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William III of England

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William III & II
King of England, Ireland, and Scotland; Prince of Orange; Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand, Utrecht, Guelders and Overijssel
William III by Sir Godfrey Kneller
King of England, Scotland, and Ireland
Reign13 February 1689 – 8 March 1702
Coronation11 April 1689
PredecessorJames VII & II
SuccessorAnne
Prince of Orange
Reign14 November 1650 - 8 March 1702
PredecessorWilliam II
SuccessorJohn William Friso
Burial
Westminster Abbey, London
SpouseMary II of England
Names
William Henry
HouseHouse of Orange-Nassau
FatherWilliam II, Prince of Orange
MotherMary, Princess Royal

William III or William of Orange (14 November 1650 – 8 March 1702)[1] was the Prince of Orange from birth, Stadtholder of the main provinces of the Dutch Republic from 1672 onwards, and King of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 1689. Born a member of the House of Orange-Nassau, William III won the English, Scottish and Irish crowns following the Glorious Revolution, in which his uncle and father-in-law, James II, was deposed. In England, Scotland and Ireland, William ruled jointly with his wife, Mary II, until her death on 28 December 1694. He reigned as 'William II' in Scotland, and 'William III' in England and Ireland.[2] He is informally known in Northern Ireland and Scotland as "King Billy".

A Protestant, William participated in several wars against the powerful Catholic King Louis XIV of France in coalition with Protestant and Catholic powers in Europe. Many Protestants heralded him as a champion of their faith. Largely due to that reputation, William was able to take the British crowns where many were fearful of a revival of Catholicism under James. William's victory over James II at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690 is commemorated by the Orange Institution in Northern Ireland to this day. His reign marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centered rule of the House of Hanover.

Early life

William's parents, William II of Orange and Mary Stuart, Princess Royal.

Birth and family

William Henry of Orange, the only child of stadtholder William II, Prince of Orange and Mary, Princess Royal of England, was born in The Hague in the Dutch Republic on 4 November 1650.[3] Eight days before William's birth, his father died from smallpox; thus William was the Sovereign Prince of Orange from the moment of his birth.[4] Immediately a conflict ensued between the Princess Royal and William II's mother, Amalia of Solms-Braunfels, over the name to be given to the infant. Mary wanted to name him Charles after her brother, but her mother-in-law insisted on giving him the name William or Willem to bolster his prospects of becoming stadtholder.[5] William II had appointed his wife as his son's guardian in his will; however the document remained unsigned at William II's death and was void.[6] On 13 August 1651 the Dutch Hoge Raad (Supreme Council) ruled that guardianship would be shared between his mother, his paternal grandmother and Frederick William, the Elector of Brandenburg, whose wife, Louise Henriette, was his father's eldest sister.[7]

Childhood and education

William's mother showed little personal interest in her son, sometimes being absent for years, and had always deliberately kept herself apart from Dutch society.[8] William's education was first laid in the hands of several Dutch governesses, and some of English descent, including Walburg Howard. From April 1656 the Calvinist preacher Cornelis Trigland, a follower of the Contra-Remonstrant theologian Gisbertus Voetius, instructed the prince daily in the reformed religion.[9] A short treatise, perhaps by one of William's tutors, Constantijn Huygens, details the ideal education for William entitled Discours sur la nourriture de S.H. Monseigneur le Prince d'Orange.[10] In these lessons, the prince was taught that he was predestined to become an instrument of Divine Providence, fulfilling the historical destiny of the House of Orange.[11]

William's uncle, Charles II of England, took an interest in his upbringing.

From early 1659, William spent seven years at the University of Leyden for a formal education — though never officially enrolling as a student — under the guidance of ethics professor Hendrik Bornius.[12] While residing in the Prinsenhof at Delft, William had a small personal retinue including Hans Willem Bentinck, and a new governor: Frederick Nassau de Zuylestein, the illegitimate son of stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange. He was taught French until after the death of his mother by Samuel Chappuzeau, who was dismissed by William's grandmother early in 1661.[13]

On 25 September 1660 the States of Holland resolved to take charge of William's education to ensure he would acquire the skills necessary to serve in an as yet undetermined future state function.[14] This first involvement of the authorities would not last long, however. On 23 December 1660, when William was just ten years old, his mother died of smallpox at Whitehall Palace, London while visiting her brother King Charles II.[14] In her will, Mary requested that Charles look after William's interests, and the English King now demanded the States of Holland end their interference.[15] To appease Charles, they complied on 30 September 1661.[16] In 1661, Zuylenstein began to work for Charles, and induced William to write letters to the English king asking his uncle to interfere on his behalf to improve his prospects on the stadtholderate.[17] After his mother's death, William's education and guardianship became a point of contention between his dynasty's supporters and the advocates of a more republican Netherlands.[18]

The Dutch authorities did their best at first to ignore these intrigues, but in the Second Anglo-Dutch War one of Charles's peace conditions was the improvement of the position of his nephew.[17] As a countermeasure in 1666, when William was sixteen, the States of Holland officially made him a ward of the government, or a "Child of State".[17] All pro-English courtiers, including Zuylenstein, were removed from William's company.[17] William begged Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt to allow Zuylenstein to stay, but he refused.[19] De Witt, the leading politician of the Republic, took William's education into his own hands, instructing him weekly in state matters—and joining him in a regular game of real tennis.[19]

Early offices

Johan de Witt took over William's education in 1666.
Gaspar Fagel replaced De Witt as Grand Pensionary, and was more friendly to William's interests.

