Dzungar Khanate
Dzungar Khanate | |||||||||||||
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1634–1758 | |||||||||||||
![]() The Dzungar Empire (c. 1750) (in blue line) | |||||||||||||
Status | khaganate | ||||||||||||
Capital | A capital city in Ghulja.[1] | ||||||||||||
Common languages | Oirat, Eastern Turki (Modern Uyghur), Chagatai | ||||||||||||
Religion | Tibetan Buddhism | ||||||||||||
Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||||
Khan or Khong Tayiji | |||||||||||||
Legislature | Customary rules Mongol-Oirat Code of 1640 | ||||||||||||
Historical era | Early modern period | ||||||||||||
• Established | 1634 | ||||||||||||
• 1619 | The first Russian record of Khara Khula | ||||||||||||
• 1676 | Galdan receives the title of Boshogtu khan from the 5th Dalai Lama | ||||||||||||
• 1688 | The Dzungar invasion of the Khalkha | ||||||||||||
• 1690 | First Oirat-Manchu War, Battle of Ulan Butung | ||||||||||||
• 1755-1758 | The Qing army occupies Dzungaria | ||||||||||||
• Disestablished | 1758 | ||||||||||||
Currency | pūl (a red copper coin) | ||||||||||||
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History of Mongolia |
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The Dzungar Khanate was a khaganate on the Eurasian Steppe. It covered the area called Dzungaria and stretched from the west end of the Great Wall of China to present-day eastern Kazakhstan, and from present-day northern Kyrgyzstan to southern Siberia . Most of this area today is part of Xinjiang province in China.
In 1678, Galdan received from the Dalai Lama the title of Boshogtu Khan, thus confirming the Dzungars as the leading tribe within the Oirats. However, the Dzungar rulers bore the title of Khong Tayiji (deriving from the Chinese phrase Huang Taizi, which translates into English as "crown prince"), while the state itself was still referred to as the Dzungar Khanate.[2] Following the deaths of Galdan Boshogtu Khan in 1697 and his successor Tsewang Arabtan in 1727, the Khanate fell into a steep decline from which it would never recover, ultimately leading to its annexation and genocide by the Qing dynasty during the period of 1755–58.
Etymology
Dzungar Khanate | |||||||
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Chinese name | |||||||
Traditional Chinese | 準噶爾汗國 | ||||||
Simplified Chinese | 准噶尔汗国 | ||||||
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Tibetan name | |||||||
Tibetan | ཛེ་གུན་གར།། | ||||||
Mongolian name | |||||||
Mongolian Cyrillic | ᠵᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠭᠠᠷ ᠤᠨ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨᠲᠣ ᠣᠯᠣᠰ jegün γar-un qaγan-tu ulus | ||||||
Uyghur name | |||||||
Uyghur | جوڭغار Jongghar |
"Dzungar" is a compound of the Mongolian word jegün (züün), meaning "left" or "east" and γar meaning "hand" or "wing".[3] The region of Dzungaria derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the Eastern Mongols, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats. In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the local Tsangpa Khan in favor of the Tibetan Geluk Sect, the Oirat army were organized into left and right wing. The right wing consisting of Khoshuts and Torguts remained in Tibet while the Choros and Khoid of the Left wing retreated north into the Tarim basin, since then the powerful empire of the Choros became known as the Left Wing, i.e. Zuungar.
History
Outline
The Dzungar Khanate is memorable because it was the last of the steppe nomadic empires and because of its influence on the westward expansion of the Chinese state. About 1620 the Oirats or western Mongols became united in Dzungaria. By about 1680 they had conquered the Tarim Basin to the south. In 1688 Galdan defeated the Khalkhas or eastern Mongols, many of whom fled southeast to Inner Mongolia where they became and remained Manchu subjects. In 1696, the Manchu defeated Galdan near Ulan Bator, chased him westward and gained control over Outer Mongolia. In 1717 Tsewang Rabtan sent an army to Tibet. The Manchu drove the Dzungars out and established a protectorate over Tibet. In 1750-57, the Manchu took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to conquer Dzungaria and killed a large part of the population. The Manchu turned south and annexed the Tarim Basin by 1759, thus completing the current western border of China.
