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Cefnllys Castle

Coordinates: 52°14′38″N 3°20′07″W / 52.2438°N 3.3353°W / 52.2438; -3.3353
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Cefnllys Castle
Castell Cefn-llys
Powys, Wales
Near Llandrindod Wells
View of Castle Bank from the south
View of Castle Bank from across the River Ithon
Cefnllys Castle is located in Wales
Cefnllys Castle
Cefnllys Castle
Coordinates52°14′38″N 3°20′07″W / 52.2438°N 3.3353°W / 52.2438; -3.3353
TypeHilltop castle
Height304 metres (997 ft) above sea level
Site information
Open to
the public		Yes
ConditionRuined
Site history
Builtc. 1093 (motte-and-bailey castle)
c. 1242 (first masonry castle)
1273–4 (second masonry castle)
Battles/warsNorman invasion of Wales (1067–1100s)
Anglo-Welsh War (1256–1267)
Revolt of Madog ap Llywelyn (1294–95)
Revolt of Owain Glyndŵr (1400–09)
Official name
  • Cefnllys Castle
  • Old Castle Mound
  • Cefnllys Medieval Settlement
Reference no.
  • RD008
  • RD077
  • RD150
Listed Building – Grade II
Official nameChurch of St Michael
Designated12 December 1952
Reference no.9301

Cefnllys (Welsh pronunciation: [kɛvn ɬɨːs]; Welsh: Cefn-llys) was a castle in Radnorshire (now part of Powys), Wales. Originally a motte-and-bailey castle constructed by the Normans, it was replaced by two successive masonry castles in the thirteenth century, and was also the site of a borough and medieval town. Controlling several communication routes into the highlands of Mid Wales, the castles were strategically important within the Welsh Marches during the High Middle Ages. As seat of the fiercely contested lordship and cantref of Maelienydd, Cefnllys became a source of friction between Llywelyn ap Gruffudd and Roger Mortimer in the prelude to Edward I's conquest of Wales.

The ridge above the River Ithon known as Castle Bank (Welsh: Craig y Castell, lit. 'Castle Rock') is often considered to be the site of an Iron Age hill fort, but there is no firm evidence to corroborate this.[1] It has also been speculated that the princely court of a native Welsh ruler was situated nearby.[2] The first castle at Cefnllys, 1 mile (1.6 km) north of the ridge, was a motte-and-bailey thrown up during the early stages of the Norman invasion of Wales by the Anglo-Norman baron Ralph Mortimer, marking the beginning of a long association between the powerful Mortimer family and Cefnllys. Around 1242, after a century of prolonged conflict in the region, Ralph Mortimer II built a masonry castle on the north-east flank of Castle Bank, which quickly became the principal symbol of Mortimer hegemony in Wales.[3] The castle was captured and razed in 1262 by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, prince of Gwynedd, during a war with Henry III of England, and Cefnllys featured prominently in the ensuing peace treaty. The construction of a new castle on the south-east side of the hill by Roger Mortimer was a contributing factor to Llywelyn's refusal to swear fealty to Edward I in 1275, leading to war in 1277.

The castle may have been sacked during the revolts of Madog ap Llywelyn (1294–95) and Owain Glyndŵr (1400–09), but remained occupied until at least the mid-15th century, when it was described in a series of poems by the bard Lewys Glyn Cothi. Both castles on Castle Bank are now entirely ruinous and only scattered ruins remain; the sole surviving medieval structure at Cefnllys is St Michael's Church. The town was unsuccessful and disappeared altogether as a result of the Black Death, economic remoteness and changing frontier military conditions, although Cefnllys retained its borough status until the 19th century.

Etymology

Map of Rhwng Gwy a Hafren
The region of Rhwng Gwy a Hafren within medieval Wales

Cefnllys derives from the Welsh words cefn, meaning 'ridge', and llys, meaning 'mansion' or 'court'. Llys is associated with the unfortified courts of medieval Welsh rulers and may refer to the administrative manor (maerdref) of a local lord.[2] The name is first mentioned in 1246 as Keventhles and the 19th century standard Kevenlleece is recorded by 1679.[4][note 1] Another name for the settlement and parish, Llanfihangel Cefn-llys ("church of St Michael at Cefnllys"), appears in records c. 1566 and refers to the medieval church which still stands.

