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History of hip hop dance

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Further information: Hip-hop dance and international competitions, entertainment, and the dance industry
A b-boy performing in Union Square, San Francisco.

The history of hip-hop dance encompasses the people and events since the 1970s that contributed to the development of the early hip-hop dance styles of uprock, breaking, locking, popping, and electric boogaloo. Uprock and breaking were created by Black and Latino Americans in New York City. Locking, popping, and electric boogaloo—collectively referred to as the funk styles—were created by Black Americans in California. All these dance styles are different stylistically. They share common ground in their music and street origins, and in their improvisational nature which defines hip-hop dance.

More than 30 years old, hip-hop dance became widely known after the first professional breaking, locking, and popping crews formed in the 1970s. The most influential groups include the Rock Steady Crew, The Lockers, and The Electric Boogaloos who are responsible for the spread of breaking, locking, and popping respectively. The Brooklyn based dance style uprock influenced breaking early in its development. However, it never gained mainstream popularity. Electric boogaloo gained more notability because it is the namesake of the Electric Boogaloos crew. Both uprock and electric boogaloo are respected dance styles but neither are widely practiced.

Hip-hop dance is not a studio derived style. It is comparatively younger than ballet, ballroom dance, and modern dance and it was developed in urban neighborhoods without a formal process. All of these early substyles were brought about through a combination of events including inspirations from James Brown, DJ Kool Herc's invention of the break beat, Don Cornelius' creation of the TV show Soul Train, and the formation of street based dance crews. Events such as these were succeeded by the production of several films and international competitions which contributed to introducing hip-hop dance outside of the United States.

Birth of breaking

See also: B-boying

According to DJ Afrika Bambaataa[1] and b-boy Richard "Crazy Legs" Colón[2] the purest hip-hop dance style, breaking (commonly called "breakdancing"), began in the early 1970s as elaborations on how James Brown danced to his song "Get on the Good Foot".[3] People mimicked these moves in their living rooms, in hallways, and at parties. It is at these parties that breaking flourished and came into its own with the help of a young Clive Campbell. Campbell, better known as DJ Kool Herc, was a Jamaican American DJ who frequently spun records at neighborhood teenage parties in the Bronx. Can't Stop Won't Stop, a novel about the history of hip-hop culture, describes DJ Kool Herc's eureka moment in this way:

"I was smoking cigarettes and I was waiting for the records to finish. And I noticed people was waiting for certain parts of the record." It was an insight as profound as Ruddy Redwood's dub discovery. The moment when the dancers really got wild was in a song's short instrumental break, when the band would drop out and the rhythm section would get elemental. Forget melody, chorus, songs—it was all about the groove, building it, keeping it going. Like a string theorist, Herc zeroed in on the fundamental vibrating loop at the heart of the record, the break... " And once they heard that, that was it, wasn't no turning back. They always wanted to hear breaks after breaks after breaks after breaks."[4]

In response to this revelation, Herc developed the Merry-Go-Round technique to extend the breaks—the percussion interludes or instrumental solos within a longer work of music.[4][5] When he played a recorded break on one turntable, he repeated the break on the second turntable as soon as the first was finished. He then looped these records one after the other in order to extend the break as long as he wanted. It was during these times that the dancers later known as break-boys or b-boys would perform what is known as breaking.

Breaking, the original hip-hop dance style, at MTV Street Festival, Thailand.

Breaking started out strictly as toprock,[6] footwork oriented dance moves performed while standing up. Toprock usually serves as the opening to a breaker's performance before transitioning into other dance moves performed on the floor. A separate dance style that influenced toprock is uprock (also called Brooklyn uprock or rocking). The uprock dance style has its roots in gangs.[2][7] Uprock comes from Brooklyn, New York.[8] Although it looks similar to toprock, uprock is danced with a partner[9] and it is more aggressive involving fancy footwork, shuffles, hitting motions, and movements that mimic fighting.[6][10] When there was an issue over turf the two warlords of the feuding gangs would uprock. Whoever won this preliminary battle decided where the real fight would be.[2][10] This is where the battle mentality in hip-hop dance comes from.[11] Because uprock's purpose was to moderate gang violence, it never crossed over into mainstream breaking as seen today except for some very specific moves adopted by breakers who use it as a variation for their toprock.[7] Aside from James Brown and uprock, toprock was also influenced by "...tap dance, Lindy hop, salsa, Afro-Cuban, and various African and Native American dances."[12][13] From toprock, breaking progressed to being more floor oriented involving freezes, downrock, head spins, and windmills.[14][note 1] These new dance moves came about with the formation of crews[16]—groups of street dancers who get together and create dance routines.