Exclusion from stadtholdership

Main article: First Stadtholderless Period

At William's father's death, the provinces had suspended the office of stadtholder. The Treaty of Westminster, which ended the First Anglo-Dutch War, had a secret annex attached on demand of Oliver Cromwell: the Act of Seclusion, which forbade the province of Holland to appoint a member of the House of Orange as stadtholder.[20] After the English Restoration, the Act of Seclusion, which had not remained a secret for very long, was declared void as the English Commonwealth (with which the treaty had been concluded) no longer existed.[21] In 1660, Mary and Amalia tried to convince several provincial States to designate William as their future stadtholder, but all initially refused.[21]

In 1667, as William III approached the age of eighteen, the Orangist party again attempted to bring him to power by securing for him the offices of stadtholder and Captain-General. To prevent the restoration of the influence of the House of Orange, De Witt allowed the pensionary of Haarlem, Gaspar Fagel, to induce the States of Holland to issue the Perpetual Edict (1667).[22] The Edict declared that the Captain-General or Admiral-General of the Netherlands could not serve as stadtholder in any province.[22] Even so, William's supporters sought ways to enhance his prestige, and on 19 September 1668, the States of Zealand received him as First Noble.[23] To receive this honour, William had to escape the attention of his state tutors and travel secretly to Middelburg.[23] A month later, Amalia allowed William to manage his own household and declared him to be of majority age.[24]

The province of Holland, the center of anti-Orangism, abolished the office of stadtholder and four other provinces followed suit in March 1670, establishing the so-called "Harmony".[22] De Witt demanded an oath from each Holland regent (city council member) to uphold the Edict; all but one complied.[22] William saw all this as a defeat, but in fact this arrangement was a compromise: De Witt would have preferred to ignore the prince completely, but now his eventual rise to the office of supreme army commander was implicit.[25] De Witt further conceded that William would be admitted as a member of the Raad van State, the Council of State, then the generality organ administering the defence budget.[26] William was introduced to the council on 31 May 1670 with full voting powers, despite De Witt's attempts to limit his role to that of an advisor.[27]

Conflict with republicans

In November 1670, William obtained permission to travel to England to urge Charles to pay back at least a part of the 2,797,859 guilder debt the House of Stuart owed the House of Orange.[28] Charles was unable to pay, but William agreed to reduce the amount owed to 1,800,000 guilder.[28] Charles found his nephew to be a dedicated Calvinist and patriotic Dutchman, and reconsidered his desire to show him the Secret treaty of Dover with France, directed at destroying the Dutch Republic and installing William as "sovereign" of a Dutch rump state.[28] In addition to differing political outlooks, William found that Charles's and James's lifestyles differed from his own, being more concerned with drinking, gambling, and cavorting with mistresses.[29]

The following year, the Republic's security deteriorated quickly as an Anglo-French attack became imminent.[30] In view of the threat, the States of Gelderland wanted William to be appointed Captain-General as soon as possible, despite his youth and inexperience.[31] On 15 December 1671 the States of Utrecht made this their official policy.[32] On 19 January 1672 the States of Holland made a counterproposal: to appoint William for just a single campaign.[33] The prince refused this and on 25 February a compromise was reached: an appointment by the States-General of the Netherlands for one summer, followed by a permanent appointment on his twenty-second birthday.[33] Meanwhile, William had written a secret letter to Charles in January 1672 asking his uncle to exploit the situation by exerting pressure on the States-General to appoint William stadtholder.[34] In return, William would ally the Republic with England and serve Charles's interests as much as his "honour and the loyalty due to this state" allowed.[34] Charles took no action on the proposal, and continued his war plans with his French ally.

Becoming stadtholder

"Disaster year": 1672

Main article: Rampjaar

For the Dutch Republic 1672 proved calamitous, becoming known as the "disaster year" (Dutch: rampjaar) due to the Franco-Dutch War and the Third Anglo-Dutch War in which the Netherlands were invaded by France under Louis XIV, England, Münster, and Cologne. Although the Anglo-French fleet was disabled by the Battle of Solebay, in June the French army quickly overran the provinces of Gelderland and Utrecht. William on 14 June withdrew with the remnants of his field army into Holland, where the States had ordered the flooding of the Dutch Water Line on 8 June.[35] Louis XIV, believing the war was over, began negotiations to extract as large a sum of money from the Dutch as possible.[36] The presence of a large French army in the heart of the Republic caused a general panic, and the people turned against de Witt and his allies.[36]

On 4 July the States of Holland appointed William stadtholder, and he took the oath five days later.[37] The next day, a special envoy from Charles, Lord Arlington, met with William in Nieuwerbrug. He offered to make William Sovereign Prince of Holland in exchange for his capitulation — whereas a stadtholder was a mere civil servant.[38] When William refused, Arlington threatened that William would witness the end of the republic's existence.[38] William made his famous answer: "There is one way to avoid this: to die defending it in the last ditch". On 7 July, the inundations were complete and the further advance of the French army was effectively blocked. On 16 July Zealand offered the stadtholderate to William.[37]

Johan de Witt had been unable to function as Grand Pensionary after having been wounded by an attempt on his life on 21 June.[39] On 15 August William published a letter from Charles, in which the English King stated that he had made war because of the aggression of the de Witt faction.[40] The people thus incited, de Witt and his brother, Cornelis, were murdered by an Orangist civil militia in The Hague on 20 August.[40] After this William replaced many of the Dutch regents with his followers.[41]

Though William's complicity in the lynching has never been proven (and some 19th century Dutch historians have made an effort to disprove that he was an accessory before the fact) he thwarted attempts to prosecute the ringleaders, and even rewarded some with money, and others with high offices, like Johan van Banchem and Johan Kievit.[42] This damaged his reputation in the same fashion as his later actions at Glencoe.