An older name, Dinieithon (also Dineithon and Castell Glan Iethon), meaning "fort on the River Ieithon" (din being Old Welsh for 'fort', cognate with dun), is also related to fortifications at Cefnllys – particularly the earlier Norman castle, which is sometimes called 'Cefnllys Old Castle'. Dinieithon or Swydd Diniethon ("shire of Dinieithon") was the name of the commote within the cantref (hundred) of Maelienydd.[5]

Location

The isolated ridge of Castle Bank is located 1.7 miles (2.7 km) east of the modern town of Llandrindod Wells, Powys. It occupies a key position at the junction of several tributary valleys of the River Ithon, granting commanding views over an important communication corridor into Central Wales. Cefnllys was caput (administrative centre) of Maelienydd, part of the Welsh region of Rhwng Gwy a Hafren (English: Between Wye and Severn). As the Marcher lords expanded their control westward, Maelienydd formed a core part of the turbulent area known as the middle march, together with Gwrtheyrnion and Elfael.[3] The castle was viewed as a forward defence against Welsh incursions by towns along the English border, particularly Hereford.[6]

Description

The River Ithon near Cefnllys
The River Ithon near Cefnllys

Note: numbers correspond with the site plan below

Castle Bank is a naturally defensible position, protected on three sides by a loop of the River Ithon and accessed by a steep climb from the north-east direction. The highest point is 304 metres above sea level.[7] The mottes of two castles are situated at opposite ends of the hill, the ruins heavily deformed and mostly rubble; only their basic characteristics have been identified. The earlier northern castle consisted of a keep (1) within a triangular inner bailey (2), accompanied by an outer bailey to the north-east (3).[8] The main feature of the later southern castle was a circular or octagonal tower (4) inside a walled court (5),[9][10][note 2] separated from the main part of the ridge by a deep rock-cut ditch (6).[8] There was a small bailey to the south-west (7), and a scarp across the main ridge suggests the southern half of Castle Bank may have formed a large northern bailey (8). The outline of a building in this area is probably the oak hall recorded at Cefnllys in 15th century (9).[12] A stone curtain wall and rampart extended along most of the hilltop rim.[13]

St Michael's Church sits at the western foot of the hill next to the Ithon, 300 metres to the west. Earthworks surrounding the church are commonly supposed to be the remains of the medieval town.[14][15] Several historians alternately infer that the primary settlement was sited within the enclosure of Castle Bank, adjacent to the castles.[16] By the 16th century, it is likely there was no nucleated settlement and the borough was dispersed along the valley.[17] The earlier motte-and-bailey castle was located on the bank of the Ithon further upstream, 1 mile (1.6 km) north of Castle Bank.

History

Earlier (north-east) castle
1
Keep
2
Inner bailey
3
Outer bailey
Later (south-west) castle
4
Round or octagonal tower
5
Square walled enclosure
6
Large rock-cut ditch
7
South-west bailey
8
Possible northern bailey
Other features
9
Probable site of 15th century hall
10
Hollow way entrance
11
Approaching path
12
Later cultivation

No archaeological excavation has been undertaken at Cefnllys – our understanding of the site's history rests on contemporary texts.[18] Prior to the 14th century, sources are limited to accounts of military campaigns and the castles are referenced in the Welsh chronicles Brut y Tywysogion and Annales Cambriae. Greater stability following Edward I's conquest of Wales resulted in a growth of documentary evidence in the Welsh Marches, although at Cefnllys this is largely restricted to rudimentary public records as the majority of the Mortimer estate archives have been lost.[19] An extensive topographical survey combined with photogrammetry was carried out at Castle Bank in 1985 by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales (RCAHMW), with a follow-up report in 2006.

Hillfort origins

A number of scholars have suggested that the medieval castles utilised the remains of an Iron Age hillfort. Indications of a pre-Roman provenance include the ridge's large, elongated enclosure of 10 hectares (100,000 m2),[20] interpretation of visible earthworks and the extensive use of scarping and ditching to artificially steepen the gradient of slopes surrounding the hilltop.[11] Brown (1972) links the entrance hollow way with this period,[14] but other features previously posited as pre-Roman were determined to be medieval by the 2006 RCAHMW report, although it did not rule out the possibility of a hillfort.[1] The complexity of earthworks on Castle Bank is compounded by alterations caused by later agricultural use and quarrying, making confident assessment difficult. Martin & Silvester (2011) state that the large bailey's Iron Age origins have been "convincingly argued",[21] while Scourfield & Haslam (2013) surmise that, on the basis of the RCAHMW report, "the hill is no longer considered as having been first fortified in the Iron Age".[22]