Origin
The chiefs of the Dzungars were of the Choros lineage and reckoned their descent from the Oirat taishis Toghoon (d.1438) and Esen (r.1438-54). At the beginning of the 17th century, a young leader named Khara Khula emerged to unite the Oirats to fight Sholui Ubashi Khong Tayiji, the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha, who few years earlier expelled the Oirats from their home in the Kobdo region in present-day northwest Mongolia.[4] Early in his reign, Khara Kula united the Choros, Dorbod and Khoid tribes, thus forming the Dzungar nation. In the 1620s wars against the Khalkha, he could gain decisive victory over the Eastern Mongols. The Oirats homeland was under the dominion of Jasaghtu Khan of the Khalkha. In 1623 the Oirat confederation killed Ubashi Khong Tayiji, and secured their independence. At the time, only Torobaikhu, a leader of the Khoshud tribe could claim the title of Khan while Baatur Dalai Taishi of the Dorbods was considered the most powerful Oirat chief. Even so, Khara Khula's son Baatur Khung Taiji (d.1653) joined the 1636-42 expedition to Tibet led by Güshi Khan Torobaikhu.[5] After Baatur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by Dalai Lama) and much booty, he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs. With the migrations of the Torghuds, the Khoshuds and the Dorbods from 1630 to 1677, the Dzungars' relative power was increased in Zungaria.
In 1653 Sengge succeeded his father Baatur Khung Taiji as Dzungarian chief, but an internal strife with his half brother Chechen Tayiji involved the Khoshuud.[6] From 1657 on, Amin-Dara's sons Sengge and Galdan faced disafection from their half-brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshuud, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670.[7]
Sengge's younger brother Galdan immediately returned from Tibet to lay life and took revenge on Chechen. As a Buddhist priest, Galdan had been to Tibet at the age of thirteen and had trained under the fourth Panchen Lama and then the Fifth Dalai Lama. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshuud, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Zungaria. However, Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and Tsewang Rabtan revolted against him, but they were also crushed in the end. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Although, already married Anu-Dara, granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing of Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted in the establishment of hegemony over the Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him,[8] Galdan thus united the entire Oirats in Zungaria and Western Mongolia.
Conquest of the Tarim Basin (Altishahr) and war with the Central Asians
The Naqshbandi Sufi Khojas had replaced the Chagatayid Khans as the ruling authority of the Tarim Basin in the early 17th century. They defeated the White Mountain. The exiled ruler Afaq of the White Mountain asked the 5th Dalai Lama for military assistance in 1677. By the request of the latter, Galdan initiated the Dzungar conquest of Altishahr and conquered the Tarim Basin (Altishahr), installing Afaq as his client ruler there.[9] Galdan decreed that the Turkestanis would be judged by their own law except in cases affecting the Dzungar Empire. The Dzungars kept control over the Tarim Basin until 1757.
In 1680 the Black Khirgizs raided Moghulistan and occupied Yarkend. The inhabitants of Yarkend appealed to Galdan Khan for help. The Dzungars conquered Kashgar and Yarkend; and Galdan had its ruler chosen by its inhabitants.[10] Then he invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain in modern Kazakhstan the next year; but failed to take Sairam city. Eventually, he could conquer Turfan and Hami the next year.[11] In 1683 Galdan's armies under Tsewen Rabtan reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana valley.
From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz city, and his main force forced the Kazakhs to immigrate westwards.[12] In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewen Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Dzungars controlled Zhei-Su Tashkent until 1745.[13]
Rivalry with Khalkha
At first the Khalkhas and Oirats were in league, bound by the provisions of the Mongol-Oirat code.[14] In order to cement this union, Galdan attempted to ally with Zasaghtu Khan Shira who lost part of his subjects to Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji, and moved his ordo near the Altai Range. Tushiyetu Khan attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against the Tushiyetu Khan the next year, but they were eventually defeated and Dorji-jav was killed in the ensuing battle. Chakhundorji murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Zasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. The Qing court intervened and called off the Mongolian aristocrats to assemble a conference.
To avenge the death of his brother and expand his influence over other Mongol areas, Galdan strategically prepared for a war with Khalkha. Galdan established a friendly relationship with the Russians who were at war with Tushiyetu Khan over territories near Lake Baikal in northern Khalkha. Bonded by a common interest in defeating Khalkha, both Galdan and the Russians simultaneously attacked Khalkha and conquered most of the territories of Khalkha. Armed with superior firearms bought from Russians, Galdan attacked the land of the late Zasaghtu Khan, and advanced to the dominion of Chakhundorji. The Russian Cossacks meanwhile attacked and defeated Khalkha's contingent of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his son Galdandorji fled to the Ongi River.