William III continued to fight against the invaders from England and France, allying himself with Spain and Brandenburg. In November 1672 he took his army to Maastricht to threaten the French supply lines.[43] By 1673, the situation further improved. Although Louis took Maastricht and William's attack against Charleroi failed, Lieutenant-Admiral Michiel de Ruyter defeated the Anglo-French fleet three times, forcing Charles to end England's involvement by the Treaty of Westminster; after 1673, France slowly withdrew from Dutch territory (with the exception of Maastricht), while making gains elsewhere.[44]

Fagel now proposed to treat the liberated provinces of Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel as conquered territory (Generality Lands), as punishment for their quick surrender to the enemy.[45] William refused but obtained a special mandate from the States-General to newly appoint all delegates in the States of these provinces.[45] William's followers in the States of Utrecht on 26 April 1674 appointed him hereditary stadtholder.[46] The States of Gelderland on 30 January 1675 offered the titles of Duke of Guelders and Count of Zutphen.[47] The negative reactions to this from Zealand and the city of Amsterdam, where the stock market collapsed, made William ultimately decide to decline these honours; he was instead appointed stadtholder of Gelderland and Overijssel.[47]

Marriage

William married his first cousin, the future Queen Mary II, in 1677.

In the midst of war with France, William sought to improve his diplomatic position by a marriage to his cousin, Mary Stuart, the daughter of James, Duke of York and eleven years his junior. Although he anticipated resistance to a Stuart match from the Amsterdam merchants who had disliked his mother (another Mary Stuart), William believed that marrying Mary would increase his chances of succeeding to Charles's kingdoms, and would draw England's monarch away from his pro-French policies.[48] James was not inclined to consent, but Charles pressured his brother to go along.[49] Charles wanted to use the possibility of marriage to gain leverage in negotiations relating to the war, but William insisted that the two issues be decided separately.[50] Charles relented, and Bishop Henry Compton married the couple on 4 November 1677.[51] Mary became pregnant soon after the marriage, but miscarried. After a further illness later in 1678, she never conceived again.[52]

Throughout William and Mary's marriage, William had only one acknowledged mistress, Elizabeth Villiers, in contrast to the many mistresses his uncles openly kept.[53]

Homosexual accusations

During the 1690s rumours of William's homosexual inclinations grew and led to the publication of many satirical pamphlets.[54] He had several male favourites, including two Dutch courtiers to whom he granted English dignities: Hans Willem Bentinck became Earl of Portland, and Arnold Joost van Keppel was created Earl of Albemarle. These close relationships with men and the lack of mistresses led William's enemies to suggest that he preferred homosexual relationships. William's modern biographers still disagree on the veracity of these allegations, with some insisting that they were figments of his enemies' imaginations,[55] and others suggesting that there may have been some truth to the rumours.[56][57]

Bentinck's closeness to William aroused jealousies, but some modern historians doubt that there was a homosexual element about their relationship.[58] The same could not be said for Keppel, who was 20 years William's junior and strikingly handsome, and had risen from being a royal page to an earldom with suspicious ease.[59] Portland wrote to William in 1697 that 'the kindness which your Majesty has for a young man, and the way in which you seem to authorise his liberties ... make the world say things I am ashamed to hear'.[60] This, he said, was 'tarnishing a reputation which has never before been subject to such accusations'. William replied, saying, 'It seems to me very extraordinary that it should be impossible to have esteem and regard for a young man without it being criminal'.[60]

Peace with France, intrigue with England

Portrait of William by Peter Lely. Shown here aged 27.

By 1678, Louis sought peace with the Dutch Republic.[61] Even so, tensions remained: William remained very suspicious of Louis, thinking the French king desired "Universal Kingship" over Europe; Louis described William as "my mortal enemy" and saw him as an obnoxious warmonger. France's small annexations in Germany (the Réunion policy) and the recalling of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, caused a surge of Huguenot refugees to the Republic.[62] This led William III to join various anti-French alliances, such as the Association League, and ultimately the League of Augsburg (an anti-French coalition that also included the Holy Roman Empire, Sweden, Spain and several German states) in 1686.[63]

After his marriage, William became a possible candidate for the English throne if his father-in-law (and uncle) James would be excluded because of his Catholicism. During the crisis concerning the Exclusion Bill in 1680, Charles at first invited William to come to England to bolster the king's position against the exclusionists, then withdrew his invitation—after which Lord Sunderland also tried unsuccessfully to bring William over but now to put pressure on Charles.[64] Nevertheless, William secretly induced the States-General to send the Insinuation to Charles, beseeching the king to prevent any Catholics from succeeding him, without explicitly naming James.[65] After receiving indignant reactions from Charles and James, William denied any involvement.[65]

In 1685, when James II succeeded Charles, William at first attempted a conciliatory approach, whilst at the same time trying not to offend the Protestants in England.[66] William hoped James would join the League of Augsburg, but by 1687 it became clear that James would not join the anti-French alliance.[66] Relations worsened between William and James thereafter.[67] In November, James's wife Mary of Modena was announced to be pregnant.[68] That month, to gain the favour of English Protestants, William wrote open letter to the English people in which he disapproved of James's religious policies. Seeing him as a friend, and often having maintained secret contacts with him for years, many English politicians began to negotiate an armed invasion of England.[69]

Glorious Revolution

Main article: Glorious Revolution

Invasion of England

The Arrival of William III by Sir James Thornhill. William landed in England on 5 November (Guy Fawkes day); a day already special in the Protestant calendar.

