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Butterfly gardening

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"Butterfly garden" redirects here. For exhibits with captive butterflies, see Butterfly house (conservatory).

A monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) feeding on butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa). Monarch populations have been declining in abundance due to loss of habitat in the United States and deforestation at overwintering grounds in Mexico.[1]

Butterfly gardening is a way to create, improve, and maintain habitat for lepidopterans including butterflies, skippers, and moths.[2] Butterflies have four distinct life stages—egg, larva, chrysalis, and adult. In order to support and sustain butterfly populations, an ideal butterfly garden contains habitat for each life stage. Butterfly larvae, except the carnivorous harvester (Feniseca tarquinius), consume plant matter and can be generalists or specialists. While butterflies like the painted lady (Vanessa cardui)[3] are known to consume over 200 plants as caterpillars, other species like the monarch (Danaus plexippus),[4] and the regal fritillary (Speyeria idalia)[5] only consume plants in one genus, milkweed and violets, respectively. Milkweed grows in every state in the United States except Alaska.[6]

As adults, butterflies feed on nectar, but they have also evolved to consume rotting fruit, tree sap, and even carrion.[7] Supporting nectarivorous adult butterflies involves planting nectar plants of different heights, color, and bloom times. Butterfly bait stations can easily be made to provide a food source for species that prefer fruit and sap. In addition to food sources, wind breaks in the form of trees and shrubs shelter butterflies and can provide larval food and overwintering grounds.[8] "Puddling" is a behavior generally done by male butterflies in which they gather to drink nutrients and water and incorporating a puddling ground for butterflies will enhance a butterfly garden.[9][10] While butterflies are not the only pollinator, creating butterfly habitat also creates habitat for bees, beetles, flies, and other pollinators[8]

Reasoning

Butterfly way station sign

Butterfly gardening provides a recreational activity to view butterflies interacting with the environment. Besides anthropocentric values of butterfly gardening, creating habitat reduces the impacts of habitat fragmentation and degradation. Habitat degradation is a multivariate issue; development, increased use of pesticides and herbicides, woody encroachment, and non-native plants are contributing factors to the decline in butterfly and pollinator habitat.[11] Pollination is one ecological service butterflies provide; about 90% of flowering plants and 35% of crops rely on animal pollination.[11][12] Butterfly gardens, even in urban, developed neighborhoods provide habitat that increases butterfly diversity and also pollinators like bees, flies, and beetles.[13]

Ground-truthing

Before buying plants and digging into the soil, "ground-truthing" is a necessary first step, Ground-truthing involves surveying a property in order to assess the current resources available. Some aspects to keep in mind are the following:

  • south-facing slopes
  • natural wind breaks
  • present plant species
  • present butterfly species

Butterflies are ectothermic and rely on solar radiation for their metabolism. South-facing slopes are an ideal location for a butterfly garden, as they provide the most solar radiation. Shrubs and trees provide wind breaks for butterflies, and can also be host plants, such as spicebush (Lindera benzoin) or pawpaw (Asimina triloba)[8][14]

Plants

A coral hairstreak (Satyrium titus) resting on a clump of grass. The larvae will feed upon species in the family Rosaceae, including cherry (Prunus serotina)[14]
Group of Lysandra coridon puddling

The types of plants used in a butterfly garden will determine which species of butterflies will visit a garden. Lepidoptera societies and the Department of Natural Resources often provide state and county distribution maps of local butterflies. There are lists of butterfly species and their host plants which are informative to the plant species needed in the garden (Larval food plants of Lepidoptera). While non-native plants do provide flora resources later in the season, they have an overall negative effect on butterflies and other pollinators.[11] Therefore, it is recommended to use native plants.

Depending on the zone, some butterfly attracting plants include: purple cone flowers (Echinacea purpurea), yellow cone flowers, sunflowers, marigolds, poppies, cosmos, salvias, some lilies, asters, coreopsis, daisies, verbenas, lantanas, liastris, milkweed (especially for the monarch butterfly, whose caterpillars feed solely on this plant), the butterfly bush (also called buddleia), zinnias, pentas, porterweeds, and others.[15] Avoid cultivars of plants that have "double flowers" (more petals which block the center) as these can be difficult for butterflies to access. Care should also be taken to research a species, to make sure it is not invasive in a given region.

