Polygyny

The term polygyny (neo-Greek: poly+gune Many + Wives) is used in related ways in social anthropology and sociobiology.

In social anthropology polygyny refers to the practice of a man having more than one wife at the same time. This is the most common form of polygamy. Polygynous marriage must be differentiated from polygamy in sexual partners. Monogamy, for example, may occur alongside sexually polygynous relations, such as Concubinage, casual sexual partners, paramours, recognized secondary partners, and a range of other patterns. Marriage itself takes an enormous range of forms cross-culturally. In biology, excluding references to marriage, polygyny would refer to a mating practice in which a male has more than one female sexual partner. (The opposite form—where a female has more than one male sexual partner —is known as polyandry). In eusocial insects polygyny refers to situations where colonies have multiple queens, and polyandry refers to queens that mate with several males. There are extensive cross-cultural research findings on polygyny by social anthropologists and others.

Definitions concerning polygyny as formal or persistent relationship structures, might be taken to refer to a system in which a male has relationships with a relatively defined social group of more than one female, or where the females are predominantly bonded to a single male, or where a combination of these features occurs, as in a harem structure where many women are openly involved.

Human polygyny

Polygyny has been practiced in many cultures throughout history. It was accepted in Hebrew society, in classical China, and was accepted in many traditional African and Polynesian cultures. In India, polygyny was practiced from ancient times onward^{[citation needed]}. It was accepted in ancient Greece prior to the Roman Empire and the Roman Catholic Church, but after the introduction of the Roman Empire and the Roman Catholicism, one wife, but multiple lovers was acceptable. Sub-saharan Africa was never under the influence of Rome, and has had polygamy legalized for the majority of the past two millennia. Messianic Christianity allowed and still allows polygyny in most non-western or non-Catholic controlled countries; it is regulated in the New Testament but not banned.

Polygyny was banned in the United States in 1890 as a result of laws passed concerning Mormon polygyny. It was allowed in the early Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Mormon -- LDS) church, but was ended in 1890 under government coercion prohibiting Utah from becoming a state as long as they allowed polygyny. Since 1904, members of the LDS church may face excommunication for being polygynous, though several sects of fundamentalist Mormons still actively practice it. These sects are not sanctioned by or affiliated with the LDS Church.

The economy of polygyny

In some societies only the well-to-do among men could afford to have more than one wife, particularly if each wife required maintenance of a separate household. The current traditional form of Islam permits as many as four wives, but depending on financial circumstances. Fewer wives are more common. The Qur'an itself does have a restriction on the number of wives, and Muhammad had more than four wives at the same time, the majority of them being the widows of fallen comrades or political brides to form bonds with various other clans. Even where accepted, polygyny will probably never involve the majority of men and women. Given a typical male to female ratio, imbalance of percentages of married/non-married people in the society is not a unique situation of polygyny: some men and women never obtain mates in monogamous cultures.

The required inheritance of widows requires men in some societies to marry the widow of a deceased brother. This levirate marriage helps provide support for her and increases his number of wives.

Modern polygamy

Polygamous marriages are not recognized in approximately 20% of modern societies ^{[citation needed]}. In societies where polygynous marriage is banned, polygamous male behavior may be observed in the establishment of mistresses, who are openly or secretly supported.

In some cases the male may have a second (or more) family with non-legally recognized wife, supporting her and his children. In some situations the wife not only is aware of the husband's mistress, but also has helped him select one that is "suitable" to his station. The estate of "mistress" or "concubine" does not rank as highly as "wife". In some societies, a mistress or concubine may be placed under the authority of a full wife^{[citation needed]}. A man may have as many full wives as he can support, with concubines assigned to each wife to aid in managing the rather large family.

Recent years have seen the emergence of Polyamory, wherein several people of both genders form either one large circle or several connected relationships.

The wives in a polygamous marriage

One modern viewpoint(1) adheres to the notion that polygyny degrades women, treating them as property and slaves. The inferior position that women experienced in polygynous societies is not acceptable by modern Western standards; however, the same could be said about the position of women in generally all traditional societies, polygynous or not.