The Dzungars occupied the Khalkha homeland, and forced Jibzundamba Zanabazar to flee. The Qing court strengthened its northern border garrisons, and advised the Khalkhas to resist Galdan. After being reinforced by fresh troops, the Tushiyetu Khan Chakhundorji counterattacked the Dzungars, and fought with them near Olgoi Lake on August 3, 1688. The Oirats won after a 3-day battle. Galdan's conquest of Khalkha Mongolia made Zanabazar and Chakhundorji submit to the Qing dynasty in September of the same year.
The first Oirat-Manchu war
By his victory in 1688, Galdan had driven the Khalkhas into the arms of the Qing and made himself a military threat to the Manchus. Unfortunately for Galdan, Kangxi was unusually vigorous and warlike. In 1690 the Manchus and Dzungars fought at Ulan Butung and Galdan withdrew to the north. (The battle was fought 350 kilometers directly north of Peking near the western headwaters of the Liao River at the southern end of the Greater Khingan Mountains). The problem with all of these nomad wars was that the Manchu could not maintain a permanent army on the steppe. If the Manchu sent an army the nomads would flee and come back when the Manchu ran out of supplies. In 1696 Galdan was on the upper Kerulen River east of Ulaanbaatar about 700 km northwest of Peking. Kangxi's plan was to personally lead an army northwest to Galdan while sending a second army north from the Ordos Region to block his escape. Kangxi reached the Kerulen, found Galdan gone and was forced to turn back due to lack of supplies. On the same day that Kangxi turned back (June 12) Galdan blundered into the western army and was disastrously defeated at Zuunmod near the upper Tuul River east of Ulan Bator. Galdan's wife, Anu, was killed and the Manchus captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with his remaining 40 or 50 men. He gathered a few thousand followers who later deserted due to hunger. In 1697 he was in the Altai Mountains near Khovd with 300 men when he died suddenly under mysterious circumstances (April 4, 1697). He was succeeded by Tsewang Rabtan who had revolted against him.
Intervention in the Khoshut Khanate
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Kalmykia_1720.jpg/220px-Kalmykia_1720.jpg)
The Dzungars led by Tsewang Rabtan's brother Tseren Dondup invaded Tibet - which was then dominated by the Khoshut, another Oirad tribe - in 1717, deposed a pretender to the position of the Dalai Lama (who had been promoted by Lha-bzang Khan, the titular King of Tibet). The Fifth Dalai Lama had encouraged Mongolian lamas to prevent any non-Ge-lugs-pa teaching among the Mongols. The Dzungars soon began to loot Lhasa, thus losing initial Tibetan goodwill towards them. The Kangxi Emperor of the Qing Dynasty retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River, not far from Lhasa.[15]
Many Nyingmapa and Bonpos were executed and Tibetans visiting Dzungar officials were forced to stick their tongues out so the Dzungars could tell if the person recited constant mantras (which was said to make the tongue black or brown). This allowed them to pick the Nyingmapa and Bonpos, who recited many magic-mantras.[16] This habit of sticking one's tongue out as a mark of respect on greeting someone has remained a Tibetan custom until recent times.
A second, larger, expedition sent by Kangxi expelled Tsewang Rabtan's force from Tibet in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the seventh Dalai Lama in 1721.[17]
The second Oirat-Manchu war
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![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Dawachi.jpg/220px-Dawachi.jpg)
At the death of Galdan Tseren in 1745 the Dzungars appeared still strong. However, the sudden collapse of the Khanate stemmed from Galdan Tseren's sons.[18] In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lamdarjaa seized the throne from his younger brother. He was overthrown by his cousin zh and the Khoid noble Amursana. But they began to fight each other for succession. In 1753 Dawaachi's three relatives ruling the Dorbed and Bayad surrendered to the Qing after their conflict with Dawaachi, and migrated to Khalkha. Amursana of Khoid followed them. In spring 1755, the Qing dynasty attacked Kulja leading to the capture of the Dzungar Khan, who was handed over by the Uqturpan County Beg Khojis (霍集斯). Amarsana requested that he be made Dzungar Khan, but the Qianlong Emperor would only make him Khan of Khoit, one among four equal Khans.[19] In summer, Amursanaa along with Chingünjav led a revolt against the Qing. Over the next two years, the Manchu and Mongol armies of the Qing Dynasty destroyed the remnants of the Dzungar khanate. Their last leader, Prince Amursanaa revolted against the Qing, and fled north to seek refuge with the Russians. Amursana died there of smallpox. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.[20] To commemorate his military victory, Qianlong established the Puning Temple Complex of Chengde in 1755.