Initial medieval activity

Cefnllys is connected in local tradition with Elystan Glodrydd, a 10th century prince of Buellt and founder of the regional dynasty.[21] The court of a Welsh ruler is assumed to have been sited nearby, although the time period, duration and precise location of such a llys are unresolved. Silvester (2015) notes that the motte-and-bailey north of Castle Bank is a probable site, although the llys may have superseded the castle and no physical traces have been found.[2] A silver thumb-ring recovered on Castle Bank may date from a period of Welsh occupation,[23] and the circular graveyard ringed by yew trees could denote a pre-Norman origin of St Michael's Church.[24] However, there is no substantive archaeological or written evidence to support any of these claims.

The timber motte-and-bailey north of Castle Bank is assumed to be the work of Ranulph Mortimer of Wigmore, who was part of a group of Norman barons that overran the region in 1093, and he is credited with the construction of a castle in Maelienydd named "Dynyetha".[25][26] After Ralph's death c. 1104 the area was retaken by the Welsh and remained a disputed territory throughout the 12th century. Dinieithon was last documented in 1179, by which time the castle had been destroyed or abandoned.[27] English control was still far from secure when Llywelyn the Great, ruler of the ascendant Welsh state of Gwynedd, established his authority over southern Powys between 1208 and 1216, acting as protector and suzerain of the local Welsh dynasty.[28] Remfry (2008) has speculated that the northern castle at Castle Bank may have been started in the period 1216–1234 under Llywelyn's direction,[29] although it is generally considered to be a Mortimer creation.[30]

First masonry castle

Aerial view of Castle Bank
Aerial view of Castle Bank looking south-west

The death of Llywelyn in April 1240 led to an internal power struggle within Gwynedd, presenting Ralph Mortimer II with an opportunity to strengthen his position in Maelienydd.[31] By the end of Henry III's Welsh campaign of August 1241, Ralph was in full control of the cantref and had secured submissions from the local nobility.[32] To consolidate these gains, Ralph ordered the "strengthening" of a "castle in Maelienydd" in 1242, which in his absence was undertaken in the name of his young son Roger Mortimer.[33][34] This work is identified with the north-eastern castle at Castle Bank; "strengthening" (firmavit) may imply the reconstruction of an existing castle in stone, particularly as the commencement of a new castle at Cefnllys is not explicitly recorded.[35] Upon Ralph's death in 1246, Cefnllys Castle is listed in a patent roll as passing into the custodianship of the crown until Roger's coming of age.[35]

And after they had come inside by treachery they slew the gate-keepers and seized Hywel ap Meurig, who was constable there, and his wife and his sons and his daughters.

—Brut y Tywysogion[36]

Starting in 1256, a large Welsh uprising led by Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, the new prince of Gwynedd, caused an English military reversal across Wales. By the time a truce was signed in 1260, Cefnllys had become Roger's most advanced outpost following the loss of the neighbouring commote of Gwrtheyrnion and the castle at Builth.[35] In late November 1262, Cefnllys was seized from Roger's constable Hywel ap Meurig by a small band of Welshmen, who entered the castle "by treachery" and took Hywel and his family captive, before sending word to Llywelyn of their success and setting the castle alight.[note 3] In response, Roger Mortimer levied an army of Marcher lords and arrived at Cefnllys to start repairs on the walls, but was caught off guard when Llywelyn surrounded him with a larger force.[30] After a three week siege within the damaged and unprovisioned castle, during which Llywelyn's soldiers sacked his other castles at Bleddfa and Knucklas, Roger was forced to negotiate safe passage.[39] Llywelyn then dismantled the remaining defences before continuing to campaign against England.[30] The impact of the Cefnllys' fall is illustrated in a letter written to Henry III by Peter of Aigueblanche, bishop of Hereford, as he fled for Gloucester: "Mortimer's castle of Cefnllys has capitulated: Roger and his retinue have left unharmed. All this has led to rumour of treachery and the whole March is in terror."[4][40]

The peace signed at the Treaty of Montgomery in September 1267 was a major success for Llywelyn, granting him formal recognition as "Prince of Wales". Although Cefnllys remained outside of his direct control and Roger Mortimer was permitted to rebuild a castle there, Roger would hold the land on Llywelyn's behalf as long as Llywelyn could demonstrate his right to it.[41] Cefnllys, and the ambiguous clause regarding it, would become an imminent point of contention.[42]

Second masonry castle

It was provided that Roger Mortimer could only repair the castle at Kefen y Llys in Maelienid, and that when the said castle was restored, justice should be done to Llywelyn concerning both the castle and the adjacent lands, according to the laws and customs of the Marches. This justice Llywelyn has not been able, so far, to obtain, although the said work has long been repaired. But the said Roger has, against the form of the peace, and to Llywelyn's prejudice, constructed a new work, not merely a fence, as has been suggested to the king, but a wide and deep ditch, and stones and timber have been brought to construct a fortress, unless it is prevented by the king or by Llywelyn.