Puddling

"Puddling" refers to the behavior of male butterflies congregating on wet soil, dung, and carrion to feed on nutrients, specifically sodium.[9] Nectar is low in sodium, and sodium is a limiting nutrient for Lepidoptera. Male butterflies are able to transfer sodium to females during copulation. The sodium is passed onto offspring and increases reproductive success.[10] To create a simple puddling habitat, fill a shallow dish (like a draining tray for a pot) with wet sand. To increase the nutrients, mix compost with the sand. Add footholds for butterflies by adding different sized rocks.

Baiting

There are numerous recipes for creating butterfly bait, but they have common ingredients. Fermentation is the key to a good bait, as it mimics the fermentation of rotting fruit and sap in the natural environment.[16] Recipes include blending rotten fruit (i.e. bananas) with beer, maple syrup, molasses, or sugar. Often yeast is added as well to the mixture and left to ferment for a week. Urine is also known to attract fruit-feeding butterflies[17].The bait can be laid on stumps, rocks, and tree limbs.

An out of the way waystation. The vegetation offers shelter for Butterflies.

Problems

There are diseases that afflict butterflies, such as bacteria in the genus Pseudomonas, the nuclear polyhedrosis virus, and Ophryocystis elektroscirrha, which only infects queen butterflies and monarch butterflies.

In the absence of pesticides, aphids and true bugs may infest plants. Some gardeners may wish to release ladybugs (ladybirds) and other biological pest control agents that do not harm butterflies in order to control aphids. However, the release of ladybugs is not a good idea in places such as the United States where the species that is released is generally the invasive Chinese ladybug.

An alternative to this is to wait for local predatory insects to find the aphids. One technique some use to quicken this process if the infestation is particularly high is to spray the bushes with a mix of sugar and water, simulating aphid honeydew. This is known to attract lacewings whose larva eat aphids.[18]

Another method of control is by spraying the plants with water, or rinsing plants with a mild dish detergent/water solution (although caterpillars should be relocated before suds are applied). Scented detergents are fine; those containing OxiClean should be avoided. The aphids will turn black within a day, and eventually fall off. One last technique is to plant a variety of different flowers, including ones that attract hoverflies and parasitic Braconid wasps, whose larvae kill pest species. Still, it is not advisable to kill all aphids, just to control them so that they are not detrimental to plants. Aphids still play a role in the environment by providing food for predators. There are even some caterpillars such as the harvester which only eat certain aphid species instead of plants.[19]

With small home butterfly gardens, it is common for the larvae to exhaust the food source before metamorphosis occurs. Gardeners of monarch butterflies can replace the expended milkweed with a slice of pumpkin or cucumber, which can serve as a substitute source of food for monarch caterpillars in their final (fifth) instar.[20] Planting multiple plants in clumps can help lower the chances of running out of leaves.

Efforts to increase butterfly populations by establishing butterfly gardens require particular attention to the target species' food preferences and population cycles, as well to the conditions needed to propagate their food plants. For example, in the Washington, D.C. area and elsewhere in the northeastern United States, monarch butterflies prefer to reproduce on common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), especially when its foliage is soft and fresh. As monarch reproduction in that area peaks in late summer when most Asclepias syriaca leaves are old and tough, the plant needs to be cut back in June – August to assure that it will be regrowing rapidly when monarch reproduction reaches its peak.[21] In addition, Asclepias syriaca seed needs a period of cold treatment (cold stratification) before it will germinate.[22]

Although monarch caterpillars will feed on butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa), the plant has rough leaves and is typically not a heavily used host plant. The plant is therefore less suitable for use in butterfly gardens than are other milkweed species.[23] In addition, the plant's lack of toxic cardiac glycosides may also make the plant unattractive to egg-laying monarchs.[24] This butterfly's caterpillars deter predators by incorporating these compounds into their bodies, where the toxins remain throughout the insect's lifetime.[25]

Butterflies and moths on typical nectar-foodplants

See also

References

  1. ^ Brower, Lincoln P.; Taylor, Orley R.; Williams, Ernest H.; Slayback, Daniel A.; Zubieta, Raul R.; Ramírez, M. Isabel (March 2012). "Decline of monarch butterflies overwintering in Mexico: is the migratory phenomenon at risk?: Decline of monarch butterflies in Mexico". Insect Conservation and Diversity. 5 (2): 95–100. doi:10.1111/j.1752-4598.2011.00142.x. hdl:2060/20140010155. S2CID 86566051.
  2. ^ "Butterfly Gardening: Introduction". University of Kansas: Monarch Watch. Archived from the original on February 2, 2020. Retrieved March 9, 2020.
  3. ^ Krenn, Harald W. (December 24, 2001). "Proboscis musculature in the butterfly Vanessa cardui (Nymphalidae, Lepidoptera): settling the proboscis recoiling controversy". Acta Zoologica. 81 (3): 259–266. doi:10.1046/j.1463-6395.2000.00055.x. ISSN 0001-7272.
  4. ^ "Plant Milkweed for Monarchs" (PDF). MONARCH JOINT VENTURE Partnering across the U.S. to conserve the monarch migration. Monarch Joint Venture. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
  5. ^ "Supplemental Information 3: Dendrogram showing Bray-Curtis similarities in lepidopteran community between host plants". doi:10.7717/peerj.3344/supp-3. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ^ Johnson, Glen A (August 6, 2019). Milkweed of the United States Including Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands. ISBN 9781081170653.
  7. ^ Ômura, Hisashi; Honda, Keiichi (November 2003). "Feeding responses of adult butterflies, Nymphalis xanthomelas, Kaniska canace and Vanessa indica, to components in tree sap and rotting fruits: synergistic effects of ethanol and acetic acid on sugar responsiveness". Journal of Insect Physiology. 49 (11): 1031–1038. doi:10.1016/j.jinsphys.2003.07.001. PMID 14568581.
  8. ^ a b c Attracting native pollinators : protecting North America's bees and butterflies : the Xerces Society guide. Lee-Mäder, Eric, 1972-, Xerces Society. North Adams, MA: Storey Pub. 2011. ISBN 978-1-60342-695-4. OCLC 535495615.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  9. ^ a b Pivnick, Kenneth A.; McNEIL, Jeremy N. (December 1987). "Puddling in butterflies: sodium affects reproductive success in Thymelicus lineola*". Physiological Entomology. 12 (4): 461–472. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3032.1987.tb00773.x. ISSN 0307-6962. S2CID 85228518.
  10. ^ a b Smedley, S. R.; Eisner, T. (December 15, 1995). "Sodium Uptake by Puddling in a Moth". Science. 270 (5243): 1816–1818. Bibcode:1995Sci...270.1816S. doi:10.1126/science.270.5243.1816. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 8525374. S2CID 46385297.
  11. ^ a b c Hanula, James L.; Ulyshen, Michael D.; Horn, Scott (October 2016). "Conserving Pollinators in North American Forests: A Review". Natural Areas Journal. 36 (4): 427–439. doi:10.3375/043.036.0409. ISSN 0885-8608. S2CID 12503098.
  12. ^ Nicholls, Clara I.; Altieri, Miguel A. (April 2013). "Plant biodiversity enhances bees and other insect pollinators in agroecosystems. A review" (PDF). Agronomy for Sustainable Development. 33 (2): 257–274. doi:10.1007/s13593-012-0092-y. ISSN 1774-0746. S2CID 11207837.
  13. ^ Matteson, Kevin C.; Langellotto, Gail A. (September 2010). "Determinates of inner city butterfly and bee species richness". Urban Ecosystems. 13 (3): 333–347. doi:10.1007/s11252-010-0122-y. ISSN 1083-8155.
  14. ^ a b Wagner, David L. (December 31, 2010). Caterpillars of Eastern North America. Princeton: Princeton University Press. doi:10.1515/9781400834143. ISBN 978-1-4008-3414-3.
  15. ^ (1) "Butterfly Gardening". Butterflies for All Occasions. 2008. Retrieved May 27, 2008.
    (2) Glassberg, J. (1995). Enjoying butterflies more: attract butterflies to your backyard. Marietta, Ohio: Bird Watcher's Digest Press. ISBN 1880241080. LCCN 96202681. OCLC 35808599. Retrieved March 9, 2020 – via Google Books.
    (3) "Monarch Garden Plants" (PDF). San Francisco, California: Pollinator Partnership. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 9, 2020. Retrieved March 9, 2020.
    (4) "Plants for Butterfly and Pollinator Gardens: Native and Non-native Plants Suitable for Gardens in the Northeastern United States" (PDF). Monarch Watch. Retrieved October 18, 2020. Archived August 9, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