"We didn't know what the f--- no capoeira was, man. We were in the ghetto! There were no dance schools, nothing. If there was a dance it was tap and jazz and ballet. I only saw one dance in my life in the ghetto during that time, and it was on Van Nest Avenue in the Bronx and it was a ballet school. Our immediate influence in b-boying was James Brown, point blank."

Richard "Crazy Legs" Colón;
Rock Steady Crew[2]

Rock Steady Crew (RSC) was founded in 1977 in the Bronx.[17] Along with Dynamic Rockers, New York City Breakers, and Afrika Bambaataa's Mighty Zulu Kings they are one of the oldest continually active breaking crews.[note 2] For others to get into the crew they had to battle one of the Rock Steady b-boys[17]—that was their audition so to speak. The crew flourished once it came under the leadership of b-boy Crazy Legs. Crazy Legs opened a Manhattan chapter of the crew and later made his friends and fellow b-boys Wayne "Frosty Freeze" Frost and Kenneth "Ken Swift" Gabbert co-vice presidents.[17][note 3] Rock Steady appeared in the movies Wild Style and Beat Street—'80s films about hip-hop culture. They also performed at the Ritz, at the Kennedy Center, and appeared on the Jerry Lewis Telethon.[17] RSC is now worldwide with member units in Japan, the UK, and Italy.[17]

It is easy to arrive at the conclusion that breaking came from the Afro-Brazilian martial art capoeira, "a form of self defense disguised as a dance."[13] Capoeira is hundreds of years older than breaking, uprock is similar in purpose to capoeira, and both breaking and capoeira are performed to music. Breaking was influenced by 1970s martial arts films.[21] However, "unlike the popularity of martial arts films, Capoeira was not seen in the Bronx Jams until the 1990s."[12] One major difference between both art forms is that in capoeira a competitor's back can never touch the ground.[22] In contrast, a breaker's back is always on the ground. Considering how there were no capoeira films or capoeira schools in the South Bronx in the '70s, it is unlikely breaking would have been birthed from it.[13]

Funk Styles

See also: Locking and Popping

As breaking was developing and evolving in New York, other styles of dance were developing at the same time in California.[23] Unlike breaking, the funk styles—which originated in the '70s in California—were not originally hip-hop dance styles: they were danced to funk music rather than hip-hop music and they were not associated with the other cultural pillars of hip-hop (DJing, graffiti writing, and MCing).[23][24] The funk styles are actually slightly older than breaking considering that locking was developed in the late 1960s.[25]

Like breaking, the different moves within the funk styles came about with the formation of crews. The Lockers were founded in Los Angeles by Don "Campbellock" Campbell who created locking.[26] Locking is characterized by consistently locking (freezing) in place while dancing. Campbell developed locking accidentally while pausing in between dance moves when trying to remember how to do "the funky chicken".[25][27] He developed routines based on his new style using these pauses or "locks".[25] Other dance moves performed in locking include "...points, skeeters, scooby doos, stop 'n go, which-away, and the fancies."[28] Campbell founded The Cambellock Dancers, later shortened to just The Lockers, in 1973.[25] The Lockers made appearances on Soul Train,[29] The Carol Burnett Show,[30] The Johnny Carson Show, the The Dick Van Dyke Show, and Saturday Night Live.[13] One of the original members of The Lockers was Adolpho "Shabba Doo" Quinones[31] who played a lead role in the 1984 movie Breakin'. Choreographer Toni Basil was also an original member of The Lockers[31] who doubled as the group's manager.

