Manchukuo
| State of Manchuria | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Chinese name | |
| Traditional Chinese | 滿洲國 |
| Simplified Chinese | 满洲国 |
| Hanyu Pinyin | Mǎnzhōu Guó |
| Wade-Giles | Man-chou-kuo |
| Japanese Name | |
| Kanji (Kyūjitai) | 滿州國 or 滿洲國 |
| Kanji (Shinjitai) | 満州国 or 満洲国 |
| Hepburn Romaji | Manshū-koku |
Manchukuo (1932–1945), lit. "Manchu country", was a former state in Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia created by former Qing Dynasty officials and Imperial Japan in 1932. Puyi, the last emperor of the Qing Dynasty, was the regent and emperor.[1] Manchukuo's government was demolished in 1945 after the defeat of Imperial Japan at the end of World War II. It is regarded by successive Chinese governments and their allies as a puppet state founded by Imperial Japan. In spite of the country's name, the Manchus actually constituted a minority in Manchukuo, which had Han Chinese as its largest ethnic group, along with large numbers of Koreans, Japanese, Mongols and smaller minorities.
History
Inner Manchuria came under strong Russian influence in the 1890s with the building of the Chinese Eastern Railway through Harbin to Vladivostok. Japanese influence replaced Russian in Inner Manchuria as a result of the Russo-Japanese War (1904 - 1905), and Japan laid the South Manchurian Railway in 1906 to Port Arthur (Japanese: Ryojun).
Between World War I and World War II Manchuria became a political and military battleground. Japanese influence extended into Outer Manchuria in the wake of the Russian Revolution of 1917, but Outer Manchuria had reverted to Soviet control by 1925. Japan had taken advantage of the disorder following the Russian Revolution to occupy Outer Manchuria but Soviet successes and American economic pressure forced the Japanese to make withdrawal.
During the warlord period in China, the warlord Zhang Zuolin established himself in Inner Manchuria with Japanese backing. Later the Japanese Kantogun found him too independent and had assassinated him in 1928. After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Emperor Pu Yi returned from Tianjin with his followers to declared Manchuria a soverign nation on February 18, 1932 as the "Great Manchu Nation" (Manchukuo, Pinyin: Manzhouguo) [2]. The city of Changchun, renamed Xinjing (新京) or "New capital", became the capital of the new entity. Chinese in Manchuria organized volunteer armies to oppose the Japanese and the new state requiring a war lasting several years to pacify the country.
The Japanese installed Puyi, the last Emperor of the Manchu Qing Dynasty, as chief executive in 1932, and in 1934 he became emperor of Manchukuo with the era name of "Kang De" or "Tranquility and Virtue". Manchukuo thus became the "Great Manchu Empire". Zheng Xiaoxu served as Manchukuo's first prime minister until 1935, when Zhang Jinghui succeeded him.
In this manner Japan formally detached Manchukuo from China in the course of the 1930s. With Japanese investment and rich natural resources, the area became an industrial powerhouse. Education focused on practical work training for boys and domestic work for girls, all based on adherence to the "Kingly Way" and stressing loyalty to the Emperor. Confucius' teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. The regime used numerous festivals, sport events, and ceremonies to foster loyalty of citizens [1]. Eventually, Japanese became the official language in addition to the Chinese language taught in Manchukuo schools.
Out of 80 then-existing nations, only 23 recognised the new state. The League of Nations (via the Lytton Report) declared that Manchuria remained rightfully part of China, leading Japan to resign its membership in 1934. Of the major powers Imperial Japan, the Soviet Union, Vichy France, Fascist Italy, Spain and Nazi Germany recognised Manchukuo diplomatically. In addition Manchukuo gained recognition from the Japanese collaborationist government of China under Wang Jingwei, as well as El Salvador and the Dominican Republic. Although the Chinese government did not recognise Manchukuo, the two countries established official ties for trade, communications and transportation.
Prior to World War II, the Japanese colonised Manchukuo and used it as a base from which to invade China. In the summer of 1939 a border dispute between Manchukuo and Mongolia resulted in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol, when a combined Soviet/Mongolian force defeated the Japanese Kantogun.