  16. ^ Laaksonen, Jesse; Laaksonen, Toni; Itämies, Juhani; Rytkönen, Seppo; Välimäki, Panu (June 1, 2006). "A new efficient bait-trap model for Lepidoptera surveys – the "Oulu" model". Entomologica Fennica. 17 (2): 153–160. doi:10.33338/ef.84301. ISSN 2489-4966.
  17. ^ Lucci Freitas, A.V., Agra Iserhard, C., Pereira Santos, J., Oliveira CarreiraI, J.Y., Bandini Ribeiro, D., Alves Melo, D.H., Batista Rosa, A.H., Marini-Filho, O.J., Mattos Accacio, G. and Uehara-Prado, M., 2014. Studies with butterfly bait traps: an overview. Revista Colombiana de Entomología, 40(2), pp.203-212.
  18. ^ Omkar (February 3, 2016). Ecofriendly Pest Management for Food Security. Academic Press. ISBN 9780128032664 – via Google Books.
  19. ^ "harvester butterfly – Feniseca tarquinius (Fabricius)". entnemdept.ufl.edu. Retrieved November 13, 2017.
  20. ^ Maeckle, Monika (April 11, 2014). "Milkweed Shortage Sparks "Alternative Fuels" for Hungry Monarch Caterpillars". [Texas Butterfly Ranch]. Archived from the original on April 7, 2015. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
  21. ^ (1) "Milkweeds (mostly Asclepias spp.)". Alonso Abugattas Shares Native Plant Picks for Wildlife. Mid-Atlantic Gardener. 2016. Retrieved October 17, 2020. Milkweeds are in vogue now to help the Monarch butterflies and the 11 other caterpillar species who feed on the plants. There are 13 native Milkweed species (and four vines) in Virginia alone. .... The local monarch favorite is Common Milkweed (A. syriaca), .... . They are .... the favorite because they seem to have the most toxic compounds (cardiac glycosides) that caterpillars need to make themselves distasteful to predators. Archived March 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine.
    (2) Abugattas, Alonzo (January 3, 2017). "Monarch Way Stations". Capital Naturalist. Retrieved June 5, 2017 – via Blogger. Virginia is blessed for instance with 13 native Asclepias species plus 4 climbing vines that Monarch caterpillars can feed on. For the best results, cut the some of the stems back in late summer after they've bloomed. Fall is the when we get the most Monarchs laying eggs on our milkweeds. Since the mother butterflies prefer young, more tender growth, you can provide this by timing your pruning so there are new leaves by September or so for the arriving Monarchs. Just make sure to leave a few to produce pods for seeds. The local monarch favorite is Common Milkweed (A. syriaca), ..... They are the favorite because they have the most toxic compounds (cardiac glycosides) the caterpillars need to make themselves distasteful to predators. Archived June 5, 2017, at the Wayback Machine.
    (3) Higgins, Adrian (May 27, 2015). "A gardener's guide to saving the monarch". Home & Garden. The Washington Post. Retrieved October 17, 2020. "The monarch doesn't care where the milkweed grows, and putting it in residential neighborhoods makes perfect sense," said Doug Tallamy, an entomologist at the University of Delaware, author and expert on wildlife habitat gardens. ....
    The Smithsonian Institution's Butterfly Habitat Garden .... and the Ripley Garden .... are both good places to see milkweed integrated into a garden setting.
    At the butterfly garden, you can see the common milkweed ... now looking pretty good in fresh, unblemished clumps. By late summer, it looks tall, tired and tough. Tallamy says if you grow it, you should cut it back at least by half in June to produce soft foliage in late summer that will be more munchable for the caterpillars. If you do that, make sure there are no larvae on the plant before you chop it.
    James Gagliardi, the butterfly garden's horticulturist, said the common milkweed "is aggressive and may be not as showy as the other ones, but it blends into a meadow or mass planting.     Archived September 26, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
    (4) Gomez, Tony. "Asclepias syriaca: Common Milkweed for Monarch Caterpillars". Monarch Butterfly Garden. MonarchButterflyGarden.net. Retrieved October 17, 2010. Cut- At mid season after the blooms have faded, cut some common plants back by about a third. This promotes fresh plant growth and could get you an extra generation of monarchs on the fresh new leaves. Leave some plants uncut if you want to harvest milkweed seeds in fall. Archived March 16, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
    (5) "Common Milkweed: Asclepias syriaca L." (PDF). Plant Guide. United States Department of Agriculture: Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved May 29, 2015. Archived March 27, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