The Electric Boogaloos are another funk styles crew founded in Fresno in 1977[25] by Sam Solomon, Joe Thomas, and Nate Johnson.[30] Solomon, better known as Boogaloo Sam, is credited for developing popping and boogaloo.[23] Popping got its name because when Boogaloo Sam was performing it, he would say "pop, pop, pop" under his breath as he was popping his muscles to the music.[32] Electric boogaloo is a combination of boogaloo and popping.[32] Sometimes it is mistakenly called electric boogie. Boogaloo is both a style of dance and style of music. Bugalú was a style of music created in New York City by Cubans and Puerto Ricans that combined mambo, soul, and R&B music.[33] Boogaloo is a dance style created by Boogaloo Sam that is characterized by rolling hip, knee, and head movements.[32] Boogaloo Sam was influenced to create boogaloo by cartoons, the 1960s dances "the twist", James Brown's "the popcorn", and "the jerk", and the movements of everyday people.[13][30] Boogaloo got its name from song 'Do the Boogaloo' by James Brown.[32] So calling the dance "electric boogie" leaves out the original essence of where the dance came from. Electric boogaloo lost popularity after the '70s but it is still a respected dance form. It is the signature dance style of the Electric Boogaloos (the crew).[32]

In the '70s while Fresno was known for popping and Los Angeles for locking, several other cities in Northern California had their own styles. Oakland was known for a style called struttin, San Jose for dime stopping, and Sacramento for Sac-ing.[13] These styles faded and never became mainstream. (Ro)boting came from Richmond, California.[13] Charles "Charles Robot" Washington was a pioneer of this style of dance. Before touring with The Lockers, he had a crew called The Robot Brothers in the late 1960s.[34] In 1974, The Jackson 5 performed "Dancing Machine" on Soul Train which popularized (ro)boting.[35]

Though breaking and the funk styles are different stylistically they have always shared many surrounding elements such as their improvisational nature and the way they originated from the streets within Black and Latino communities. The funk styles were integrated into hip-hop in the 1980s when the culture reached the west coast of the United States.

Naming debates

See also: B-boying § Terminology

The 1970s media applied the term "breakdancing" to what was called breaking or b-boying in the street.[36][37][38] A break is a musical interlude during a song—the section on a musical recording where the percussive rhythms are most aggressive and hard driving. When 1970s hip-hop DJs played break beats, dancers reacted to those breaks with their most impressive dance moves.[37][39] DJ Kool Herc coined the terms "b-boys" and "b-girls" which stands for "break-boys" and "break-girls."[37]

When the movies Breakin' and Breakin' 2: Electric Boogaloo came out, they put all the styles of dance performed under the "breakdance" label causing a naming confusion domestically. In addition, Breakin was released internationally as Breakdance: The Movie causing a naming confusion abroad.[40] The media followed suit by calling all represented styles "breakdancing".[13][32][36] Breaking originated in the Bronx while the funk styles came from the west coast.[24] They are called funk styles because they were originally danced to funk music rather than hip-hop music.

Worldwide exposure

Hip-hop dance is now practiced worldwide. There were many steps in its history for it to come to the international acceptance it has today.