Historically this has not been an accurate assessment. ^{[citation needed]} Polygyny was used in some societies to enhance certain genetic characteristics, and to weed out unhealthy characteristics^{[citation needed]}. Moreover, owing to the propensity of men to serve and die in wars or labour incidents^{[citation needed]}, women, for centuries, were more likely than men to be left unmarried or widowed. Polygyny ensured that such women were cared for and also helped ensure the births of the large numbers of children required for the survival of pre-mechanized, largely-agrarian cultures in which early mortality rates were high^{[citation needed]}.

In historical China, a child was considered to have more than one mother^{[citation needed]}. For example, a child might have up to four mothers, the first wife being the "official mother" (大媽), the others (including the biological mother) being regarded as stepmothers^{[citation needed]}. However, this custom was primarily a result of the concubinage system, where only the first wife was considered the "real" wife, the empress of the household. The concubines usually provided pleasure and servitude only, and their children were not regarded as officially theirs.

Polygyny in context

Christianity

Polygyny was practiced by many of the patriarchs in the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament including Abraham, Jacob, Moses, David and Solomon, and was practiced throughout the time of the New Testament and is still practiced today by many non-catholic believers. Historically, polygynous groups have been persecuted, some to near extinction such as the Anabaptists, the forerunners of the Baptists, Mennonites and Amish, and native North Americans. Many Christians in the United States believe that polygyny is wrong and claim there is New Testament Biblical evidence to support that stance. In Matthew 19:4 'And he answered and said unto them, Have ye not read, that he which made them at the beginning made them male and female, 5 And said, For this cause shall a man leave father and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall be one flesh? 6 Wherefore they are no more twain, but one flesh. What therefore God hath joined together, let not man put asunder'. In Genesis God had made only two humans, male and female.

The New Testament Church did ban polygyny for Elders, Deacons and Bishops (1 Timothy 3:2), much as the Priests of old were instructed to marry only virgins. If the analogy were to be followed through, then it would follow that while Deacons and Elders were required to have monogamous marriages, everyone else could marry as they pleased. There also appears to be a practical reason for Elders and Deacons to marry one wife and this is that the church of that day was divided differently than it is today. With the early believers the church was limited by city boundaries. There were no denominations or breaks within the church in a city, and every believer in that city was a part of that church. With the church numbering in the tens of thousands, an Elder would be so pressed for time that to take care of the church and a large family at the same time would have been nearly impossible and both the family and the church would have suffered. The result was a ban on plural marriage for these two groups of appointed officials, at least while they held office.

East Asia

Procreation, that is -- having offspring, is a very important value in Chinese societies and families. China has practiced polygyny for thousands of years. Polygyny had been legal and was written in the law as recently as the end of the Qing/Ching dynasty of the imperial China(1911).

Confucianism has stressed the ability of managing ones family of several wives. In the book of Great Learning (Daxue) wrote, "a man can first manage himself, then manage a family (of more than one set of wives & offsprings), then he can manage a small country, and then, he shall be able to unify and manage a nation." (格物、致知、誠意、正心、修身、齊家、治國、平天下 listed the 8 steps of learning and progress of the perfection of management skills from knowledge, oneself, one's family... to managing a nation.)

Emperors could have hundred to thousands of concubines. And subsequently rich officials and merchants could also have a number of concubines besides wives. The first wife is head or mother wife, other wives are under her headship if the husband is away, and others are concubines and have lower status than the full wives. Offspring from concubines did receive equal wealth/legacy from their father.

Through the thousand years of Chinese history, the particular nature of Chinese men is distilled down to a saying in traditional Chinese folklore wisdom: "A wife is not as good as a concubine, a concubine is not as good as prostitute, a prostitute is not as good as secret affair..." (妻不如妾, 妾不如妓, 妓不如偷, 偷不如偷不到)[1]

The original wife is referred to as the 正室 (main room) both in China & Japan. 大婆 (big woman/big wife) is the slang term. Both indicate the orthodox nature & hierarchy. The official wife is either called as "big mother" (大媽), mother or auntie. The child of the mistress simply addresses the big mother as auntie.

The written word for the second woman (and literally means "she who occupied the side room") is 側室. This word is also used in both China and Japan.