—extract from Llywelyn's letter.[41]

Roger Mortimer moved quickly to refortify Castle Bank after the Treaty of Montgomery. The northern castle may have been repaired before the end of 1267, when Llywelyn wrote to Henry III complaining about the status of Cefnllys.[43] Roger then started building a new castle on the southern side of the ridge which Llywelyn, who interpreted the treaty as only permitting repairs to the existing castle, viewed as a provocation.[42] Llywelyn sent a letter to Edward I in April 1273 or 1274 protesting Roger's "new work", and requested Edward prevent construction from continuing, lest he take action himself.[41] The argument over Cefnllys was among a series of disputes that fed into a deteriorating climate of suspicion and distrust. Davies (2000) writes that Llywelyn, who also faced intense financial and domestic pressure,[44] came to suspect "an orchestrated attempt to undermine his hard-won gains, especially in the middle March, and to subvert the terms of the Treaty of 1267".[45] This escalated into his refusal to pay homage to Edward I in 1275 and fuelled Edward's determination to pacify the insubordinate prince, culminating in Edward's subjugation of Wales between 1277–83.[46][47]

The southern castle's ruins
View of the second castle's ruins
The southern castle's keep
The keep is located at highest point of the ridge and was probably circular

Cefnllys was not directly attacked in the ensuring conflict, but was part of a chain of garrisoned castles encircling Llywelyn's territories which contributed to the rebellion's suppression.[41] Roger died in 1282 and his heir Edmund Mortimer, 2nd Baron Mortimer, paid for a garrison of 8 horse and 20 foot throughout the second phase of fighting (1282–3).[48] In October 1294, Cefnllys was listed as one of the castles captured by "Rees ap Morgan" during the revolt of Madog ap Llywelyn, although Browne & Pearson (2006) express uncertainty over the primary source's accuracy.[49][note 4] Repairs of the castle and its hall were carried out in 1356–7,[51][52] and at the outbreak of Owain Glyndŵr's rebellion in 1400 Cefnllys was in temporary royal custody. Records show that it was defended by a well-provisioned force of 12 spearmen and 30 archers – a detailed register of supplies sent to the castle in 1403 survives.[53] This may have been insufficient, as a 1405 grant to Richard Grey described the lordship as "burned and wasted by the Welsh rebels".[54][note 5]

The castle survived into the 15th century in a reparable state, but decayed as advances in warfare and shifting social patterns undermined its importance.[55] The death of Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March, of plague in 1425 marked the end of the Mortimer male line and the castle was inherited by Edmund's nephew Richard, Duke of York, who paid for repair work and appointed officials from a new class of Welsh office-holders to manage his distant estate.[56] Throughout the Marches, minor Welsh nobles were rising to positions of local power, and they preferred the comfort of oak courts to draughty stone castles: change was "expressed architecturally by the decay of the masonry castles ... and by the building of new timber halls at or near the castle sites by the Welshmen of influence within a lordship" (Suggett, 2005).[57] The pre-eminent mid-15th century travelling poet Lewys Glyn Cothi composed four poems regarding Cefnllys, including one which describes such a hall on Castle Bank. The poems, which remarkably survive in a manuscript from 1468 (although they probably date from 1432–59), praise the Welshman Ieuan ap Phylip, who was constable of Cefnllys Castle and receiver of the lordship of Malienydd.[10] Ieuan had a two-storey hall built to exhibit his status and entertain guests, and, uniquely, Lewys' poetry records the master carpenter as Rhosier ab Owain.[58] The accession of Richard's son and heir Edward to the English throne in 1461 caused Cefnllys to become crown property. It was included in a grant of predominantly ruinous castles to Prince Arthur by Henry VII in 1493, and the antiquarian John Leland recorded that the castle was "now downe" in the first half of the 16th century.[21] The castle was described as ruins in a 1687 deed of sale.[54]