William at first opposed the prospect of invasion, but most historians now agree that he began to assemble an expeditionary force in April 1688, as it became increasingly clear that France would remain occupied by campaigns in Germany and Italy, and thus unable to mount an attack while William's troops would be occupied in Britain.[70][71] Believing that the English people would not react well to a foreign invader, he demanded in a letter to Rear-Admiral Arthur Herbert that the most eminent English Protestants first invite him to invade.[72] In June, James's wife, Mary of Modena, bore a son (James Francis Edward Stuart), who displaced William's wife to become first in the line of succession.[73] Public anger also increased due to the trial of seven bishops who had publicly opposed James's religious policies and had petitioned him to reform them.[74]

On 30 June 1688—the same day the bishops were acquitted—a group of political figures known afterward as the "Immortal Seven", sent William a formal invitation.[72] William's intentions to invade were public knowledge by September 1688.[75] With a Dutch army, William landed at Brixham in southwest England on 5 November 1688.[76] He came ashore from the ship Brill, proclaiming "the liberties of England and the Protestant religion I will maintain". William had come ashore with approximately 11,000 foot and 4,000 horse soldiers.[77] James's support began to dissolve almost immediately upon William's arrival; Protestant officers defected from the English army (the most notable of whom was Lord Churchill of Eyemouth, James's most able commander), and influential noblemen across the country declared their support for the invader.[78]

James at first attempted to resist William, but saw that his efforts would prove futile.[78] He sent representatives to negotiate with William, but secretly attempted to flee on 11 December.[79] A group of fishermen caught him and brought him back to London.[79] He successfully escaped in a second attempt on 23 December.[79] William permitted James to leave the country, not wanting to make him a martyr for the Roman Catholic cause.[80]

Proclaimed King

Silver crown coin of William III, dated 1695. The Latin inscription is (obverse) GVLIELMVS III DEI GRA[TIA] (reverse) MAG[NAE] BR[ITANNIAE], FRA[NCIAE], ET HIB[ERNIAE] REX 1695. English: "William III, By the grace of God, King of Great Britain, France, and Ireland, 1695." The reverse shows the arms, clockwise from top, of England, Scotland, France, and Ireland, centered on William's personal arms of the House of Orange-Nassau.

In 1689, William summoned a Convention Parliament to discuss the appropriate course of action following James's flight.[81] William felt insecure about his position; though only his wife was formally eligible to assume the throne, he wished to reign as King in his own right, rather than as a mere consort.[82] The only precedent for a joint monarchy in England dated from the sixteenth century, when Queen Mary I married the Spanish Prince Philip.[83] Philip remained King only during his wife's lifetime, and restrictions were placed on his power. William, on the other hand, demanded that he remain as King even after his wife's death.[84] Although the majority of Tory Lords proposed to acclaim her as sole ruler, Mary, remaining loyal to her husband, refused.[85]

On 13 February 1689, Parliament passed the Declaration of Right, in which it deemed that James, by attempting to flee, had abdicated the government of the realm, thereby leaving the Throne vacant.[86] The Crown was not offered to James's eldest son, James Francis Edward (who would have been the heir-apparent under normal circumstances), but to William and Mary as joint Sovereigns.[82] It was, however, provided that "the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in and executed by the said Prince of Orange in the names of the said Prince and Princess during their joint lives".[82]

William and Mary were crowned together at Westminster Abbey on 11 April 1689 by the Bishop of London, Henry Compton.[87] Normally, the coronation is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, but the Archbishop at the time, William Sancroft, refused to recognise James's removal.[87] On the day of the coronation, the Convention of the Estates of Scotland—which was much more divided than the English Parliament—finally declared that James was no longer King of Scots.[88] William and Mary were offered the Scottish Crown; they accepted on 11 May.[89]

Revolution settlement

Statue of an idealised William III by John Michael Rysbrack erected in Queen Square, Bristol in 1736.

William III of England encouraged the passage of the Act of Toleration (1689), which guaranteed religious toleration to certain Protestant nonconformists.[81] It did not, however, extend toleration as far as William wished, still restricting the religious liberty of Roman Catholics, non-trinitarians, or those of non-Christian faiths.[87] In December 1689, one of the most important constitutional documents in English history, the Bill of Rights, was passed.[90] The Act—which restated and confirmed many provisions of the earlier Declaration of Right—established restrictions on the royal prerogative; it was provided, amongst other things, that the Sovereign could not suspend laws passed by Parliament, levy taxes without parliamentary consent, infringe the right to petition, raise a standing army during peacetime without parliamentary consent, deny the right to bear arms to Protestant subjects, unduly interfere with parliamentary elections, punish members of either House of Parliament for anything said during debates, require excessive bail or inflict cruel and unusual punishments.[81] William was opposed to the imposition of such constraints, but he chose not to engage in a conflict with Parliament and agreed to abide by the statute.[91]

The Bill of Rights also settled the question of succession to the Crown. After the death of either William or Mary, the other would continue to reign. Next in the line of succession was Mary II's sister, the Princess Anne, and her issue.[90] Finally, any children William might have had by a subsequent marriage were included in the line of succession. Roman Catholics, as well as those who married Catholics, were excluded.[90]