Year Contributor Event
1970 Don Cornelius Cornelius creates and executive produces Soul Train—the song-and-dance television program featuring R&B, funk music, soul music, and social dancing.[41] Soul Train was broadcast in South Korea via the U.S. Armed Forces Korea Network.[42] Before officially becoming a crew, The Lockers made several appearances on this show.[29]
1973 Don Campbell The Lockers, originally called The Campbellock Dancers, are founded in Los Angeles by Don "Campbellock" Campbell.[25][43]
1977 Sam Solomon;
Nate Johnson;
Joe Thomas 		The Electric Boogaloos are founded in Fresno, California by Sam "Boogaloo Sam" Solomon,[44] Nate "Slide" Johnson, and Joe "Robot Joe" Thomas.[30] Their name was originally the Electric Boogaloo Lockers but "Lockers" was dropped the following year[25][45] after the group moved from Fresno to Long Beach.[44] The Electric Boogaloos also appeared on Soul Train.[24]
Jamie "Jimmy D" White;
Santiago "Jo Jo" Torres 		The Rock Steady Crew is founded in New York City by b-boys Jimmy D and Jo Jo.[17][46]
1982 Ruza "Kool Lady" Blue Manager Kool Lady Blue organizes the New York City Rap Tour featuring Rock Steady Crew, Afrika Bambaataa, Cold Crush Brothers, the Double Dutch Girls, and Fab 5 Freddy.[47] This tour travels to England and France.[47][48]
Rock Steady Crew Wild Style opens in Japan.[48] Rock Steady Crew b-boys from the film perform breaking in Harajuku shopping district in Tokyo.[49]
Jeffrey Daniel During a performance on Top of the Pops, Jeffrey Daniel performed the backslide (moonwalk) for the first time on British television during the song "A Night to Remember" thus spreading its popularity in the United Kingdom.[note 4][52][53][54]
1983 Michael Jackson Jackson performs the moonwalk (called the backslide in popping context) on ABC's Motown 25 TV special.[note 5] This performance is broadcast all over the world.[57]
Rock Steady Crew;
Norman Scott 		Flashdance is released and becomes the first Hollywood film to feature b-boying[48] with a young Crazy Legs serving as a body double for Jennifer Beals' character Alex.[10] Crazy Legs, Frosty Freeze, Ken Swift, and Norman Scott (popper) all danced in this film that contributed to the exposure of hip-hop dance upon international release.
Rock Steady Crew RSC performs for Queen Elizabeth II at the Royal Variety Performance.[10][17]
1984 Breakin films Although Breakin' and its successor Breakin' 2: Electric Boogaloo caused a naming confusion, it did contribute to the exposure of popping, breaking, locking, and electric boogaloo upon international release. Dancers featured include Michael "Boogaloo Shrimp" Chambers, Adolpho "Shabba Doo" Quinones, Timothy "Popin Pete" Solomon, Ana "Lollipop" Sanchez, and Bruno "Popin Taco" Falcon.
New York City Breakers;
Rock Steady Crew 		Beat Street, a film about hip-hop culture, is released in West Germany introducing breaking, graffiti writing, and DJing to this part of Europe.[58] The film features a battle between the Rock Steady Crew and the New York City Breakers.
1985 Tony "Go Go" Lewis Tony Go-Go, one of the members of The Lockers, opens a locking school in Japan.[note 6][26]
1990 Thomas Hergenröther Hergenröther organizes Battle of the Year, the first and largest international breaking competition, in Germany.[59][60]
1994 Nancy "Asia One" Yu The first international B-Boy Summit is held.[61] It was founded by b-girl Asia One.[62]
2005 Rize This krumping documentary directed by David LaChapelle premieres at the Sundance film festival and is later screened internationally.[63] Pioneers of krumping Ceasare "Tight Eyez" Willis, Christopher "Lil' C" Toler, Marquisa "Miss Prissy" Gardner, and the inventor of clowning Tommy "The Hip-Hop Clown" Johnson all appear in this film.[64]
2007 University of East London UEL's Institute for Performing Arts (IPAD) starts intake for the only BA Dance degree program in the world specializing in hip-hop, urban, and global dance forms.[65]

Television, film, music videos, international performances, dance classes offered abroad, and now the Internet have contributed to the spread of hip-hop dance across the world. Although these styles first appeared on their own independent of each other they are all now accepted within the bigger hip-hop dance schema.

Footnotes

  1. ^ Crazy Legs invented the continuous back spin better known as the windmill.[10][15]
  2. ^ The Mighty Zulu Kings (MZK) were founded by Afrika Bambaataa in 1973—the same year he founded the Universal Zulu Nation.[18] Three of their members are Asia One, founder of the B-Boy Summit; Nacho Pop, choreographer on So You Think You Can Dance Australia; and Luis "Alien Ness" Martinez, MZK's president.[19]
  3. ^ Wayne "Frosty Freeze" Frost died on April 3, 2008.[20] He invented the suicide,[20] a move in which a dancer does a front flip and lands on their back.
  4. ^ Jeffrey Daniel learned the backslide from the Electric Boogaloos.[50][51]
  5. ^ Although Michael Jackson is responsible for popularizing the moonwalk, he did not invent it. He was taught by Jeffrey Daniel.[55][56]
  6. ^ Former locking world champions Hilty and Bosch are Japanese (see hip-hop dance external link video for locking).