The everyday common terms referring to the second woman and the act of having the second woman respectively are 二奶 (er nai / yi nai) & 二奶包 (er nai cun / yi nai tsuen). The terms have been widely used in the media. [2] Though illegal, it is still practiced by many richer men who can afford so (supporting a second partner and subsequent children from her). The mass media often report polygyny cases of the Rich and the famous.

People's Republic of China (PRC)

In modern mainland China, polygamy (and by extension polygyny) is illegal under Marriage Law passed in 1951^{[citation needed]}, except for those members of an ethnic minority who traditionally practice polygamy (both polygyny and polyandry). Polygyny was seen as a characteristic of the bourgeoisie and as such, many senior Communist leaders who had mistresses and concubines during the Long March were forced to disband them. Because of this, polygyny is virtually unheard of in China today

However, with the opening up of the country and the increased contact with Hong Kong and Taiwan, certain polygamous activities began appearing. Cross-border polygyny is ever increasing between PRC, Hong Kong & ROC. ^{[citation needed]}.

Taiwan - Republic of China (ROC)

Polygyny is illegal. However, it is not uncommon for some richer Taiwanese to have secret second lovers who become concubines not living together with the wife^{[citation needed]}. Taiwanese merchants, businessmen and workers are stationed in mainland China during work trips, and it is not unusual to keep secret lovers or even secret families there.

Hong Kong & Macau

Polygyny was banned in October of 1971 but the practice is still evident. A famous example is Dr Stanley Ho who owned the Macau Casino in Lisboa. He has 4 wives (plus one more lover). His uncle has 12 wives.

In Hong Kong, since work pressure is extremely high and birth rate is the lowest among the world, many Hong Kong businessmen keep a secret concubine across the border in mainland China. One of the reasons is that the cost of maintaining a second family there in the PRC is lower. Girls in mainland China are also more willing to be a full-time mother at a younger age.

In a research paper of Berlin Humboldt University on sexiology, Doctor Man-Lun Ng quoted that the estimation of about 300,000 men have mistresses in China. In 1995, 40% of the extramarital affairs involved a stable partner [3] International Herald Tribune Kevin Murphy had reported the cross-border polygyny phenomenon in Hong Kong in 1995. [4]

Period drama exists and is performed to this day which depicts the former culture of the polygamy (usually polygyny) practice. A famous example: one of the saga (The Deer and the Cauldron / The Duke of the Mount Deer) by Hong Kong famous writer Louis Cha (Jin Yong): he assigned 7 willing wives for the very capable leading role Wai-Siu-Bo (Wei-Shao-Bao) who is a successful double spy good at office politics and human relations. The fiction and subsequent films and television drama became immensely popular among Chinese societies across the world.

Islam

Most majority Muslim countries (except Albania, Tunisia, Turkey, and former USSR republics) retain traditional Sharia which interpret the teachings of the Quran to permit polygyny up to four wives. Albania is a country where although about 70% of the population is historically Muslim, majority is non-confessional. Turkey and Tunisia are countries with absolute majority Muslim populations (99.8% and 98% respectively) that enforce secularist practices by law. In former USSR republics, prohibition of polygyny is the heritage of the Soviet Law. Currently there is a revival of polygyny in the Muslim World and there have been attempts to re-legalise and/or re-legitimise it in some countries and communities where it is illegal.

Russia

Ramzan Kadyrov, President of the Chechen Republic, was quoted on radio saying that the depopulation of Chechnya by war justifies legalizing polygamy/polygyny. [5] Kadyrov was supported by Nafigallah Ashirov, the Chairman of the Council of Grand Muftis of Russia. Ashirov stated that polygyny is already widespread among Muslim communities of the country. [6] Polygyny is illegal throughout the Russian Federation but it is tolerated in predominantly Muslim republics such as Chechnya, Ingushetia, and Dagestan. [7]

Although non-Muslim Russian populations are historically monogamous, Russian nationalist leader Vladimir Zhirinovsky offers to legalise polygyny in order to tackle the demographic crisis of Russians. Zhirinovsky who made his first proposal of legalisation of polygyny as early as 1993, after Kadyrov's statement declared that he would introduce an amendment to legalise polygyny for all Russian citizens. [8][9]