    (6) "Northeast Region Milkweed Species" (PDF). Monarch Joint Venture Partnering across the U.S. to conserve the monarch migration: Plant Milkweed for Monarchs. Monarch Joint Venture. Retrieved July 7, 2015. Archived May 21, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  22. ^ (1) Higgins, Adrian (May 27, 2015). "7 milkweed varieties and where to find them". Home & Garden. The Washington Post. Retrieved October 17, 2020. Seed may be stubborn to germinate and may need a period of cold treatment. Archived September 26, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
    (2) Gomez, Tony. "Asclepias syriaca: Common Milkweed for Monarch Caterpillars". Monarch Butterfly Garden. MonarchButterflyGarden.net. Retrieved October 17, 2010. Start seeds indoors 2 months before final frost- seeds must be cold stratified Archived March 16, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
    (3) "Common Milkweed: Asclepias syriaca L." (PDF). Plant Guide. United States Department of Agriculture: Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved May 29, 2015. If planting in flats or in a greenhouse, common milkweed seeds should be cold-treated for three months. Archived March 27, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
    (4) "Asclepias syriaca". Butterfly gardening & all things milkweed. Retrieved July 7, 2015. germination: seed requires cold moist period Archived July 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine.
  23. ^ Gomez, Tony. "Asclepias Tuberosa: Butterfly Weed for Monarchs and More". Monarch Butterfly Garden. Retrieved September 11, 2020. Rough leaves for monarch caterpillars, not typically a heavily used host plant Archived August 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine.
  24. ^ (1) "Milkweeds (mostly Asclepias spp.)". Alonso Abugattas Shares Native Plant Picks for Wildlife. Mid-Atlantic Gardener. 2016. Retrieved October 17, 2020. And if you have hot, dry conditions in your yard, try Butterflyweed (A. tuberosa). .... It's the least favored by Monarch caterpillars because it has very little toxin (cardiac glycosides) in its leaves. Archived March 13, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
    (2) Abugattas, Alonzo (January 3, 2017). "Monarch Way Stations". Capital Naturalist. Retrieved June 5, 2017 – via Blogger. (A. tuberosa) is the least favored by monarch caterpillars though because it has very little toxin (cardiac glycosides) in its leaves, .... . Archived 2017-06-05 at the Wayback Machine
    (3) "Butterfly Weed: Asclepias tuberosa" (PDF). Becker County, Minnesota: Becker Soil and Water Conservation District. Retrieved September 11, 2020. Unlike other milkweeds, this plant has a clear sap, and the level of toxic cardiac glycosides is consistently low (although other toxic compounds may be present). Archived September 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine.
    (4) Mikkelsen, Lauge Hjorth; Hamoudi, Hassan; Altuntas Gül, Cigdem; Heegaard, Steffen (2017). "Corneal Toxicity Following Exposure to Asclepias tuberosa". The Open Ophthalmology Journal. 11. Bentham Science Publishers: 1–4. doi:10.2174/1874364101711010001. PMC 5362972. PMID 28400886. The latex of A. tuberosa seems to be different from other members of the Asclepias family due to the fact that even though cardenolides are normally considered present in Asclepias species, these cardenolides have not been found in A. tuberosa. Instead some unique pregnane glycosides are found in A. tuberosa. Archived September 11, 2020, at the Wayback Machine
    (5) Warashina, Tsutomu; Noro, Tadataka (February 2010). "8,12;8,20-Diepoxy-8,14-secopregnane Glycosides from the Aerial Parts of Asclepias tuberosa". Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 58 (2). Pharmaceutical Society of Japan: 172–179. doi:10.1248/cpb.58.172. PMID 20118575. Retrieved September 11, 2020. Though cardenolides are considered to be characteristic constituents of Asclepias spp. together with pregnane glycosides, we could find no cardenolides in the more hydrophobic fraction of the methanol extract of the aerial parts of A. tuberosa, the same as previously.
  25. ^ Parsons, J.A. (1965). "A Digitallis-like Toxin in the Monarch Butterfly Danaus plexippus L". The Journal of Physiology. 178 (2): 290–304. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1965.sp007628. PMC 1357291. PMID 14298120.


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