References

  1. ^ "Breakdancing, Present at the Creation". NPR.org. National Public Radio. October 14, 2002. Archived from the original on November 28, 2010. Retrieved September 8, 2009.
  2. ^ a b c d Chang 2005, p.116
  3. ^ Chang 2005, p.76
  4. ^ a b Chang 2005, p.79
  5. ^ "Aug 11, 1973: Hip Hop is born at a birthday party in the Bronx". History.com. August 11, 2011. Retrieved August 12, 2011.
  6. ^ a b Chang 2005, p.115
  7. ^ a b Chang 2005, p.138
  8. ^ "B-Boy Knowledge - The Roots - Uprocking". Spartanic.ch. 2009. Archived from the original on 2010-05-28. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
  9. ^ Chang 2006, p.21 "The structure was different from b-boying/b-girling since dancers in b-boy/b-girl battles took turns dancing, while uprocking was done with partners."
  10. ^ a b c d e Edwards, Bob (April 25, 2003). "Profile: Rerelease of the classic hip-hop documentary "Style Wars"". Morning Edition (NPR). {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  11. ^ Crane, Debra (January 23, 2006). "What dance needs: a hip-hop operation". The Times (UK). p. 17. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  12. ^ a b Chang 2006, p.20
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h Pabon, Jorge (1999). "Physical Graffiti... The History of Hip Hop Dance". Davey D's Hip Hop Corner. eLine Productions. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  14. ^ Chang 2005, p.117-118, 138
  15. ^ "Crazy Legs Speaks". Davey D's Hip Hop Corner. eLine Productions. 2001. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved September 6, 2009.
  16. ^ Chang 2005, p.136
  17. ^ a b c d e f g Milosheff, Peter (July 7, 2008). "Rock Steady Crew 32nd Anniversary". Bronx.com. The Bronx Times. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved 2009-08-25.
  18. ^ "History of the Mighty Zulu Kings". Ness4.com. 2009. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
  19. ^ "MZK Members". Ness4.com. 2009. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved September 21, 2009.
  20. ^ a b Irwin, Demetria (2008). "Breakdancing pioneer, Frosty Freeze, passes away". New York Amsterdam News. 99 (17): 6. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ^ Chang 2006, p.20 "Early influences on b-boying and b-girling also included martial arts films from the 1970s."
  22. ^ Essien, Aniefre. Capoeira Beyond Brazil: From a Slave Tradition to an International Way of Life. Berkeley: Blue Snake Books. p. 31. ISBN 9781583942550. Cair no rolê: Roughly translated as "fall into a roll," this means that when you get knocked off your feet, don't fall flat on your back. Capoeiristas are supposed to be adept at this. In the game of capoeira only five parts of the body should touch the ground: your two hands, your two feet, and your head.
  23. ^ a b c Mackrell, Judith (September 28, 2004). "We have a mission to spread the word". Guardian.co.uk. The Guardian. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 16, 2009.
  24. ^ a b c Freeman, Santiago (July 1, 2009). "Planet Funk". DanceSpirit.com. Dance Spirit Magazine. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2009.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g Garofoli, Wendy (April 1, 2008). "Urban Legend". DanceSpirit.com. Dance Spirit Magazine. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
  26. ^ a b "The History of Locking". LockerLegends.net. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2009.
  27. ^ Chang 2006, p. 22
  28. ^ Chang 2006, p.22
  29. ^ a b "The Twilight Players Hall Of Fame". The Twilight Players. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
  30. ^ a b c d Chang 2006, p.23
  31. ^ a b "The Lockers". TheLockersDance.com. Retrieved August 28, 2010.
  32. ^ a b c d e f "'Funk Styles' History And Knowledge". ElectricBoogaloos.com. 2008. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 24, 2009.
  33. ^ "Boogaloo". SalsaCrazy.com. Retrieved July 1, 2010.
  34. ^ "Old School (O.G.) Hall of Fame". LockerLegends.net. Archived from the original on November 24, 2010. Retrieved November 24, 2010.
  35. ^ Don Cornelius (1973-11-03). "The Jackson 5". Soul Train. Season 3. Episode 10. {{cite episode}}: Unknown parameter |city= ignored (|location= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |serieslink= ignored (|series-link= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ a b Scholss, Joseph (2009). Foundation: B-boys, B-girls, And Hip-Hop Culture In New York. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 60. ISBN 019533406X.
  37. ^ a b c Israel (director) (2002). The Freshest Kids: A History of the B-Boy (DVD). QD3 Entertainment.
