Racism in Poland

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Racism in Poland is present like in all countries, even though a race-based worldview has had little chance to develop. Racism has persisted alongside the fact that ethnic minorities have made up a significant proportion of the population since the founding of the Polish state. Throughout most of its one thousand-year history, Poland has experienced very limited immigration; apart from the immigration of the Jews while they were having been expelled from other parts of the Europe. Poland has never had overseas colonies.[1][note 1] For a lengthy period the country was regarded as having a very tolerant society vowing to "constant evidence for numerous varieties of religious nonconformity, sectarians, schism, and heterodoxy."[1]

During World War II Poland was the main scene of the genocide of Poles by Nazi Germany as well as Holocaust and Porajmos : genocides conducted by Nazi Germany of people of Jewish and Romani ancestry by various means and with various intensity; with Jews targeted for immediate extermination[2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][failed verification][excessive citations][14] Those, were classified as "sub-human" in Nazi racial theory and were to be eradicated, and their culture destroyed. Robert Gellately wrote that the intent of the Nazis was "to erase the Polish state, nation, and culture from the face of the Earth" and described this intent as "serial genocide". [15]

Ethnic Poles

German warning in Nazi-occupied Poland 1939 - "No entrance for Poles!"
See also: Racial policy of Nazi Germany, Nazi crimes against the Polish nation, and Polish decrees

Prussia

Racist publications about Poles appeared as early as the 18th century, imbued with Middle Ages ethnic stereotypes to which racist overtones justifying German rule over Polish territories were added.[16] Authors such as Georg Forster wrote about Poles that they are "cattle in human form"[17]

German Empire

When part of Poland was under the rule of the German Empire, the Polish population was discriminated against by racist policies. These policies gained popularity among German nationalists, some of whom were members of the Völkisch movement, leading to the expulsion of Poles by Germany. This was fueled by Anti-Polish sentiment, especially during the age of partitions in the 18th century.[18][19][20] The Kulturkampf campaign led by Otto von Bismarck resulted in legacy of anti-Polish racism;in turn Polish population experienced oppression and exploitation at hands of Germans[21] The racist ideas of Prussian state directed against Polish people were taken on by German social scientists, in part led by Max Weber[22]

Nazi Germany

Concentration camp badge with the letter "P" to identify people of Polish ethnicity, required to wear by Polish slave laborers and inmates during World War II in occupied Poland

Poland was under German and Soviet occupation during World War II. At this period Polish people were harshly discriminated against in their own occupied country. The Nazi German regime saw the Poles as "subhumans" (untermenschen). In the directive No. 1306 by Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda from 24 October 1939, the racist concept of "subhuman" is used in reference to Polish ethnicity and culture, as follows:

It must become clear to everybody in Germany, even to the last milkmaid, that Polishness is equal to subhumanity. Poles, Jews and Gypsies are on the same inferior level. This must be clearly outlined [...] until every citizen of Germany has it encoded in his subconsciousness that every Pole, whether a farm worker or intellectual, should be treated like vermin".[23][24]

Most of the Nazis considered the Poles, like the majority of other Slavs, to be non-Aryan and non-European "masses from the East" which should be either totally annihilated along with the Jews and Gypsies, or entirely expelled from the European continent.[25] Poles were the victims of Nazi crimes against humanity and some of the main non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust. Approximately 2.7 million ethnic Poles were murdered or killed during World War II.[26] Nazi policy towards ethnically Polish people was eventually the genocide and destruction of the whole Polish nation, as well as cultural genocide[27][28] which involved Germanisation, as well as the suppression or murder of religious, cultural, intellectual, and political leadership. On March 15, 1940, Heinrich Himmler stated “All Polish specialists will be exploited in our military-industrial complex. Later, all Poles will disappear from this world. It is imperative that the great German nation considers the elimination of all Polish people as its chief task.”[29] The Nazi goal in this policy was to prevent effective Polish resistance and to exploit Polish people as slave laborers.[30] and foresaw extermination of Poles as a nation[31] Polish slaves in Nazi Germany were forced to wear identifying red tags with the letter P that were sewn to their clothing. Sexual relations with Germans (rassenschande or "racial defilement") were punishable by death. During the war many Polish men were executed for their relations with German women.[32][33]