Rule with Mary II

Parliament and faction

Although the Whigs were William's strongest supporters, he initially favoured a policy of balance between the Whigs and Tories.[92] The Marquess of Halifax, a man known for his ability to chart a moderate political course, gained William's confidence early in his reign.[93] The Whigs, a majority in Parliament, had expected to dominate the government, and were disappointed that William denied them this chance.[94] This "balanced" approach to governance did not last beyond 1690, as the conflicting factions made it impossible for the government to pursue effective policy, and William called for new elections early that year.[95]

After the Parliamentary elections of 1690, William began to favour the Tories, led by Danby and Nottingham.[96] While the Tories favoured preserving the king's prerogatives, William found them unaccommodating when he asked Parliament to support his continuing war with France.[97] As a result, William began to prefer the Whig faction known as the Junto.[98] The Whig government was responsible for the creation of the Bank of England. William's decision to grant the Royal Charter in 1694 to the Bank, a private institution owned by bankers, is his most relevant economic legacy.[99] It laid the financial foundation of the English take-over of the central role of the Dutch Republic and Bank of Amsterdam in global commerce in the 18th century.

William dissolved Parliament in 1695, and the new Parliament that assembled that year was led by the Whigs. There was a considerable surge in support for William following the exposure of a Jacobite plan to assassinate him in 1696.[100] Parliament passed a bill of attainder against the ringleader, John Fenwick, and he was beheaded in 1697.[101]

War in Europe

William continued to be absent from the realm for extended periods during his war with France, leaving each spring and returning to England each autumn.[102] England joined the League of Augsburg, which then became known as the Grand Alliance.[103] Whilst William was away fighting, his wife, Mary II, governed the realm, but acted on his advice. Each time he returned to England, Mary gave up her power to him without reservation, an arrangement that lasted for the rest of Mary's life.[104]

Resistance at home

Although most in England accepted William as Sovereign, he faced considerable opposition in Scotland and Ireland. The Scottish Jacobites—those who believed that James VII was the legitimate monarch—won a stunning victory on 27 July 1689 at the Battle of Killiecrankie, but were nevertheless subdued within a month.[105] William's reputation suffered following the Massacre of Glencoe (1692), in which 78 Highland Scots were murdered or died of exposure for not properly pledging their allegiance to the new King and Queen.[106] Bowing to public opinion, William dismissed those responsible for the massacre, though they still remained in his favour; in the words of the historian John Dalberg-Acton, "one became a colonel, another a knight, a third a peer, and a fourth an earl."[106]

In Ireland, where the French aided the rebels, fighting continued for much longer, although James II had to flee the island after William's victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690, a victory commemorated annually by Northern Irish Protestants on the The Twelfth of July.[107] After the Anglo-Dutch fleet defeated a French fleet at La Hogue in 1692, the allies for a short period controlled the seas, and Ireland was pacified thereafter by the Treaty of Limerick.[108] At the same time, the Grand Alliance fared poorly in Europe, as William lost Namur in the Spanish Netherlands in 1692, and was badly beaten at the Battle of Landen in 1693.[109]

Later years

Scottish and English Royalty
House of Stuart
Mary II & William III
William III

Mary II died of smallpox in 1694, leaving William III to rule alone.[110] William deeply mourned his wife's death.[111] Despite his conversion to Anglicanism, William's popularity plummeted during his reign as a sole Sovereign.[112]

Peace with France

Louis XIV of France was William's life-long enemy; an uneasy peace agreed in 1697 was soon broken.

In 1696, the Dutch territory of Drenthe made William its Stadtholder. In the same year, Jacobites made an attempt to restore James to the English throne by assassinating William III, but the plot failed. In accordance with the Treaty of Rijswijk (20 September 1697), which ended the Nine Years' War, Louis recognised William III as King of England, and undertook to give no further assistance to James II.[113] Thus deprived of French dynastic backing after 1697, Jacobites posed no further serious threats during William's reign.

As his life drew towards its conclusion, William, like many other European rulers, felt concern over the question of succession to the throne of Spain, which brought with it vast territories in Italy, the Low Countries and the New World. The King of Spain, Charles II, was an invalid with no prospect of having children; amongst his closest relatives were Louis XIV (the King of France) and Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor. William sought to prevent the Spanish inheritance from going to either monarch, for he feared that such a calamity would upset the balance of power. William and Louis XIV agreed to the First Partition Treaty, which provided for the division of the Spanish Empire: Duke Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria would obtain Spain, while France and the Holy Roman Emperor would divide the remaining territories between them.[114] Charles II accepted the nomination of Joseph Ferdinand as his heir, and war appeared to be averted.[115]

When, however, Joseph Ferdinand died of smallpox, the issue re-opened. In 1700, the two rulers agreed to the Second Partition Treaty (also called the Treaty of London), under which the territories in Italy would pass to a son of the King of France, and the other Spanish territories would be inherited by a son of the Holy Roman Emperor.[116] This arrangement infuriated both the Spanish—who still sought to prevent the dissolution of their empire—and the Holy Roman Emperor, to whom the Italian territories were much more useful than the other lands.[116] Unexpectedly, the invalid King of Spain, Charles II, interfered as he lay dying in late 1700.[117] Unilaterally, he willed all Spanish territories to Philip, a grandson of Louis XIV. The French conveniently ignored the Second Partition Treaty and claimed the entire Spanish inheritance.[117] Furthermore, Louis XIV alienated William III by recognising James Francis Edward Stuart—the son of the former King James II, who had died in 1701—as King of England.[118] The subsequent conflict, known as the War of the Spanish Succession, continued until 1713.