In spite of the country's name, the Manchus actually constituted a minority in Manchukuo, which had Chinese as its largest ethnic group, along with large numbers of Koreans, Japanese, Mongols and smaller minorities.
The Emperor had limited power and all of the Manchu ministers served as front-men for their Japanese vice-ministers, who actually made all decisions. Emperor Kang De lived in constant fear for his life, with some justification.
On August 8, 1945 the Soviet Union declared war on Japan in accordance with the agreement at the Yalta Conference, and invaded Manchukuo from outer Manchuria. This was called Operation August Storm. During the Soviet offensive the Army of Manchukuo, theoretically a two hundred-thousand-man force, well armed and trained along Japanese lines, performed poorly and whole units surrendered to the Soviets without firing a single shot; there were even cases of armed riots and mutinies against the Japanese forces. Emperor Kang De had hoped to escape to Japan to surrender to the Americans, but the Soviets captured him and eventually extradited him to the communist government in China, where the authorities had him imprisoned as a war criminal along with all other captured Manchukuo officials.
From 1945 to 1948, Manchuria (Inner Manchuria) served as a base area for the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War against the Kuomintang. With Soviet encouragement, the Chinese Communists used Manchuria as a staging ground until the end of the Chinese Civil War in 1949. Many Manchukuo army and Japanese Kantogun personnel served with the communist troops during the Chinese Civil War against the Nationalist forces.
Japanese influence
Most historians believe that Manchukuo was a puppet state or colony of Japan [3] because of the Japanese military's strong presence and strict control of the government administration, in addition to Japan's wartime atrocities on the local population in Manchukuo (see below). Japan also expanded the industry and transportation system of Manchukuo to further develop it into a war base for military campaigns against China. However, a few historians see Manchukuo as an effort at building an ideal East Asian state that failed due to the pressures of war.[4] Nonetheless, Chinese control over the region along with Taiwan was reasserted after World War II.
Politics
See also:
- Salt Rates Palace
- National symbols of Manchukuo
- Manchukuo as Imperial Japanese Army political project
Demographics
In 1908 the number of residents was 15,834,000, which rose to 30,000,000 in 1931 and 43,000,000 for the Manchukuo state. The population balance remained 123 men to 100 women and the total number in 1941 was 50,000,000.
In early 1934 the total population of Manchukuo was estimated as 30,880,000, with 6.1 persons the average family, and 122 men for each 100 women. These numbers included 29,510,000 Chinese, 590,760 Japanese, 680,000 Koreans, and 98,431 other nationalities (Russians, Mongols, etc). Around 80% of the population was rural. Other statistics indicate that in Manchukuo the population rose by 18,000,000.
From Japanese sources come these numbers: in 1940 the total population in Manchukuo of Heilongjiang, Jehol, Kirin, Liaoning (Fengtien) and Hsingan provinces at 43,233,954; or an Interior Ministry figure of 31,008,600. Another figure of the period evaluated the total population as 36,933,000 residents.
In their colonisation efforts, the Japanese intended to ask Nazi Germany for the Jews it obviously did not want, in a kind of forced resettlement (compare with the Siberian Jewish Autonomous Oblast). However the German government preferred the Final Solution and only a few Jews made it to Manchukuo.[citation needed]
Population of main cities
- Yingkow (119,000 or 180,871 in 1940)
- Mukden (339,000 or 1,135,801 in 1940)
- Hsinking or Changchung (126,000 or 544,202 in 1940)
- Harbin (405,000 or 661,948 in 1940)
- Dairen (400,000 or 555,562 in 1939)
- Antung (92,000 or 315,242 in 1940)
- Kirin (119,000 or 173,624 in 1940)
- Tsitsihar (75,000 in 1940)
Japanese population
In 1931-32 there were 100,000 Japanese farmers; other sources mention 590,760 inhabitants of Japanese nationality. Other figures for Manchukuo speak of a Japanese population 240,000 strong, later growing to 837,000. In Hsinking they made up 25% of the population. The Japanese government had official plans projecting the emigration of 5 million Japanese to Manchukuo between 1936 and 1956. Between 1938 and 1942 a contingent of young farmers of 200,000 arrived in Manchukuo; joining this group after 1936 were 20,000 complete families. When Japan lost sea and air control of the Yellow Sea, this migration stopped.