Maintain the purity of German blood! That applies to both men and women! Just as it is considered the greatest disgrace to become involved with a Jew, any German engaging in intimate relations with a Polish male or female is guilty of sinful behavior. Despise the bestial urges of this race! Be racially conscious and protect your children. Otherwise you will forfeit your greatest asset: your honor![34]

In 1942 Nazi racial discrimination was enshrined in Decree on Penal Law for Poles and Jews[35]

During post-war Trials of Nazis it was stated during Trial of Ulrich Freifelt that: "The methods applied by the Nazis in Poland and other occupied territories, including once more Alsace and Lorraine, were of a similar nature with the sole difference that they were more ruthless and wider in scope than in 1914-1918. In this connection the policy of “ Germanizing ” the populations concerned, as shown by the evidence in the trial under review, consisted partly in forcibly denationalising given classes or groups of the local population, such as Poles, Alsace-Lorrainers, Slovenes and others eligible for Germanization under the German People’s List. As a result in these cases the programme of genocide was being achieved through acts which, in themselves, constitute war crimes"[36]

Likewise, during the time of World War II around 120.000 Polish people, mostly women and children, became the primary targets of ethnicity-based genocide by Ukrainian Insurgent Army, then in the territory of occupied Poland.[37]


Minorities

Jews

Antisemitic graffiti in Lublin, 2012, depicting a Star of David hanging from gallows
Overtly antisemitic Polish-language propaganda poster from the Polish-Soviet war of 1919-1921

King Casimir III the Great brought Jews to Poland during the crusades at a time when Jewish communities were being persecuted and expelled from all over Europe. As a result of better life conditions, by the mid-16th century, 80% of the world's Jews lived in Poland.[38][39] The Catholic Church, however, was opposed to the tolerant attitude of the Polish royalty.[citation needed] During the 15th century in the royal capital of Kraków, extremist clergymen advocated violence towards the Jews, who in a gradual process lost their positions. In 1469 Jews were expelled from their old settlement to Spiglarska Street. In 1485 Jewish elders were forced into a renunciation of trade in Kraków, which led many Jews to leave for Kazimierz that did not fall under the restrictions due to its status as a royal town. Following the 1494 fire in Kraków, a wave of anti-Jewish attacks took place. King John I Albert forced the remaining Jews of Kraków to move to Kazimierz.[40]

In the Second Polish Republic, from the 1920s the Polish government excluded Jews from receiving government bank credits, public sector employment, and obtaining business licenses in government controlled sphere of the economy. From the 1930s limits were placed on Jewish enrollment in university education, Jewish shops, Jewish export firms, Shechita, Jewish admission to the medical and legal professions, Jews in business associations, etc. While in 1921-22 25% of students were Jews, by 1938-9 the proportion went down to 8%. The far-right National Democracy (Endeks) organized anti-Jewish boycotts. Following the death of Poland's ruler Józef Piłsudski in 1935, the Endeks intensified their efforts and in 1937 declared that their "main aim and duty must be to remove the Jews from all spheres of social, economic, and cultural life in Poland", which lead to violence in a few cases pogroms in smaller towns. The government in response organized the Camp of National Unity (OZON), which in 1938 took control of the Polish parliament. The Polish parliament then drafted anti-Jewish legislation similar to anti-Jewish laws in Germany, Hungary, and Romania. OZON advocated mass emigration of Jews from Poland, boycott of Jews, numerus clausus (see also Ghetto benches), and other limitation on Jewish rights.[41]

In the mid-20th century, notable incidents of antisemitism in Poland included Jedwabne pogrom of 1941 in the presence of German Ordnungspolizei (police officers)[42] and Anti-Jewish violence in Poland, 1944–46, attributed to postwar lawlessness as well as an anti-communist insurrection against the new pro-Soviet government immediately after the end of World War II in Europe,[43] and the "Żydokomuna" (Jewish communism) stereotype.[44] Another major event took place during the 1968 Polish political crisis.