British succession

The Spanish inheritance was not the only one which concerned William. His marriage with Mary II had not yielded any children, and he did not seem likely to remarry. Mary's sister, the Princess Anne, had borne numerous children, all of whom died during childhood. The death of William, Duke of Gloucester in 1700 left the Princess Anne as the only individual left in the line of succession established by the Bill of Rights.[119] As the complete exhaustion of the line of succession would have encouraged a restoration of James II's line, Parliament saw fit to pass the Act of Settlement 1701, in which it was provided that the Crown would be inherited by a distant relative, Sophia, Electress of Hanover and her Protestant heirs if Princess Anne died without surviving issue, and if William III failed to have surviving issue by any subsequent marriage.[120] (Several Catholics with genealogically senior claims to Sophia were omitted.) The Act extended to England and Ireland, but not to Scotland, whose Estates had not been consulted before the selection of Sophia.[120]

Death

Main article: Second Stadtholderless Period

In 1702, William died of pneumonia, a complication from a broken collarbone, resulting from a fall off his horse, Sorrel.[121] Because his horse had stumbled into a mole's burrow, many Jacobites toasted "the little gentleman in the black velvet waistcoat."[122] Years later, Sir Winston Churchill, in his epic the History of the English Speaking Peoples, put it more poetically when he said that the fall "opened the trapdoor to a host of lurking foes".[123] William was buried in Westminster Abbey alongside his wife.[124]

William's death brought an end to the Dutch House of Orange, members of which had served as stadtholder of Holland and the majority of the other provinces of the Dutch Republic since the time of William the Silent (William I). The five provinces of which William III was stadtholder—Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland and Overijssel—all suspended the office after his death. Under William III's will, Johan Willem Friso stood to inherit the Principality of Orange as well as several lordships in the Netherlands.[125] He was an agnatic relative of the Princes of Orange, as well as a descendant of William the Silent through a female line. However, King Frederick I of Prussia also claimed the Principality as the senior cognatic heir, stadtholder Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange having been his maternal grandfather and William III his first cousin.[126] Under the Treaty of Utrecht, which was agreed to in 1713, Frederick William I of Prussia (who kept the title as part of his titulary) ceded the Principality of Orange to the King of France, Louis XIV; Friso's son, William IV, shared the title of "Prince of Orange", which had accumulated high prestige in the Netherlands as well as in the entire Protestant world, with Frederick William after the Treaty of Partition (1732).[127][128]

Legacy

Statue of William III in front of Kensington Palace. Donated by William II, German Emperor in 1907.

William's primary achievement was to contain France when it was in a position to impose its will across much of Europe. His life was largely opposed to the will of Louis XIV of France. This effort continued after his death during the War of the Spanish Succession. Another important consequence of William's reign in England involved the ending of a bitter conflict between Crown and Parliament that had lasted since the accession of the first English monarch of the House of Stuart, James I, in 1603. The conflict over royal and parliamentary power had led to the English Civil War during the 1640s and the Glorious Revolution of 1688.[129] During William's reign, however, the conflict was settled in Parliament's favour by the Bill of Rights 1689, the Triennial Act 1694 and the Act of Settlement 1701.[129]

William endowed the College of William and Mary (in present day Williamsburg, Virginia) in 1693.[130] Nassau, the capital of the Bahamas, is named after Fort Nassau, which was renamed in 1695 in his honor.[131] Similarly Nassau County, New York a county on Long Island, is a namesake.[132] Long Island itself was also known as Nassau during early Dutch rule.[132] Though many alumni of Princeton University think that Princeton, N.J. (and hence the university) was named in his honor, this is probably untrue. Nassau Hall, at the university campus, is so named, however.[133]

The modern day Orange Institution is named after William III, and makes a point of celebrating his victory at the Boyne. New York City was briefly renamed New Orange for him in 1673 after the Dutch recaptured the city, which had been renamed New York by the British in 1665. His name was applied to the fort and administrative center for the city on two separate occasions reflecting his different sovereign status—first as Fort Willem Hendrick in 1673, and then as Fort William in 1691 when the English evicted Colonists who had seized the fort and city.[134]

Style and arms

Style

Royal styles of
William III of England
Reference styleHis Majesty
Spoken styleYour Majesty
Alternative styleSire

From 1672, William was "Stadtholder of Holland, Prince of Orange and Count of Nassau-Dillenburg".[135] After their accession in Great Britain, William and Mary used the style "King and Queen of England, Scotland, France and Ireland, Defenders of the Faith, etc."[136] (The claim to France was only nominal, and had been asserted by every English King since Edward III, regardless of the amount of French territory actually controlled, see English claims to the French throne). After Mary's death, William continued to use the same style, omitting the reference to Mary, mutatis mutandis.[citation needed]

Arms

The arms used by the King and Queen were: Quarterly, I and IV Grandquarterly, Azure three fleurs-de-lis Or (for France) and Gules three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II Or a lion rampant within a tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III Azure a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland); overall an escutcheon Azure billetty and a lion rampant Or (for Nassau).[137]

Ancestors

Family of William III of England
16. William I, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg
8. William the Silent
17. Juliana of Stolberg
4. Frederik Hendrik of Orange
18. Gaspard de Coligny
9. Louise de Coligny
19. Charlotte de Laval
2. William II, Prince of Orange
20. Konrad of Solms-Braunfels
10. Johan Albrecht I of Solms-Braunfels
21. Elisabeth of Nassau-Dillenburg
5. Amalia of Solms-Braunfels
22. Ludwig I of Sayn-Wittgenstein
11. Agnes of Sayn-Wittgenstein
23. Elisabeth of Solms-Laubach
1. William III
24. Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley
12. James I of England
25. Mary I of Scotland
6. Charles I of England
26. Frederick II of Denmark
13. Anne of Denmark
27. Sofie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
3. Mary, Princess Royal
28. Antoine de Bourbon
14. Henry IV of France
29. Jeanne III of Navarre
7. Henrietta Maria of France
30. Francesco I de' Medici
15. Maria de Medici
31. Johanna of Austria