The Qianlong Emperor then ordered exterminate all Dzungars and moved the remaining Dzungar people to the mainland while at the same time ordering his generals to kill all the men in Barkol or Suzhou. Qianlong divided their wives and children amongst the Qing forces, which consisted of Manchu Bannermen.[21][22] Qing scholar Wei Yuan estimated the total population of Dzungars before the fall at 600,000 people, or 200,000 households. Oirat officer Saaral betrayed and battled against the Oirats. In a widely cited[23][24][25] account of the war, Wei Yuan wrote that about 40% of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox, 20% fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30% were killed by the Qing army of the Manchu Bannermen, leaving no yurts in an area of several thousands li except of those who had surrendered.[26] During this war Kazakhs attacked dispersed Oirats and Altays. Based on this account, Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80% of the 600,000 or more Dzungars (especially Choros, Olot, Khoid, Baatud and Zakhchin) were destroyed by disease and attack[27] which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Zungars as a people."[28] Historian Peter Perdue attributed the decimation of the Dzungars to an explicit policy of extermination launched by Qianlong, but he also observed signs of a more lenient policy after mid-1757.[24] Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."[29] It was not until generations later that Dzungaria rebounded from the destruction and near liquidation of the Dzungars after the mass slayings of nearly a million Dzungars.[30]
Uyghur rebels from the Turfan and Hami oases had submitted to Qing rule as vassals and requested Qing help for overthrowing Zunghar rule. Uyghur leaders like Emin Khoja were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and these Uyghurs helped supply the Qing military forces during the anti-Zunghar campaign.[31][32][33] The Qing employed Khoja Emin in its campaign against the Dzungars and used him as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin to inform them that the Qing were only aiming to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone, and also to convince them to kill the Oirats themselves and side with the Qing since the Qing noted the Muslims' resentment of their former experience under Zunghar rule at the hands of Tsewang Araptan.[34]
The Zakhchins were border guards of the eastern border and the Manchu king said: "if we defeat the Zakhchins then we can conquer the Dzungars". There were 600,000 Khalkha Mongols and 1,000,000 Oirats in 1755. According to 2010 estimate 2,500,000 Khalkhas and 520,000 Oirats living in 4 countries. There a few hundreds of Choros people in Mongolia.
The Qing "final solution" of genocide to solve the problem of the Dzungars, made the Manchu Qing sponsored settlement of millions of Kazakhs, Han Chinese, Hui, Turkestani Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchu Bannermen in Dzungaria.[35]
Leaders of the Dzungar Khanate
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg/220px-Battle_of_Oroi-Jalatu.jpg)
- Khara Khula, title: Khong Tayiji
- Erdeni Batur, title: Khong Tayiji
- Sengge, title: Khong Tayiji
- Galdan Boshugtu Khan, titles: Khong Tayiji, Boshogtu Khan
- Tsewang Rabtan, title: Khong Tayiji, Khan
- Galdan Tseren, title: Khong Tayiji
- Tsewang Dorji Namjal, title: Khong Tayiji
- zh , title: Khong Tayiji
- zh , title: Khong Tayiji
- Amursana‡
‡Note: Although Amursana had de facto control of some areas of Dzungaria during 1755–1756, he could never officially become Khan due to the inferior rank of his clan, the Khoid.
See also
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Notes
- ^ James A. Millward, Ruth W. Dunnell, Mark C. Elliott New Qing imperial history, p.99
- ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.622
- ^ For the Mongols the primary direction was south. Gaunt, John (2004). Modern Mongolian: A Course-Book. London: RoutledgeCurzon. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-7007-1326-4. Mongolian maps placed the south at the top, so west was to the right and east was to the left. Akira, Kamimura. "A Preliminary Analysis of Old Mongolian Manuscript Maps: Towards an Understanding of the Mongols' Perception of the Landscape" (PDF).
