been given to the blessing of (musical, especially church) bells, at least in France, since the eleventh century. It is derived from the washing of the bell with holy water by the bishop, before he anoints it with the oil of the infirm without and with chrism within; a fuming censer is placed under it and the bishop prays that these sacramentals of the Church may, at the sound of the bell, put the demons to flight, protect from storms, and call the faithful to prayer.
• Baptism of Ships: at least since the time of the Crusades, rituals have contained a blessing for ships. The priest begs God to bless the vessel and protect those who sail in it, as He did the ark of Noah, and Peter, when the Apostle was sinking in the sea, and the ship is sprinkled with holy water.

Non-religious baptism

Although even the use of water is often absent, the term baptism is also used for various initiations as rite of passage to a walk of secular life.

• In Belgium, for example, one word for academic hazing is schachtendoop ('pledge baptism') in Dutch or Baptême in French. It is the traditional way of initiation into student societies (generally gender-mixed) and is accepted by institutions of higher education and sometimes controlled, e.g. by the Belgian universities UCL and ULB.

• In the Brazilian martial art capoeira, an annual promotion ceremony is held, known as a batizado (literally "baptism"). For practitioners participating in their first batizado, it is traditional to receive their Capoeira names at that time, as a mark that they have been received in the community of Capoeiristas. The name is often given by the senior instructor or other senior students, and is largely determined by an individual way they perform a movement, how they look, or something else unique to the individual. Their Capoeira name is often used as a nom de guerre within Capoeira circles, a tradition which dates back to when practicing Capoeira was illegal in Brazil.

• See also baptism by fire.

See also

Related articles and subjects

• Baptism of Jesus
• Believer's baptism
• Baptism of desire
• Disciple (Christianity)
• Infant baptism
• Christianity
• Theophany
• Prevenient Grace
• Conditional baptism
• Emergency baptism
• Whitsunday
• Anabaptist
• Chrismation
• Christifideles
• Consolamentum
• Jesus-Name doctrine
• Catechumen
• Sacrament

People and ritual objects

• Baptismal font
• Mikvah
• Holy water
• Church
• Godparent
• John the Baptist
• Chrisom

Resources

• "In Defense of Infant Baptism" Issues Etc. Journal (http://www.issuesetc.org/resource/journals/v2n3.htm#In%20Defense%20of%20Infant%20Baptism)
• Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (Faith and order paper). World Council of Churches, 1982. ISBN 978-2-8254-0709-7
• Jungkuntz, Richard. The Gospel of Baptism. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1968.
• Kolb, Robert. Make Disciples Baptizing: God's Gift of New Life and Christian Witness. Fascicle Series, Number 1. St. Louis: Concordia Seminary Publications, 1997. ISBN 978-0-911770-66-7
• Scaer, David P. Baptism. Confessional Lutheran Dogmatics, Vol. XI. St. Louis: The Luther Academy, 1999. OCLC 41004868, ASIN B0006R304U
• Schlink, Edmund. The Doctrine of Baptism. Herbert J. A. Bouman, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1972. ISBN 978-0-570-03726-2
• Stookey, L.H. Baptism: Christ's Act in the Church. Nashville: Abingdon, 1982. ISBN 978-0-687-02364-6
• Ware, Timothy (Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia). The Orthodox Church (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books, 1993, pp 277-278. ISBN 978-0-14-014656-1
• Willimon, William. Remember Who You Are: Baptism and the Christian Life. Nashville: Upper Room, 1980. ISBN 978-0-8358-0399-1

External links

Jewish

• Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism
• The Mikvah - by Rivkah Slonim

Orthodox

• Baptism (orthodoxwiki.org)
• The Holy Mystery (orthodox.net)

Catholic

• Catholic Encyclopedia: Baptism
• Baptism - Catholic Sacrament of Initiation - Christening
• Catechism of the Catholic Church: Baptism
• St.Alphonsus on Baptism of Blood and Desire

Lutheran

• Frequently Asked Questions About Baptism from Evangelical Lutheran Church in America
• Frequently Asked Questions Concerning Baptism from Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod

Anglican

• Baptism, Confirmation & Affirmation of Baptismal Faith – An Introduction (Church of England)

Baptist

• Baptism in the Baptist Faith and Message (1963)

Methodist

• "By Water & the Spirit" (Official UMC Statement on Baptism)
• FAQs about Baptism, Membership, & Salvation (United Methodist Church General Board of Discipleship)

Mennonite

• Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online: Baptism

Mormon

• Mormon Baptism

Other Christian groups

• The Formula of Baptism
• Baptism Essential or Not links to differing views
• "Jesus Name" baptism
• Template:PDFlink
• Baptism according to the Church of Christ
• The Baptism of Christ - Uncovering Bethany beyond the Jordan - 47 min Documentary

and your mom goes to college