In popular culture

William has been played on screen by:

The Baroque Cycle series of books by Neal Stephenson prominently feature William of Orange.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ a b During William's lifetime, two calendars were in use in Europe: the Julian or 'Old Style' Calendar in Britain and parts of Eastern Europe, and the Gregorian or 'New Style' Calendar elsewhere, including William's birthplace in the province of Holland and some other parts of the Netherlands. At William's birth, Gregorian dates were ten days ahead of Julian dates: thus William was born on 14 November 1650 by Gregorian reckoning, but on 4 November 1650 by Julian. Moreover, the English new year began on 25 March (the feast of the Incarnation) and not on 1 January (until the general adoption of the Gregorian Calendar in Great Britain and Ireland in 1752). At William's death, Gregorian dates were now eleven days ahead of Julian dates. He died on 8 March 1702 by the Julian Calendar still applying in Britain, but on 19 March 1702 by the Gregorian Calendar. Unless otherwise noted, the remainder of the dates in this article follow the Julian Calendar.
  2. ^ "Act of Union 1707, the Revolution in Scotland". UK Parliament. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
  3. ^ Claydon, 9
  4. ^ Claydon, 14
  5. ^ Troost, 26; van der Zee, 6–7
  6. ^ Troost, 26
  7. ^ Troost, 26–27. The Prussian prince was chosen because he could act as a neutral party mediating between the two women, but also because as a possible heir he had an interest in protecting the Orange family fortune, which Amalia feared Mary would squander.
  8. ^ Van der Kiste, 5–6; Troost, 27
  9. ^ Troost, 34–37
  10. ^ Troost, 27. The author may also have been Johan van den Kerckhoven. Ibid.
  11. ^ Troost, 36–37
  12. ^ Troost, 37–40
  13. ^ Meinel
  14. ^ a b Troost, 43
  15. ^ Troost, 43–44
  16. ^ Troost, 44
  17. ^ a b c d Troost, 49
  18. ^ Van der Kiste, 12–17
  19. ^ a b Van der Kiste, 14–15
  20. ^ Troost, 29–30
  21. ^ a b Troost, 41
  22. ^ a b c d Troost, 52–53
  23. ^ a b Van der Kiste, 16–17
  24. ^ Troost, 57
  25. ^ Troost, 53–54
  26. ^ Troost, 59
  27. ^ Troost, 60
  28. ^ a b c Troost, 62–64
  29. ^ Van der Kiste, 18–20
  30. ^ Troost, 64
  31. ^ Troost, 65
  32. ^ Troost, 66
  33. ^ a b Troost, 67
  34. ^ a b Troost, 65–66
  35. ^ Troost, 74
  36. ^ a b Troost, 78–83
  37. ^ a b Troost, 76
  38. ^ a b Troost, 80–81
  39. ^ Troost, 75
  40. ^ a b Troost, 85–86
  41. ^ Troost, 89–90
  42. ^ Rowen, H.H. (1986) John de Witt: Statesman of the "true Freedom", Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521527082, p. 222; Nijhoff, D.C. (1893) Staatkundige Geschiedenis van Nederland. Tweede Deel, pp. 92-93, and fn.4 p. 92; Robert Fruin, "De schuld van Willem III en zijn vrienden aan den moord der gebroeders de Witt", in De Gids (1867), pp. 201-218[1]
  43. ^ Troost, 122
  44. ^ Troost, 128–129
  45. ^ a b Troost, 106–110
  46. ^ Troost, 109
  47. ^ a b Troost, 109–112
  48. ^ Van der Kiste, 38–39
  49. ^ Van der Kiste, 42–43
  50. ^ Van der Kiste, 44–46
  51. ^ Van der Kiste, 47
  52. ^ Chapman, 86–93
  53. ^ Van der Zee, 202-206
  54. ^ Culture and Society In Britain, J. Black (ed.), Manchester, 1997. p97
  55. ^ Van der Kiste, 204–205; Baxter, 352
  56. ^ Troost, 25–26
  57. ^ Henry and Barbara Van der Zee, William and Mary, London, 1973
  58. ^ Van der Kiste, 205
  59. ^ Van der Kiste, 201
  60. ^ a b Van der Kiste, 202–203
  61. ^ Troost, 141–145
  62. ^ Troost, 153–156
  63. ^ Troost, 156–163
  64. ^ Troost, 150–151
  65. ^ a b Troost, 152–153
  66. ^ a b Troost, 173–175
  67. ^ Troost, 180–183
  68. ^ Troost, 189
  69. ^ Troost, 186
  70. ^ e.g.Troost, 190
  71. ^ Claydon, Tony (September 2004; rev. May 2008). "William III and II (1650–1702)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2008-08-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) (Subscription required)
  72. ^ a b Troost, 191
  73. ^ Troost, 191; van der Kiste, 91–92
  74. ^ Van der Kiste, 91
  75. ^ Troost, 193–196
  76. ^ Troost, 200–203; van der Kiste, 102–103
  77. ^ Van der Kiste, 105
  78. ^ a b Troost, 204–205
  79. ^ a b c Troost, 205–207
  80. ^ Baxter, 242–246; Miller, 208
  81. ^ a b c Davies, 614–615
  82. ^ a b c Troost, 207–210
  83. ^ Davies, 469; Israel, 136
  84. ^ Van der Kiste, 107–108
  85. ^ Troost, 209
  86. ^ Troost, 210–212
  87. ^ a b c Troost, 219–220
  88. ^ Troost, 266–268
  89. ^ Davies, 614–615. William was "William II" of Scots, for there was only one previous Scottish King named William.
  90. ^ a b c Van der Kiste, 114–115
  91. ^ Troost, 212–214
  92. ^ Troost, 220–223
  93. ^ Troost, 221
  94. ^ Van der Zee, 296–297
  95. ^ Troost, 222; van der Zee, 301–302
  96. ^ Troost, 223–227
  97. ^ Troost, 226
  98. ^ Troost, 228–232
  99. ^ Claydon, 129–131
  100. ^ Van der Zee, 402–403
  101. ^ Van der Zee, 414
  102. ^ Troost, 239–241; van der Zee, 368–369
  103. ^ Troost, 241–246
  104. ^ Van der Kiste, 150–158
  105. ^ Troost, 270–273
  106. ^ a b Troost, 274–275
  107. ^ Troost, 278–280
  108. ^ Troost, 281–283
  109. ^ Troost, 244–246
  110. ^ Van der Kiste, 179–180
  111. ^ Van der Kiste, 180–184
  112. ^ Van der Kiste, 186–192; Troost, 226–237
  113. ^ Troost, 251
  114. ^ Troost, 253–255
  115. ^ Troost, 255
  116. ^ a b Troost, 256–257
  117. ^ a b Troost, 258–260
  118. ^ Troost, 260
  119. ^ Troost, 234
  120. ^ a b Troost, 235
  121. ^ Van der Kiste, 251–254
  122. ^ Van der Kiste, 255
  123. ^ Churchill, 30–31
  124. ^ "William III". Westminster Abbey Official site. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
  125. ^ Israel, 959–960
  126. ^ Israel, 962, 968
  127. ^ Israel, 991–992
  128. ^ "Text of the Treaty of Partition" (in French). Heraldica. Retrieved 2008-08-08.
  129. ^ a b Claydon, 3–4
  130. ^ "Historical Chronology, 1618 - 1699". College of William and Mary. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
  131. ^ Craton, Michael (1992). Islanders in the Stream: A History of the Bahamian People. University of Georgia Press. p. 101. ISBN 0820321222. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  132. ^ a b "History of Nassau County". Nassau County website. Retrieved 2008-07-30.
  133. ^ Norris, Edwin Mark (1917). The Story of Princeton. Little,Brown. pp. 5–6.
  134. ^ The History of North America by Guy Carleton Lee by Guy Carleton Lee Francis and Francis Newton Thorpe Published 1904 Published by G. Barrie & sons, p. 167 The Dutch Under English Rule
  135. ^ Ashley, Mike (1998). The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens. London: Robinson. p. 693. ISBN 1841190969.
  136. ^ The Guinness Book of Answers. London: Guinness Publishing. 1991. p. 709. ISBN 0-85112-957-9.
  137. ^ Maclagan, Michael (1999). Line of Succession: Heraldry of the Royal Families of Europe. London: Little, Brown & Co. pp. 29–30. ISBN 0-85605-469-1. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)