- ^ Fred Walter Bergholz The partition of the steppe, p.522
- ^ Henry Hoyle Howorth History of the Mongols from the 9th to the 19th Century: Part 1, p.595
- ^ Ed. Reuven Amitai-Preiss, David Morgan The Mongol empire and its legacy, p.328
- ^ Autobiography of Dalai Lama V, Vol. Kha, fol 107b. II 5-6
- ^ Martha Avery The Tea Road: China and Russia meet across the Steppe, p.104
- ^ Gertraude Roth Li Manchu: a textbook for reading documents, p.318
- ^ Valikhanov, Ch. Ch. The Russians in Central Asia, p.169
- ^ Baabar, Christopher Kaplonski, D. Suhjargalmaa Twentieth century Mongolia, p.80
- ^ Michael Khodarkovsky Where Two Worlds Met: The Russian State and the Kalmyk Nomads, 1600-1771, p.211
- ^ C. P. Atwood ibid, p.622
- ^ David Sneath The headless state, p.183
- ^ Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)
- ^ Norbu, Namkhai. (1980). "Bon and Bonpos". Tibetan Review, December, 1980, p. 8.
- ^ Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). Tibet and its History. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)
- ^ C. P. Atwood ibid, 623
- ^ Millward 2007, p. 95.
- ^ G. Patrick March, Eastern Destiny: Russian in Asia and the Pacific, 1996, Chapter 12
- ^ 大清高宗純皇帝實錄, 乾隆二十四年
- ^ 平定準噶爾方略
- ^ Lattimore, Owen (1950). Pivot of Asia; Sinkiang and the inner Asian frontiers of China and Russia. Little, Brown. p. 126.
- ^ a b Perdue 2005, p. 283-287
- ^ ed. Starr 2004, p. 54.
- ^ Wei Yuan, 聖武記 Military history of the Qing Dynasty, vol.4. "計數十萬戶中,先痘死者十之四,繼竄入俄羅斯哈薩克者十之二,卒殲於大兵者十之三。除婦孺充賞外,至今惟來降受屯之厄鲁特若干戶,編設佐領昂吉,此外數千里間,無瓦剌一氊帳。"
- ^ Chu, Wen-Djang (1966). The Moslem Rebellion in Northwest China 1862-1878. Mouton & co. p. 1.
- ^ "Michael Edmund Clarke, ''In the Eye of Power'' (doctoral thesis), Brisbane 2004, p37" (PDF). Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- ^ Levene 2008, p. 188
- ^ Tyler 2004, p. 55.
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 308
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 134
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 49
- ^ Kim 2008, p. 139.
- ^ Perdue 2009, p. 285.
References
- Dunnell, Ruth W.; Elliott, Mark C.; Foret, Philippe; Millward, James A (2004). New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde. Routledge. ISBN 1134362226. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China (illustrated, reprint ed.). Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804746842. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Kim, Kwangmin (2008). Saintly Brokers: Uyghur Muslims, Trade, and the Making of Qing Central Asia, 1696--1814. University of California, Berkeley. ProQuest. ISBN 1109101260. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Liu, Tao Tao; Faure, David (1996). Unity and Diversity: Local Cultures and Identities in China. Hong Kong University Press. ISBN 9622094023. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Millward, James A. (2007). Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang (illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. ISBN 0231139241. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Perdue, Peter C (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (reprint ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674042026. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Perdue, Peter C (2005). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia (illustrated ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 067401684X. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Starr (2004). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland (illustrated ed.). M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0765613182. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
{{cite book}}
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(help) - Theobald, Ulrich (2013). War Finance and Logistics in Late Imperial China: A Study of the Second Jinchuan Campaign (1771–1776). BRILL. ISBN 9004255672. Retrieved 22 April 2014.
- Tyler, Christian (2004). Wild West China: The Taming of Xinjiang (illustrated, reprint ed.). Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0813535336. Retrieved 10 March 2014.
- Zhao, Gang (January 2006). "Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century" (PDF). Modern China. 32 (Number 1). Sage Publications: 3. doi:10.1177/0097700405282349. JSTOR 20062627. Archived from the original on 2014-03-25. Retrieved 17 April 2014.
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suggested) (help) - [Хойт С.К. http://www.lib.kalmsu.ru/text/TRUD/Hoit_SK/p001.pdf Последние данные по локализации и численности ойрат] // Проблемы этногенеза и этнической культуры тюрко-монгольских народов. Вып. 2. Элиста: Изд-во КГУ, 2008. стр. 136-157.