Kyrgyzstan

In Kyrgyzstan, a proposal to decriminalise polygny came before the Kyrgyz parliament. Although illegal, polygyny is a traditional practice revived in Kyrgyzstan. On March 26 2007, albeit strong backing of the Justice Minister, country's ombudsman, and Muslim Women's organisation Mutakalim that gathered 40,000 signatures in favour of polygyny, the parliament rejected the bill. President Kurmanbek Bakiyev is known as a prominent opponent of legalising polygyny. [10] [11]

Tajikistan

Due to subsequent increase in number of polygamous marriages, proposals were made in Tajikistan to re-legalise polygyny. [12] Tajik women who want to be second wives are particularly supportive of decriminalising polygyny. Mukhiddin Kabiri, the Deputy Chairman of Islamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan states that legislation is unlikely to stop the growth in polygny and criticises the ruling élite for speaking out against the practice while taking more than one wife themselves. [13]

Other former USSR republics

There were also recent arguments in favour of re-legalising polygyny in other Muslim ex-Soviet republics like Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan. [14]

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Muslim communities of Bosnia and Herzegovina had been traditionally known as practicing polygyny at a very limited level. The custom last existed in Cazinska Krajina in the early 1950s. [15] Although illegal in the country, polygyny is encouraged by certain religious circles and there is a current increase in number. This trend is usually seen linked with the advent of Wahhabism in the Balkans. [16]

Bosniak population in neighbouring Sandžak is also affected by the trend in Bosnia. There were attempts to adopt entire Islamic jurisdiction including polygyny but these moves were rejected. However, this could not bar the top cleric (Mufti of Novi Pazar) Muamer Zukorlić from taking a second wife. [17]

Turkey

In Turkey, polygyny has been strictly discouraged since the adoption of Turkish Civil Code in 1926, a milestone of Atatürk's secularist reforms. Although not allowed in the legislation and not approved by state authorities, polygamous marriages praised by imams who are, in the Turkish context, civil servants of Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı are conducted. Turkey, as a member of the OIC, is also a signatory of the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam that considers Sharia as the sole reference of human rights issues.[18]

Polygyny is a common occurrence in Kurdish villages. [19] Overall, polygyny is on the rise in Turkey. [20] An opinion poll in 2004 showed that 63% of Turks favoured polygyny. [21] On April 6 2007, Municipal Assembly of Çıplaklı (composed of members of the ruling moderate Islamist AK Parti and conservative-liberal ANAP) in Alanya unanimously adopted a resolution to support men who consider taking a second wife (kuma). People of Çıplaklı are Yörük, a Turkic ethnicity who practice transhumance. "When we go to the summer pastures and leave our wives behind, we feel very lonely." told Ali İhsan Topal, a member of the Assembly from AK Parti.[22]

United States

To understand the U.S. polygamous culture, it is very important to realize the tremendous diversity that exists among those who today refer to themselves as Fundamentalist Mormons. This is the general term that applies to those who believe in the fundamentalist principles and doctrines of the LDS gospel as taught by Joseph Smith and Brigham Young and as espoused by most of the membership of the LDS Church until the latter part of the 19th century. As a whole, Fundamentalist Mormons are peace-loving, hard-working, and very dedicated to their beliefs.

Included under the umbrella of Fundamentalist Mormons are two large fundamentalist groups, several smaller groups and the Independent Fundamentalists, who do not belong to any organized group:[23]

1. FLDS (United Effort Plan, UEP), Warren Jeffs, Colorado City/Hildale; TX, ID, CO and Canada (10,000) (Note: number may be too high – several are leaving for various reasons) (not to be confused with Fundamentalist Mormons in general)

2. AUB (Apostolic United Brethren, or Allred group), Lemoine Jensen (recently succeeded Owen Allred), Bluffdale, Utah (7,500), with communities in Rocky Ridge, Cedar City, Eagle Mountain, Pinesdale, Montana, etc.