When the Red Army invaded Manchukuo, they captured 850,000 Japanese settlers. With the exception of some civil servants and soldiers, these were repatriated to Japan in 1946-47.
Economy
Manchukuo experienced rapid economic growth and progress in its social systems. Its industrial system was among the most advanced making it one of the industrial powerhouses in the region. Manchukuo's steel production surpassed Japan's in the late 1930s. Many Manchurian cities were modernised during Manchukuo era.
See also:
Slave labor
According to a joint study of historians featuring Zhifen Ju, Mitsuyochi Himeta, Toru Kubo and Mark Peattie, more than 10 million Chinese civillians were mobilized by the showa period army for slave work in Manchukuo under the supervision of the Koa-in. (Zhifen Ju, Japan's atrocities of conscripting and abusing north China draftees after the outbreak of the pacific war, 2002).
Experimentation of bacteriological weapons
Bacteriological weapons were experimented on humans by the infamous unit 731 located near Harbin in Beinyinhe from 1932 to 1936 and to Pingfan until 1945. Victims, mostly Chinese, Russians and Koreans, were subjected to vivisection.
Transport
Manchukuo built an efficient and massive railway system that still functions well today.
Military
See also:
- Manchukuo Imperial Army
- Manchukuo Imperial Guards
- Manchukuo Imperial Navy Forces
- List of weapons of the Manchukuo Imperial forces
- List of Japanese and Manchu secret agents (Manchukuo)
Education
Manchukuo developed an efficient public education system. They set up or founded many schools and technical colleges, 12,000 primary schools in Manchukuo, 200 middle schools, 140 normal schools (for preparing teachers), and 50 technical and professional schools. In total the system had 600,000 children and young pupils and 25,000 teachers. There were 1,600 private schools (with Japanese permits), 150 missionary schools and in Harbin 25 Russian schools.
Confucius's teachings also played an important role in Manchukuo's public school education. In rural areas, student were trained to practice modern agricultural techniques to improve production.
Stamps and postal history
Manchukuo issued its first postage stamps on July 28, 1932. A number of denominations existed, with two designs: the pagoda at Liaoyang and a portrait of Puyi. Originally the inscription read (in Chinese) "Manchu State Postal Administration"; in 1934, a new issue read "Manchu Empire Postal Administration". An orchid crest design appeared in 1935, and a design featuring the Sacred White Mountains in 1936.
1936 also saw a new regular series featuring various scenes and surmounted by the orchid crest. Between 1937 and 1945, the government issued a variety of commemoratives: for anniversaries of its own existence, to note the passing of new laws, and to honor Japan in various ways, for instance, on the 2600th anniversary of the Japanese Empire in 1940. The last issue of Manchukuo came on May 2, 1945, commemorating the 10th anniversary of an edict.
After the dissolution of the government, successor postal authorities locally handstamped many of the remaining stamp stocks with "Republic of China" in Chinese and so forth. In addition, the Port Arthur and Dairen Postal Administration overprinted many Manchukuo stamps between 1946 and 1949.
| Personal Names | Period of Reigns | era names (年號) and their corresponding range of years | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| All given names in bold. | ||||
| Aixinjuelo Puyi 愛新覺羅溥儀 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 pu3 yi2 | March 1932–August 1945 | Datong (大同 da4 tong2) 1932 Kangde (康德 kang1 de2) 1934 | ||
Stupid Manchukuo Independence Movement
Source: *Manchukuo Temporary Government This is a movement by a minority who are mainly idols of Japanese reign, Which is really strange since the Japaneses didn't do much good in the state. They set up a website to inspire all of their heritages. They want Manchukuo to be independent.
See also
- List of Japanese supporters of the WWII period
- List of East Asian leaders in the Japanese sphere of influence (1931-1945)
- Japanese war crimes
- Unit 731
- Unit 100
- Unit 516
- War crimes in Manchukuo
- Mukden Incident
- Battle of Lugou Bridge
- Japanese strategic planning for mainland Asia (1905-1940)
- White Russian Puppet State in Outer Manchuria
- Battle of Lake Khasan
- Nomonhan
- Battle of Halhin Gol
- Operation August Storm
- Evacuation of Manchukuo
- Kempeitai Political Department and Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory