Swaminarayan
Swaminarayan | |
|---|---|
 Portrait of Swaminarayan under a Neem tree in Gadhada | |
| Organization | |
| Philosophy | Vaishnavism |
| Senior posting | |
| Guru | Ramanand Swami |
| Honors | Founded Swaminarayan Sampraday, venerated as an Avatar of god Narayana in the Swaminarayan Faith |
Swaminarayan (Gujarati: સ્વામિનારાયણ, Devnagari: सवमिनारायन, IAST: Svāmīnārāyaṇa) (2 April 1781 – 1 June 1830),[1] or Sahajanand Swami, is the central figure in a modern form of Hinduism known as the Swaminarayan Faith and is the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday in which followers offer devotion to Swaminarayan as the final manifestation of god.[2] Swaminarayan is also known by the names Ghanshyam Pande, Ghanshyam Maharaj, Shreeji Maharaj, Hari Krishna Maharaj, and Shri Hari.
Swaminarayan was born Ghanshyam Pande in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh India in 1781. In 1792, he began to undertake a 7 year pilgrimage across India adopting the name Nilkanth Varni. He settled in the West Indian state of Gujarat in 1799, where he preached his doctrine. In 1799, he was initiated into the Uddhav Sampraday by his guru, Ramanand Swami and given the name Sahajanand Swami. In 1802, his guru handed over the leadership of the Uddhav Sampraday to him and then died. Sahajanand Swami held a gathering and gave the Swaminarayan Mahamantra. From here onwards he came to be known as Swaminarayan and was believed to be god by his followers. The Uddhav Sampraday henceforth came to be known as the Swaminarayan Sampraday.
The Swaminarayan Sampraday under Swaminarayan's leadership grew manifold. According to Sir John Malcolm, Governor of Bombay form 1827 to 1830 Swaminarayan had helped bring some stability to a lawless region. [3] He enjoyed a good relationship with the British Imperial Government. He built 6 temples in his lifetime. The first one, in Ahmedabad was built on land gifted by the govermnent opened on a grand scale, with crowds of over 50,000 people according to government records. The British officers were so mesmerised by the structure that they gave it a 101 gun salute. [4] [5] Swaminarayan propagated vegetarianism, abstinence from illicit sex, alcohol and tobacco, suicide, theft and robbery, false accusations, blasphemy; company of atheists and heretics. In 1826 he wrote the Shikshapatri, which the The Gazeteer of the Bombay Presidency summarised as a book of social laws that his followers should follow. [6] The Shikshapatri can also be called a rule book that followers of Swaminarayan (called Satsangis) must follow. It gives details of general and religious behaviour expected from them. [7]
The Swaminarayan Sampraday is based on Vedic scriptures. He composed various new scriptures and appointed 500 paramhansas to spread his philosophy. It is believed that on the 1 June 1830, Swaminarayan gathered all his followers and announced decision to take Samādhi and did so after making this announcement. He was cremated according to hindu rites at Laxmi Wadi in Gadhada.[8][9] Before he did this, he set up a line of Acharyas and two dioceses as his successors. The appointment of the Acharyas as head of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, their duties and the division between the two dioceses was set forth by him in minute detail in a document called the Desh Vibhag Lekh, a document which has been accepted as his last and final testament by the Bombay High Court. After his death several people challenged this and separated from the Swaminarayan Sampraday, forming their own groups and claiming succesorship to Swaminarayan. [10] [11]
Life
According to legend, it was events that took place at Badarikashram, the abode of NarNarayan, that led to the incarnation of Swaminarayan.[12] It is believed that Narayan took birth as Swaminarayan due to a curse of Rishi Durvasa.[12] With the advent of kaliyug, immoral situation had spread in India and evil people had also tremendously increased.[12] Hence he had accepted the curse, which was due to his own will, to take avatar on earth to destroy evil and establish Ekantik-dharm (Religion based on morality, knowledge, non-attachment and devotion).[12] Important Hindu scriptures such as the Geeta and Bhagavat Purana confirm that Narayan discends in human form to destroy evil (though there is no direct reference to Swaminarayan). Swaminarayan followers specifically interpret the Vishwaksena Samhita, 11th part of the Brahma Purana, as well as the Skanda Purana as giving a direct reference to Narayan taking birth in the form of Swaminarayan. In the liturgy of the sect, the story of the announcement of the coming birth of Krishna in the Bhagavata Purana is similar to the story of the birth of Swaminarayan, and merging of the images and stories of Swaminarayan and Krishna has occurred.[13] In Vaishnava mythology Uddhava, who is considered to be the chief disciple of Krishna, was ordained to spread his message in a future birth, and some groups of Swaminarayan Faith believe that he reappeared as Ramananda Swami to prepare the way for another manifestation of Krishna.[14][15]
Childhood
Swaminarayan was born outside of Gujarat in Chhapaiya, Uttar Pradesh, a small village near Ayodhya, in the Hindi-speaking area of present-day Uttar Pradesh. [16] He was named Ghanshyam Pande by his parents, Hariprasad Pande (father, also known as Dharmadev) and Premvati (mother, also known as Bhaktimata) in the Brahmin caste of Sarvariya.[16] He had two brothers, Rampratap Pande, his older brother, and Icharam Pande, his younger brother.[17][18] His father took the responsibility of teaching him about the shastras or Hindu scriptures.