References

  • Baxter, Stephen B., William III and the Defense of European Liberty, 1650-1702 (1966) ASIN: B000OKZST4
  • Chapman, Hester W., Mary II: Queen of England (1953)
  • Churchill, Winston. A History of the English-Speaking Peoples: Age of Revolution. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, (2002). ISBN 0-304-36393-6
  • Claydon, Tony, William III: Profiles in Power (2002) ISBN 0582405238
  • Davies, Norman, The Isles: A History (1999) ISBN 0195134427
  • Israel, Jonathan I., The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness, and Fall, 1477-1806 (1995) ISBN 0198207344
  • Meinel, Freidrich, Samuel Chappuzeau 1625-1701. Dissertation, University of Leipzig, (1908)
  • Miller, John, James II: A Study in Kingship (1991) ISBN 0-413-65290-4
  • Robb, Nesca, William of Orange (1962)
  • Troost, Wout, William III, The Stadholder-king: A Political Biography (2005) (translation by J.C. Grayson) ISBN 0754650715
  • Van der Kiste, John, William and Mary (2003) ISBN 0750930489
  • Van der Zee, Henri and Barbara, William and Mary (1973) ISBN 0394480929
  • Waller, Maureen, Sovereign Ladies: Sex, Sacrifice, and Power. The Six Reigning Queens of England. St. Martin's Press, New York (2006) ISBN 0-312-33801-5

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to William III of England.
William III of England and Orange & II of Scotland
Cadet branch of the House of Nassau
Born: 14 November 1650 Died: 8 March 1702
Regnal titles
Preceded by Prince of Orange
1650 – 1702 		Succeeded by
Baron of Breda
1650 – 1702 		Succeeded by
Preceded by King of England
King of Ireland
1689 – 1702
with Mary II (1689–1694) 		Succeeded by
King of Scotland
1689 – 1702
with Mary II (1689–1694)
English royalty
Preceded by Heir to the English, Scottish and Irish Thrones
as heir apparent to Mary II
13 February 1689 – 28 December 1694 		Succeeded by
Political offices
Preceded by Stadtholder of Holland and Zealand
1672 – 1702 		Vacant
Title next held by
William IV
Stadtholder of Utrecht
1674 – 1702
Stadtholder of Guelders and Overijssel
1675 – 1702
Preceded by Lord High Admiral
1689 		Succeeded by


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