3. Centennial Park (The Priesthood Work), John Timpson; established in 1986; located just south of Colorado City, but not affiliated with the FLDS. (1,500)

4. Davis County Co-op (Kingstons), Paul Kingston, SLC, Bountiful area (1,500)

Others:

Missouri communities: melting pot (600) (increasing with some departing from Col. City area)
Nielsen/Naylor group (separated from Centennial Park), SLC (200)
Winston Blackmore group (separated from FLDS), Bountiful, B.C., Canada (400)
TLC (True and Living Church of Saints of the Latter Days), Jim Harmston, Manti, Utah (200)

The number of Independent Fundamentalist Mormons is impossible to determine, but they probably total about 15,000. They range from active LDS Church members who remain quiet about their fundamentalist beliefs, to those who have been excommunicated from the mainstream church, to a few who have never even belonged to the LDS Church. Many of these people meet with extended family members or with other fundamentalist families.

So the most recent total of Fundamentalist Mormons is about 37, 000, with fewer than ½ of that number actually living in a polygamous family.

Besides the diversity in the formation of these groups, there are differences in the manner in which they practice their beliefs.

1. Dress and Hair. Probably the most noticeable are the pioneer dress and hair styles of the women in the isolated area of Colorado City/Hildale. The appearance of most other fundamentalist women who have assimilated into society is less distinctive, keeping in mind that modesty is very important. Someone commented recently that attending an Allred meeting was like stepping back into the 1950’s, and in Colorado City, it was like going back to the 1850’s.

2. Authority. From group to group there is a difference in their claims of Priesthood authority and the extent of control the leaders should exercise over their members.

3. Doctrines. They are even differences in doctrinal beliefs and in the carrying out of various doctrines and ordinance work other than plural marriage.

4. LDS Church. Feelings and opinions about the LDS Church vary from very sympathetic toward the church to more antagonistic.

Animal polygyny

File:POLYGYNY.JPG

Figure 1. Frequency of Marriage Types Across Cultures from the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample of pre-industrial societies (Murdock & White 1969)

Monogamy is rare among mammals; only 3% of species are monogamous ^{[citation needed]}. Monogamy is more common among primates: about 15% of species^{[citation needed]}. About 19% of human societies sampled for diversity (figure 1) are strictly monogamous, but the data on human polygyny suggest that in most societies most marriages are monogamous even though the majority of societies permit polygyny. Polyandry is very rare among mammals and humans [24].

Chimpanzees

Chimpanzees have a multi-male social organization, meaning that groups include several males and several females. Within chimp groups there appear to be several variations on mating patterns: The typical pattern is for several related males to dominate the group. This dominant fraternity shares sexual access to females and prevents other males from mating. A different pattern is for one male and one female to establish a kind of relationship, then when the female enters estrus, she and the male split off from the group for several weeks, when they have sex repeatedly in secluded parts of the forest. These “consortships” are temporary arrangements, sometimes between male and female friends and sometimes males coerce females into consortships. Males involved in consortships may or may not be part of the dominant male coalition. The frequency of consortships varies from one chimp group to the next, hinting at the kind of mating variation we see in humans. Sometimes a single dominant male chimp can monopolize sexual access to females and the group may be effectively polygynous for a time.

Polygyny will reduce the effective population size of a given closed population^{[citation needed]}.

The sociobiology of polygyny

Amongst vertebrates, especially so with mammals, polygyny is probably the most common mating system. The likelihood that a species displays polygyny is increased when the following characteristics are present:

Sexual dimorphism, where (in comparison with females) males are:
- more colourful
- larger
- more aggressive
- better equipped for fighting
Uniparental care of the young (with fathers contributing less than mothers to the care of offspring, or in some species contributing nothing at all)
Delayed sexual maturity among males (relative to females of the same species, or to males of related species with different mating systems)

Some species show facultative polygamy, where males mate with multiple females only when resource conditions are favourable. Recent research on voles has identified the genetic difference that predisposes one species to polygyny and another closely related species to pair bonding [[25]] The brain hormone mechanisms through which this very slight genetic difference acts have also been identified; they involve the response to vasopressin and oxytocin [[26]].

Bibliography

Korotayev, Andrey (2004). World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective (First Edition ed.). Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN 0-7734-6310-0. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)

External links