The Jewish community in Poland consisted of about 10% of the general population by 1939, but was all but eradicated during the Holocaust following the German invasion of Poland in 1939 at the onset of World War II.[45]. During the Polish census of 2011, 7,353 persons declared Jewish ethnicity (including the second one).

In 2017, the University of Warsaw’s Center for Research on Prejudice found an increase in antisemitic views in Poland, possibly due to growing Islamophobia and anti-migrant sentiment.[46] Later that year, the European Jewish Congress accused the Polish government of "normalizing" the phenomenon in the country.[47]

Despite the current Jewish population being scant, antisemitism persists in Poland and fulfills various important roles in Polish society. It is an informal tenet of Polish religiosity, facilitates viewing Poles as the main victim of the Nazis, enables denial of historic responsibility for anti-Jewish crimes, and it provide a scapegoat for problems in the post-communist transition. Unlike other European societies, contemporary Polish antisemitism is not related to attitudes towards Israel. Furthermore, political representation of those employing antisemitic rhetoric is very limited.[48]

Roma

In June 1991 the Mława riot happened, which was a series of violent incidents against Polska Roma after a Polish man was killed and another one permanently harmed by a Romani teenager in a luxury car in a hit-and-run accident.[49] After that a rioting mob attacked Romani residents of the Polish town of Mława where hundreds fled out of fear. The Mlawa officials insisted that the event was caused by jealousy to the prosperity of the Romani, whose predominant occupation was gold and automobile trade. However the racial motive of the events is commonly recognized. [50]

Among coverage of the riot, a change of ethnic stereotypes about Roma in Poland was mentioned: A Roma is no longer poor, dirty, or cheerful. They also do not beg or pretend to be lowly. Nowadays a Roma drives a high status car, lives in a fancy mansion, flaunts his wealth, brags that the local authorities and the police are on his pay and thus he is not afraid of anybody. At the same time he is, as before, a swindler, a thief, a hustler, a dodger of military service and of a legal, decent job.[51] Negative "metastereotypes" – or the Romas' own perceptions regarding the stereotypes that members of the dominant groups hold about their own group – were described by the Polish Roma Society in an attempt to intensify the dialogue about exclusionism.[52]

Sub-Saharan Africans

The most common word in Polish for a black person is "murzyn". It is generally regarded as a neutral word which was used for centuries to describe a person of black (Sub-Saharan African) ancestry, but nowadays some black Africans consider it to be pejorative, though the majority of people in Poland see it as a neutral term regardless.[53]

One of the high-profile events regarding blacks in Poland was the death of Maxwell Itoya in 2010, a Nigerian street vendor from a mixed marriage who was selling counterfeit goods.[54] He was shot in the upper leg by a policeman during a street brawl that followed a screening check at a market in Warsaw and died of a severed artery.[55] The event led to a media debate regarding policing and racism.[56]

There have been other cases of violence against blacks in recent years. In Strzelce Opolskie, Black soccer players from LZS Piotrówka club were attacked in a bar by fans of the opposing team Odra Opole in 2015 and two young men were arrested.[57] At least six men were sentenced. [58] In a Łódź dance-club, a black student was attacked in a men's washroom.[59][60]

Modern Poland

2008 EVS survey

An analysis based on the European Values Survey (EVS), which took place in 2008, compares Poland to other European nations. Poland had very high levels of political tolerance (lack of extremist political attitudes), relatively high levels of ethnic tolerance (based on attitudes towards Muslims, immigrants, Romas, and Jews) and at the same time low levels of personal tolerance (based on attitudes towards people considered "deviant" or "threatening"). From 1998 to 2008, there was a marked increase in political and ethnic tolerance, but a decrease in personal tolerance.[61]