Swaminarayan was born on the occasion of Ram Navami, hence Chaitra Sud Nom of the Vikram Samvat calendar is celebrated as both Rama Navami and Swaminarayan Jayanti by his followers. This celebration marks the beginning of the ritual calendar for his followers, starting with the birthday of Swaminarayan on the ninth day of the bright half of the month of Chaitra in the Indian calendar which is generally between the months of March and April.[19]
Travels
After the death of both of his parents, Ghanshyam Pande left his home at age 11 on 29 June 1792.[20] He took the name Nilkanth Varni while on his journey. Nilkanth Varni traveled across India and parts of Nepal in search of an ashram or sampradaya that practiced what he considered a correct understanding of Vedanta, Samkhya, Yoga, and Pancaratra (the four primary schools of Hinduism). [21]
To find an ashram that correctly practiced the meaning of these four primary schools of Hinduism, he asked the following five questions on the basic Vaishnava Vedanta categories:
- What is jīva?
- What is Īśvara?
- What is Maya?
- What is Brahman?
- What is Parā brahman?
While on his journey, Nilkanth Varni mastered ashtanga yoga or eightfold yoga.[22] In the year 1799, Nilkanth's journey as a yogi eventually concluded in Loj, a village in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. In Loj, Nilkanth Varni was introduced to Muktanand Swami, a senior disciple of Ramanand Swami who was twenty-two years older than Nilkanth. [23] answered the five questions satisfactorily.
He decided to stay to get an opportunity to meet and become a disciple of Ramanand Swami.[24] Nilkanth received a chance to meet Ramanand Swami ten months after his arrival to Gujarat.
Leadership as Sahajanand Swami
Nilkanth's understanding of the metaphysical and epistemological concepts of the pancha-tattvas (five eternal entities as outlined above) combined with the level of his mental and physical discipline are said to have inspired even the senior sadhus of Ramanand Swami.
Nilkanth Varni received sannyasa initiation and with this initiation he received the name Sahajanand Swami or Narayan Muni to signify his new status by Ramanand Swami on 20 October 1800.[13]
At the age of 21 he was given the headship of the sect known as Uddhav Sampraday, later known as Swaminarayan Sampraday,[21] with the blessings of his guru Ramanand Swami, who handed over the reins to him and died.[13]
Mantra
Sahajanand Swami was later known as Swaminarayan after the mantra he taught at a gathering, in Faneni a fortnight after the death of Ramanand Swami.[25] A name given to him by Ramananda was Narayan Muni, but from this time the name takes on special meaning, and he is called Swaminarayan. He is said to have intimated that he was a manifestation of God Supreme in a meeting with the Reginald Heber (who was then the Lord Bishop of Calcutta) in the year 1825. [26] He gave his followers a new mantra to repeat in their rituals: Swaminarayan.[13] As early as 1804 Sahajanand Swami who had performed innumerous miracles, was described as a manifestation of God, in the first work written by a disciple, Nishkulananda Swami. This work is called the Yama Danda and has historical value within the Swaminarayan sect because it is the first written piece of literature in the sect.[27]
Temples
Sahajanand Swami ordered the construction of the following six mandirs and himself installed the images of various deities, such as Nara-Narayana Dev, LaxmiNarayan Dev, Radha Krishna Dev, Radha Ramana Dev, Revti Baldevji, and many other images.
Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Ahmedabad
This temple was constructed in 1822. This is the world's first Swaminarayan Temple. The land for construction was gifted by the British Imperial Government. The task of constructing this pilgrimage place was entrusted personally by Swaminarayan to Ananandand Swami. It was constructed as per scriptural norms with intricate carving in pure Burma teak and constructed with sculptural art by depicting deities' episodes, auspicious symbols and religious icons representing axiomatic religion and Indian culture. NarNarayan Dev occupies the principle position of worship in the temple.
Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Bhuj
On the request of devotees from Bhuj, Swaminarayan asked Vaishnavananand Swami to proceed with a team of the saints to Bhuj and construct a temple. Vaishnavanand Swami and the accompanying sadhus went to Bhuj in 1822, camped at the place neighbouring the land of temple. They drew plans of the temple, complex, executed the plans with minute details and within a short span of one year, they built a temple abode of NarNarayan Dev.
Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Vadtal
The town of Vadtal is also sometimes known as Vadtal Swaminarayan. The temple here is in the shape of a lotus, with nine domes in the inner temple. The land for this shrine was donated by Joban Pagi, a dacoit (bandit) converted into a devotee by Swaminarayan. The temple was constructed under the supervision of Brahmanand Swami. The construction of this temple was completed within fifteen months and the altars of Laxminarayan Dev were installed by Swaminarayan on 3 November 1824. Swaminarayan also installed his own murti in vadtal naming it Harikrishna Maharaj.
Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Dholera
Dholera itself is an ancient port-city, 30 k.m. away from Dhandhuka in Ahmedabad District. The making this temple with three domes was supervised and planned by Nishkulanand Swami, Atmanand Swami, Akshardanand Swami and Dharmprasad Swami. The land for this abode of Gods, was gifted by Darbar Punjabhai. On 19 May 1826 Swaminarayan installed the images of Madan Mohan dev and his own image named Harikrishna Maharaj at the principal altar of the temple.
Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Junagadh
The city of Junagadh is nestled in the lap of Mount Girnar. The temple here has five magnificent domes and beautiful sculptures. The construction of this temple was supervised by Brahmanand Swami. The land for this shrine was gifted by King Hemantsinh of Jinabhai, Darbar of Panchala. On 1 May 1828 Swaminarayan installed the murtis of Ranchhodrai and Trikamrai on the principal altar of the temple.
Shri Swaminarayan Mandir, Gadhada
The land for constructing this temple in Gadhada (or Gadhpur), was donated by the court of Dada Khachar in Gadhada. Darbar Dada Khachar and his family were devotees of Swaminarayan. The temple was made in the courtyard of his own residence. This shrine has two stories and three domes.
It is decorated with carvings. Swaminarayan took part in the manual service in the construction of the temple, by taking part in masonry works. The forms of Gopinathji and Harikrishna were installed by him in this temple on 9 October 1828.
Other temples
Sahajanand Swami also ordered construction the following three temples. Although these temples were completed after his death, the Murti Pratishtas, idol installation ceremonies, were conducted by Sahajanand Swami.
There are hundreds of Swaminarayan temples around the globe today. According to Raymond Williams, Swaminarayan centres exist on four continents and have a total following of over five million and a saint order of well over 3,000.[1]
Scriptures
There are a number scriptures that were written by Swaminarayan and his followers that are of an importance within the faith. Among these, the Shikshapatri, written by Swaminarayan himself and the Vachanamrut are most important.
Shikshapatri
As a commentary to the practice and understanding of dharma, Swaminarayan composed the Shikshapatri, a small booklet containing 212 Sanskrit verses that outline the basic tenets of religious views that all his followers should follow to live a well-disciplined and moral life. It is also used in daily morning ritual.[28]
Other important works include the Satsangi Jeevan, Swaminarayan's authorized biography, and other scriptures, such as, Muktanand Kavya, Nishkulanand Kavya among others. The Bhakta Chintamani describes the life of Swaminarayan and was written by Nishkulanand Swami. The word "Chintamani" means philosopher's stone. [29]
Vachanamrut
Sahajanand Swami's philosophical, social, and practical teachings are contained in the Vachanamrut, a collection of 212 dialogues which were recorded by five followers from his spoken words. As a result, the Vachanamrut is the scripture most commonly used in the Swaminarayan sect. The Vachanamrut contains views on dharma (moral conduct), jnana (understanding of the nature of the atma and paramatma), vairagya (mental and physical detachment from material pleasure), and bhakti (pure, selfless devotion to God) - the four essentialities for a jiva (soul) to attain the salvation.
Paramahansas
Paramahansa is a title of honor sometimes applied to Hindu spiritual teachers who are regarded as having attained enlightenment. Paramhansas were the highest order of sannyasi in the sect. The followers of Swaminarayan believe that he initiated 500 such paramhansas in a single night. Paramhansas practiced strict restraint and spread the message of purity to many people.[30] Notable Swaminarayan Paramhansas include:
Muktanand Swami
Author of the Swaminarayan Aarti and literary works such as Muktanand Kavya, Swaminarayan sometimes called Muktanand Swami the "Mother of Satsang".
Gunatitanand Swami
Gunatitanand Swami was a prominent leader who gave valuable contribution to spreading of the Swaminarayan Sampraday. He was the head of Junagadh Temple for over 40 years.
Gopalanand Swami
Swaminarayan held Gopalanand Swami in very high regard and he was very learned in Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga. After the demise of Swaminarayan, the responsibility of the Swaminarayan Sampraday and the acharyas were left in the hands of Gopalanand Swami. Gopalanand Swami arranged for the image of Kastabhanjan Dev (Hanumanji) to be installed in the Sarangpur temple.
Brahmanand Swami
Like Muktanand Swami, Brahmanand Swami was a notable poet, his works are compiled in the Brahmanand Kavya. He was also distinguished in architecture - as evident in the temple buildings of Muli, Vadtal and Junagadh.
Premanand Swami
Premanand Swami was a poet as well as a singer. He compiled the Chesta Pad and Vandu Pad among other works. The Chesta Pad, is recited daily at all Swaminarayan temples, describes Swaminarayan's daily routine and habits while Vandu Pad describe the features and appearance of Swaminarayan.
Nishkulanand Swami
Nishkulanand Swami composed the Bhakta Chintamani, describing the life of Swaminarayan along with his activities, sermons, theories, and obstacles faced by him. He has also composed twenty-two other scriptural works on various subjects, which are complied in Nishkulanand Kavya.
Nityanand Swami
Nityanand Swami was the writer of several important works, such as the Hari Digvijay and the Shri Hanuman Kavach. He produced the first Gujarati translation of the Shikshapatri which was approved by Swaminarayan.
Charity
When Sahajanand Swami assumed the leadership of the Sampraday, he distributed food and drinking water for the needy. He opened Sadavritas at several places including Manavadar, Loj, Agatrai, Shader, Meghpur, Sardhar, Methan, Dhoraji, Jamvadi, Bhuj, Jamnagar, Faneni, Sankali, Jetpur, Kotda, Gadhada, Kariyani, JetaIpur, Ahmedabad etc. He ordered his followers to give grains to all in need, especially to the pilgrims and to the sadhus, irrespective or their caste and creed. Under his personal supervision wells and ponds at several places like Mangrol, Kariyani and other places were constructed.[31]
Education for Females
At that time, influential and wealthy individuals used to educate their girls through private and personal tutions. Male followers of Swaminarayan made arrangements to educate their female family members. The literacy rate among females began to increase, and they were able to give discourses on spiritual subjects. Females among the Sampraday consider Swaminarayan a pioneer of female education in India. [32] [33] [34]
Fundamentals of the Swaminarayan philosophy
The basic principle of Swaminaryan is Vishistadvaita (qualified non-dualism) propounded by Ramanujacharya. [35]
- Dharma (Religion): Proper conduct as defined in the revealed scriptures: 'Shrutis' and 'Smrutis' - known as Dharma.
- Bhakti (Devotion): Supreme love of soul combined in the consciousness of the glory of Supreme God - known as 'Bhakti'.
- Jnāna (Enlightenment): Awareness about the concepts of the soul, illusion, and God - known as 'Jnyana'.
- Vairagya (Renunciation): Detachment from all material possessions and absolute attachment towards God - known as 'Vairagya'.
- Māyā (Illusion): Named 'Tri-Gunatmika' i.e. illusion prevailomg in three qualities of Satva, Rajas and Tamas; To be possessed by Maya is considered to be caught in darkness; God is the lord of Maya who acts as the power of God; It breeds ego in one for his body and for the relatives of the body.
- Mukti - Moksha: Loving worship of God.
- Ātman (Self): Recognition of the ātman, after which one experiences a transcendental bliss, is achieved through bhakti yoga as outlined in the Bhagavad gita, according to the teachings of Lord Swaminarayan. It is the source of energy and is the real knower; It pervades the entire body and is the essence that differentiates matter and life; in character it is inseparable, impenetrable, indestructible and immortal.
- Paramātman (The Supreme Soul): It is omnipresent within the souls, just as soul is present in the body; it is independent and is the one who rewards the fala (fruits) to the souls. It is the source of infinite material universes and the First Cause. It has no prior causes, and is the inherent cause of all effects (i.e. law of causality or the Hindu concept of karma). [36]
Swaminarayan teachings are sometimes categorized as monotheism. It is not, however, the monotheism of the Christian West. Some do not understand and rebel against the notion of Sahajanand's worship of Krishna while Sahajanand also considered himself to be a manifestation of God.[37] It is believed by his followers that just as Krishna assumed as many forms as the number of divine maidens (gopis) with whom he danced, so he may manifest himself simultaneously in many forms.[38]
Iconographic scheme
One of the most prominent features of the heritage of Sahajanand Swami is temple architecture. The images in the temples built by Sahajanand Swami are the evidence of the priority of Krishna. The very first temple he constructed, in Ahmedabad in 1822, presents images of Nara Narayana, forms of Arjuna and Krishna, in the central altar. The altar to the left has murtis of Radha Krishna. All of the temples constructed during his life show some form of Krishna, and all temples since have such worshipable murtis. In the temples of the dioceses of Ahmedabad and Vadtal they are predominantly a central altar or a shrine. Human forms are predominant for an known exception of a temple at Sarangpur, where Hanuman is the central figure.[39]
Succession
Swaminarayan Sampraday
Prior to his death, Swaminarayan decided to establish a line of acharyas, or preceptors as his spiritual successors.[40] Swaminarayan established two gadis (seats of leadership). One seat was established in Ahmedabad (NarNarayan Dev Gadi) and the other one in Vadtal (LaxmiNarayan Dev Gadi) on Tuesday, November 21 1825 (Kartik Sud 11, Ekadashi). He appointed an acharya to each of these two gadis to pass on his message to others and to preserve his fellowship, Swaminarayan Sampraday. These acharyas came from his immediate family; he formally adopted a son from each of his two brothers, Rampratap and Ichcharam, and appointed them to the office of acharya. Ayodhyaprasad, son of his elder brother Rampratap, was appointed acharya of Ahmedabad Gadi, and Raghuvira, son of his younger brother Ichcharam, was appointed acharya of the Vadtal Gadi. Swaminarayan decreed that the office should be hereditary so that acharyas would maintain a direct line of blood descent from his family. [41] The administrative division of his followers into two territorial dioceses is set forth in minute detail in a document written by Swaminarayan called Desh Vibhaag Lekh.[42] The current acharyas of the Swaminarayan Sampraday are Acharya Shree Koshalendraprasadji Maharaj, of the Ahmedabad Gadi, and Acharya Shree Rakeshprasadji Maharaj, of the Vadtal Gadi. [43] [44]
After his death several divisions occurred with different understandings of the succession of leadership. The sect has split into various sub-sects listed below.[45]
Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha
The followers of the Bochasanwasi Shri Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS) believe that Gunatitanand Swami was the spiritual successor to Swaminarayan. Members of this faith believe in several occasions in which they believe Bhagwan Swaminarayan revealed to devotees that Gunatitanand Swami was Aksharbrahm manifest. These instances claimed by the devotees of BAPS have come to embody the philosophy known as Akshar Purushottam Upasana. This philosophical difference led to the creation of BAPS in 1907, by Shastriji Maharaj, who was believed by the devotees of BAPS to be the third spiritual successor of Swaminarayan, when he left the Vadtal Gadi of the Swaminarayan Sampraday and was legally excommunicated.[46] The current leader of BAPS is Pramukh Swami Maharaj.
At the time of legal dispute between Akshar Prushottam group and the Swaminarayan Sampraday the judge summarized his understanding of the root of the schism. He confirms that the "new group, now know as BAPS, "they have put Sahajanand Swami, an ascetic, over Shri Krishna, who admittedly enjoyed the pleasures of human beings. That is why the sect has set aside Goloka as the supreme heaven, because there Krishna is supposed to be enjoing himself with his gopis. This is I think one of the fundamental differences between the two sects and the schism cannot be bridged." [47]
Swaminarayan Gadi
The followers of the Swaminarayan Gadi believe that Gopalanand Swami was the spiritual successor to Bhagwan Swaminarayan. This difference in belief of succession led to the creation of Swaminarayan Gadi in the 1940s. The current leader of the Swaminarayan Gadi is Acharya Swamishree Purushottampriyadasji.[48]
Others
Many other groups have been formed after splitting from the Swaminarayan Sampraday, BAPS, or the Swaminarayan Gadi due to differences in belief. One of these groups that claim successorship is the Gunatit Samaj which is made up of four factions. The founder of the Gunatit Samaj is Kakaji or Kakashri.[49] Another group is Yogi Divine Society. The founder is Hariprasad Swami and their main mandir is Haridham in Vadodara.[50] Another group is the Swaminarayan Mandir Vasna Sanstha or SMVS. The group's founder is Devnandandasji Swamishri.[51]
Notes
Definitions from Wiktionary
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Quotations from Wikiquote
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Textbooks from Wikibooks
Resources from Wikiversity
- ^ a b Williams 2001
- ^ Dermott Killingley and Lloyd Ridgeon (2003). Major World Religions. Routledge. ISBN 0415297966. Retrieved November 1, 2008. Page 21
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 7
- ^ "The foundations of devotion". Asia Africa Intelligence Wire, Financial Times. 2003-03-04. Retrieved 2009-03-12.
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 29
- ^ M. G. Chitkara (1997). Hindutva. APH. Retrieved May 5, 2009. Page 230
- ^ Rae A. Earnshaw, John Vince (2008). Digital Convergence - Libraries of the Future. Springer. Retrieved May 5, 2009. Page 5
- ^ "About Sampraday".
- ^ Raymond Brady
Williams (2001). An Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 052165422X.
{{cite book}}: line feed character in|author=at position 14 (help); line feed character in|publisher=at position 21 (help)p.34-36 - ^ Williams 2001, pp. 35
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 36
- ^ a b c d "History of Incarnation of Lord Shree Swaminarayan".
- ^ a b c d Williams 2001, p. 77 Cite error: The named reference "Williams17" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 16
- ^ "Lord Swaminarayan".
- ^ a b Williams 2001, p. 13
- ^ "Early Days, Leaving Home".
- ^ "Lord Swaminarayan Bhagwan's Life".
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 141
- ^ "Nilkanth Varni".
- ^ a b Williams 2001, pp. 15
- ^ "Biography of Swaminarayan".
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 75
- ^ "Teenage Yogi".
- ^ "Meaning of Swaminarayan".
- ^ Raymond Brady
Williams (2004). Williams on South Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0754638561.
{{cite book}}: line feed character in|author=at position 14 (help)p.81 - ^ Williams 2001, pp. 17, 76, 189
- ^ "Vachanamrut and other literary works".
- ^ "Nishkulanand Swami in his early days" (PDF).
- ^ "Paramhansas".
- ^ "Food and water for the needy".
- ^ Martha Craven Nussbaum (2007). The clash within. Harvard University Press. Retrieved May 5, 2009. Page 322
- ^ "education of females".
- ^ "Bhagwan Swaminarayan's Life - Biography: Uplift of Women". www.swaminarayan.org. Retrieved 2008-06-07.
- ^ "Ramanujacharya".
- ^ "Vishistadvaita, The philosophy of the Swaminarayan Sect".
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 70
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 73
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 96
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 34
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 35
- ^ Williams 2001, pp. 36
- ^ "Vadtal, the delinquent in Swaminarayan family". Times of India. 2003-03-17. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
- ^ "Times Music cassette on Swaminarayan serial launched". Times of India. 2006-01-19. Retrieved 2009-03-30.
- ^ "Niche Faiths".
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 54
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 59
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 52
- ^ http://www.kakaji.org/kakashri.html Kakaji
- ^ http://www.yds.org/parampara/swamiji.php Yogi Divine Society
- ^ Williams 2001, p. 68
References
- Williams, Raymond (2001), Introduction to Swaminarayan Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521654227
- Williams, Raymond (2004), Williams on South Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works, Ashgate Publishing Ltd., ISBN 0754638561
- Dermott Killingley (2003). "Hinduism". In Ridgeon, Lloyd V. J. (ed.). Major world religions: from their origins to the present. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-29796-6.
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