Town and borough

View towards the church
St Michael's Church and the surrounding earthworks
View towards the church
View of the church

The Mortimers encouraged the development of a town at Cefnllys, although the date of its founding is unrecorded.[note 6] The settlement's existence is first documented in 1297, when it was granted a market charter. It was accorded borough status in 1304, when it possessed 25 residents, a church and a town mill. Records of pontage indicate the existence of a toll bridge,[17] and a deer park was recorded in 1360.[14] The presence of a manor at Cefnllys was highly unusual given the upland terrain, and demonstrates the Mortimers' efforts to establish manorialism in Maelienydd. English rule was unpopular among the local Welsh, and in 1297 Edmund Mortimer was compelled to restore the Welsh court at Cymaron in order to placate the population.[42][63] The lord's authority within the cantref was limited to the district surrounding the town and tribute, rather than rent, was extracted from the Welsh community.[64] Accounts from 1356-7 show that from Maelienydd's gross income of £215, only £15 was extracted from the Welshry outside the swydd of Dinieithon.[65]

The town was small, remote and ultimately short-lived: by 1332 the population had decreased to 20 citizens and it had further shrunk by 1383, when it is recorded as having only 10 burgesses.[16] Its failure was probably due to a combination of factors, including major outbreaks of the Black Death across Britain in 1349, 1361–62 and 1369.[66] Davies (1978) comments that the location of the borough, chosen for its defensiveness and ability to radiate strategic power, undermined its economic viability: "the artificiality of [its] commercial setting was too obvious once the military opportunities ... had been removed".[67][68] The persistent threat of violent conflict within the March expedited its demise.

The lack of visible remains has meant the town's location has not been conclusively proven. The population may have been small enough to fit within the enclosure of Castle Bank, and supporters of this interpretation emphasise the settlement's military role as a garrison town.[16][69] In this view, the stone wall surrounding Castle Bank would have formed part of the town defences.[70] The more frequent explanation is that the settlement was concentrated around St Michael's Church, where there would have been easy access to the mill and a nearby spring. A series of earthworks surrounding the church represent raised causeways above the boggy land, sunken roads in the direction of the toll bridge and probable medieval house platforms,[71] as well as ridge and furrow patterns from open-field system agriculture.[72] Archaeological finds surrounding the church have been mostly from the Tudor period or later, however.[17] The church's structure is of 13th century origin, although the date of its founding is unknown and it was heavily restored in 1895.[71]

Cefnllys remained a borough after the decline of the medieval settlement, although the borough eventually encompassed one-fifth of the parish.[71] From the Laws in Wales Act 1542 until the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885, it was a classed as a contributory borough, jointly electing an MP to the Radnor Boroughs constituency in the English and British parliament with four other boroughs. In 1742, the celebrated landscape painter Thomas Jones was born at Cefnllys. In 1831 the borough comprised, besides the castle ruins, 16 residents in "three Farm Houses and one small Cottage".[73]

Panorama of the River Ithon, looking down from Castle Bank
Panorama of the looping River Ithon around Castle Bank, looking down from the south-east side of the ridge

References

Notes

  1. ^ Breeze (1999) argues that Cefnllys is "Mons Clece", an unidentified place name in Wales on the Hereford Mappa Mundi, on the basis of its etymology and historical role as "the Mortimer stronghold protecting Hereford from attack".[4]
  2. ^ The Cadw scheduling report notes that the circular tower's walls are likely to be several metres high below the rubble.[11]
  3. ^ Although described in primary sources as a spontaneous local revolt,[36][37] Smith (1998) suggests Llywelyn may have instigated events in order to force a favourable peace treaty upon Henry III, recognising his supremacy within Wales.[38] He would achieve this by striking at Mortimer, who represented the greatest obstacle to his authority in the March.[30]
  4. ^ In the context of the castles listed, Browne & Pearson (2006) identify "Rees ap Morgan" with Morgan ap Maredudd, a rebel in Glamorgan, and cast doubt on the accuracy of the record given his geographic distance from Cefnllys.[42] They propose that Madog ap Llywelyn may have taken the castle; another interpretation is that the capture was led by a regional commander, possibly Cynan ap Maredudd or Maelgwn ap Rhys,[50] but details the rebellion are sparse.
  5. ^ Brown (1972) points out the grant is unclear as to whether the destruction applied specifically to the castle and suggests it could have been limited to its hinterland.[10]
  6. ^ Beresford (1967) claims the town was established concurrently with the first castle in the 1240s,[61] although he supplies no evidence for this.[30] An attempt to emanate royally-sponsored English colonisation at Flint, Aberystwyth, and Rhuddlan soon after Edward I's conquest is considered more likely.[10][62]