In 1990, due partly to the political euphoria accompanying the fall of communism, Poland was the most tolerant nation in Central Europe. However, over the course of the '90s, tolerance decreased. By 1999, EVS recorded Poland as having one of the highest rates of xenophobia in Europe, while antisemitism also increased during this time. The factors behind these decreases in tolerance and the radicalization in attitudes towards other ethnic groups during this time likely included the country's economic problems associated with a costly transition from Communism (for example, high unemployment), ineffectual government and possibly an increase in immigration from outside.[61]

These attitudes began to change after 2000, possibly due to Poland's entry into the European Union, increased travel abroad and more frequent encounters with people of other races. By 2008, the EVS showed Poland as one of the least xenophobic countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The negative attitudes towards Jews have likewise returned to their lower 1990s level, although they do remain somewhat above the European average.[61] During the same time period, ethnic tolerance and political tolerance increased in Southern Europe (Spain, Greece) and decreased in other parts of Northern Europe (Netherlands).[61]

While the Roma group was listed as most rejected, the level of exclusion was still lower than elsewhere in Europe, most likely due the long history of Roma (see Polska Roma) and their relatively low numbers in the country.[61]

State and racism

In 2004, the government took some initiatives in order to tackle the problem of racism. They adopted the "National Programme to Prevent Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance 2004-2009" ("Krajowy Program Przeciwdziałania Dyskryminacji Rasowej, Ksenofobii i Związanej z Nimi Nietolerancji 2004 – 2009"[62]) and also established the Monitoring Team on Racism and Xenophobia within the Ministry of Interior and Administration. The Implementation Report (2010)[63] stated that the programme suffered from various obstacles, including lacking and unclear funding, and eventually some planned tasks were completed, while others were not.[64]

2012 CRP survey

In a 2012 survey conducted by the Center for Research on Prejudice at the University of Warsaw, it was found that 78.5% of participants disagreed with traditional antisemitic statements (eg. "Jews are responsible for the death of Jesus Christ"), but 52.9% agreed with secondary antisemitic statements (eg. "Jews spread the stereotype of Polish anti-Semitism"), and 64.6% believed in a "Jewish conspiracy" (eg. "Jews would like to rule the world").[65] The authors noted that "belief in [a] Jewish conspiracy proved to be the strongest significant predictor of discriminatory intentions towards Jews in all fields. Traditional anti-Semitism predicted social distance towards Jews, while it did not predict any of the other discriminatory intentions. Secondary anti-Semitism failed to predict any form of discriminatory intentions against Jews."[65]

ADL Global 100 survey

In the "ADL Global 100" survey conducted in 2013-2014, 57% of respondents said that "it is probably true" that "Jews have too much power in the business world"; 55% that "Jews have too much power in international financial markets"; 42% that "Jews have too much control over global affairs"; and 33% that "people hate Jews because of the way Jews behave".[66]

2018 FRA survey

In the FRA 2018 Experiences and perceptions of antisemitism/Second survey on discrimination and hate crime against Jews in the EU, antisemtism in Poland was identified as a "fairly big" or "very big" problem by 85% of respondants (placing Poland at the fourth place after France, Germany and Belgium); 61% reported that antisemitism had increased "a lot" in the past five years (second place after France, and before Belgium and Germany); 74% reported that intolerance towards Muslim had increased "a lot" (second place after Hungary, and before Austria and the UK); and 89% reported an increase in expressions of antisemitism online (second place after France, and before Italy and Belgium). The most commonly heard antisemitic statements were "Jews have too much power in Poland" (70%) and "Jews exploit Holocaust victimhood for their own purposes" (67%).[67]

Countering racism

"Never Again" Association

Main article: "Never Again" Association

The "Never Again" Association is an a-political anti-racist organization, based in Warsaw. The organization has its roots in an in-formal anti-Nazi youth group that was active since 1992, and was formally founded in 1996 at Bydgoszcz by Marcin Kornak [pl]. As of 2010, there were several hundred members in the organization, of which some 80% were in Poland and 20% were in other European countries.[68][69] "Never Again" publishes, since 1994, the "Never Again" magazine.[68] The magazine is focused on countering intolerance, fascism, racism and xenophobia.[70] "Never Again" publishes the Brown Book (Polish: „Brunatna Księga”),[71] which compiles xenophobic, racist, and anti-gay incidents.[72][73]

Notes

  1. ^ With a marginal exception of Couronian colonisation of the Americas when the Duchy of Courland was a vassal of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.