  38. ^ Klopman, Alan (January 1, 2007). "Interview with Popin Pete & Mr. Wiggles at Monsters of Hip Hop – July 7–9, 2006, Orlando, Fl". DancerUniverse.com. Dancer Publishing. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  39. ^ Kugelberg 2007, p.140
  40. ^ "Release dates for Breakin' (1984)". IMDb.com. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 16, 2009.
  41. ^ Stelter, Brian (June 17, 2008). "After 38 Years, 'Soul Train' Gets New Owner". NYTimes.com. The New York Times. Retrieved August 18, 2009.
  42. ^ Chang, Jeff (June 26, 2008). "So you think they can break-dance?". Salon.com. Salon Media Group. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 28, 2009.
  43. ^ Hess, Mickey, ed. (2007). Icons of hip hop: an encyclopedia of the movement, music, and culture. Vol. 1. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. xxi. ISBN 0313339031. 1973: The Lockers dance group is started in Los Angeles by Don Campbell, the inventor of the locking dance style...
  44. ^ a b "Electric Boogaloos Group History". TheElectricBoogaloos.com. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
  45. ^ Pope, Gregory; Higgins, James. "Is PopLocking a valid term?". LockerLegends.net. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  46. ^ Hess, Mickey, ed. (2007). Icons of hip hop: an encyclopedia of the movement, music, and culture. Vol. 1. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. xxii. ISBN 0313339031. 1977: The Rock Steady Crew is founded by Jojo and Jimmy D in the Bronx, New York.
  47. ^ a b Chang 2005, p.182-183
  48. ^ a b c Kugelberg 2007, p.59
  49. ^ Chang 2005, p.189
  50. ^ "'Bad' Choreographer Remembers Michael Jackson". NPR.org. June 26, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2011. Retrieved August 1, 2011.
  51. ^ "'I taught Jacko how to Moonwalk'". ThisIsNottingham.co.uk. November 06, 2009. Archived from the original on August 1, 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  52. ^ "Remembering Michael Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009)". SoulColture.com. June 25, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
  53. ^ "JEFFREY DANIEL". NigerialIdol.com. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
  54. ^ "Jeffrey Daniel joins judging panel of Nigerian Idol". AllStreetDance.co.uk. Retrieved July 15, 2011.
  55. ^ Dondoneau, Dave (October 2, 2009). "Meet the man who taught MJ to moonwalk". HonoluluAdvertiser.com. Archived from the original on August 1, 2011. Retrieved August 1, 2011.
  56. ^ Jeffrey Daniel, Benji Reid, Robert Hylton, Kymberlee Jay, Spider Billy and Rowdy (January 24, 2009). Jeffrey Daniel Street Dance with Michael Jackson, Don Campbell & Many Others (Adobe Flash video). Blast. Event occurs at 2:13. Retrieved April 11, 2010.
  57. ^ Jackson, Michael (2008). Thriller 25th Anniversary: The Book. ML Publishing Group Ltd. ISBN 0976889196.
  58. ^ Elflein, Dietmar (1998). "From Krauts with Attitudes to Turks with Attitudes: Some Aspects of Hip-Hop History in Germany". Popular Music. 17 (3): 255–265. doi:10.1017/S0261143000008539. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |trans_title= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  59. ^ "History of BOTY". BattleOfTheYear.com. Six Step GmbH. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 17, 2009.
  60. ^ Walker, Susan (May 30, 2008). "Wide world of break-dancing sports". Toronto Star. ISSN 0319-0781. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  61. ^ "About B-Boy Summit". BBoySummit.com. No Easy Props Productions. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 3, 2009.
  62. ^ Asia One (b-girl, narrator) (April 15, 2008). Asia One presents 9 lives (Adobe Flash video). Los Angeles. Retrieved August 3, 2009.
  63. ^ "Release dates for Rize". IMDb.com. Retrieved August 14, 2009.
  64. ^ Jones, Jen (September 1, 2005). "Behind the Scenes of David LaChapelle's Documentary "Rize"". DanceSpirit.com. Dance Spirit. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved September 24, 2009.
  65. ^ "IPAD Programmes". University of East London. 2006. Archived from the original on May 28, 2010. Retrieved August 23, 2009.

Sources

  • Chang, Jeff. Can't Stop Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation. New York: St. Martin's Press., 2005. ISBN 0-312-30143-X
  • Chang, Jeff. Total Chaos: The Art and Aesthetics of Hip-Hop. New York: BasicCivitas., 2006. ISBN 0-465-00909-3
  • Kugelberg, Johan. Born in the Bronx. New York: Rizzoli International Publications Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-7893-1540-3
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