Citations

  1. ^ a b Browne & Pearson 2006, pp. 16–17.
  2. ^ a b c Silvester 2015, p. 20.
  3. ^ a b Smith 1998, p. 140.
  4. ^ a b c Breeze 1999, pp. 173–174.
  5. ^ Morgan, R. 1998, pp. 40–41.
  6. ^ Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 3.
  7. ^ Brown 1972, p. 11.
  8. ^ a b Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 17.
  9. ^ King 1988, p. 124.
  10. ^ a b c d Brown 1972, p. 15.
  11. ^ a b Cadw. Scheduled Monument summary description (Report). RD008. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  12. ^ Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 18.
  13. ^ Browne & Pearson 2006, pp. 10, 16.
  14. ^ a b c Brown 1972, p. 16.
  15. ^ Soulsby 1983, pp. 31, 105–106.
  16. ^ a b c Trevor 1996, pp. 212–213.
  17. ^ a b c Martin & Silvester 2011, p. 3.
  18. ^ Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 1.
  19. ^ Davies 1978, pp. 6–10.
  20. ^ Hogg & King 1967, p. 97.
  21. ^ a b c Martin & Silvester 2011, p. 2.
  22. ^ Scourfield & Haslam 2013, pp. 298–299.
  23. ^ Reid 1973, p. 57.
  24. ^ Bevan-Jones 2017, p. 47.
  25. ^ Dugdale 1655, p. 349.
  26. ^ Remfry 1998, para. 5.
  27. ^ Remfry 1998, para. 14.
  28. ^ Davies 2000, pp. 241–244.
  29. ^ Remfry 2008, pp. 13–16.
  30. ^ a b c d e Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 4.
  31. ^ Holden 2008, p. 216.
  32. ^ Smith 1998, pp. 41–43.
  33. ^ Brut y Tywysogyon 1973, p. 239.
  34. ^ Dugdale 1655, p. 350.
  35. ^ a b c Brown 1972, p. 12.
  36. ^ a b Brut y Tywysogyon 1973, p. 253.
  37. ^ Annales Cambriae 2012, p. 100.
  38. ^ Smith 1998, pp. 139–147.
  39. ^ Breverton 2009, p. 61.
  40. ^ Lloyd 1911, p. 730.
  41. ^ a b c d Brown 1972, p. 13.
  42. ^ a b c d Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 5.
  43. ^ Smith 1998, p. 362.
  44. ^ Prestwich 1997, pp. 172–173.
  45. ^ Davies 2000, pp. 322–323.
  46. ^ Smith 1998, p. 363.
  47. ^ Prestwich 1997, pp. 174–175.
  48. ^ Morris 1901, pp. 171–172.
  49. ^ Luard 2012, p. 526.
  50. ^ Brut y Tywysogyon 2015, [1293–1294].
  51. ^ Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 6.
  52. ^ Cole 1964, p. 31.
  53. ^ Brown 1972, pp. 14–15.
  54. ^ a b Browne & Pearson 2006, p. 7.
  55. ^ Suggett 2005, p. 30.
  56. ^ Browne & Pearson 2006, pp. 3, 7.
  57. ^ Suggett 2005, p. 37.
  58. ^ Suggett 2005, p. 38.
  59. ^ Jones 1936, p. 19.
  60. ^ Owen 2011, pp. 77–78.
  61. ^ Beresford 1967, p. 344.
  62. ^ Soulsby 1983, p. 105.
  63. ^ Davies 1978, p. 156.
  64. ^ Davies 1978, pp. 102–103.
  65. ^ Cole 1964, pp. 34, 37.
  66. ^ Davies 2000, p. 427.
  67. ^ Davies 1978, pp. 321, 334.
  68. ^ Davies 2000, p. 167.
  69. ^ Beresford 1967, pp. 127–127.
  70. ^ Barley 1976, p. 76.
  71. ^ a b c Soulsby 1983, p. 106.
  72. ^ CPAT. Historic Environment Record (Report). 16124. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
  73. ^ Beresford 1967, p. 313.

Bibliography

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  • Cefnllys site details National Monuments Record of Wales. – Coflein information page with links to digital images, archive records and the 2006 RCAHMW report.
  • 1840 parish map National Library of Wales. – 1840 map showing the parish within the County of Radnor.
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