References

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  2. ^ Genocide: The Systematic Killing of a People Non-Jewish victims of the Holocaust Linda Jacobs Altman page 63-66
  3. ^ "Genocide, Ethnonationalism, and the United Nations. Exploring the Causes of Mass Killing Since 1945" Hannibal Travis pages 78-80 Routledge 2013
  4. ^ "As a matter of fact, Hitler wanted to commit Genocide against the Slavic peoples, in order to colonize the East" Empire, Colony, Genocide: Conquest, Occupation, and Subaltern Resistance in World History by A. Dirk Moses, Berghahn Books, 2008, page 20
  5. ^ Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion Page 201 David Nicholls, Gill Nicholls - 2000The Generalgouvernement was initially seen by Hitler as a reservation for Poles,but here too Nazi policies of economic exploitation and the eradication of Polish culture foresaw the extermination of the Poles as a nation.
  6. ^ Polish-German Relations: The Miracle of Reconciliation Verlag Barbara Budrich - page 18 Jerzy J. Wiatr - 2014 Third, ethnic Poles were also victims of Nazi genocide, more than two and half million of them – mostly civilians – killed by the Nazis.
  7. ^ The Holocaust as Colonial Genocide: Hitler's 'Indian Wars' in the 'Wild East' C. Kakel Palgrave MacMillian- 2013 page 63 Nazi 'pacification' and 'resettlement policies in Poland led to the murder of millions of Polish Christians and the near-total extermination of Polish Jewry, as part of the declared Nazi intention to 'erase' the Polish nation, state and culture
  8. ^ Prelude to the final solution: the Nazi program for deporting ethnic Poles, 1939-1941 Phillip T. Rutherford University Press of Kansas, 2007, page 6 Nazi Germanization schemes demanded the complete elimination of Poles and Jews from the incor-porated eastern territorie
  9. ^ The Concept of Genocide in the Trials of Nazi Criminals before the Polish Supreme National Tribunal Marcin Marcinko The examples of genocidal acts presented here refer to the physical extermination of Polish and Jewish nations page 642 in Morten Bergsmo, Cheah Wui Ling and YI Ping (editors), Historical Origins of International Criminal Law: Volume 2, FICHL Publication Series No. 21 (2014), Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher, Brussels, ISBN 978-82-93081-13-5. 12 December 2014.
  10. ^ 2010 Education Working Group Paper on the Holocaust and Other Genocides,Task Force for International Cooperation on Holocaust Education, Remembrance, and Research,[1]The Holocaust is the name given to one specific case of genocide: the attempt by the Nazis and their collaborators to destroythe Jewish people.Other genocides committed by the Nazis during the Second World War were the genocides of Poles and of Roma.
  11. ^ Bauer uses the term genocide gor the brutal process of group elimination accompanied by mass murder resulting in the partial annihiliation of the victim populatiom, a term appilcable, for example to what the Nazis did to the Poles Contemporary Responses to the Holocaust,Princess Grace Irish Library 2004, Konrad Kwiet, Jürgen Matthäus page 168
  12. ^ Bauer argues that Lemkin was most likely thinking of what was happening to the Poles when he defined genocide. The History and Sociology of Genocide: Analyses and Case Studies Frank Robert Chalk, Kurt Jonassohn, Professor Kurt Jonassohn, Institut montréalais des études sur le génocide, Montreal Institute for Genocide Studies,Yale University Press 1990 page 20
  13. ^ [2] Guardian The fatal fact of the Nazi-Soviet pact Timothy Snyder When the Germans shot tens of thousands of Poles in 1944, with the intention of making sure that Warsaw would never rise again, that was genocide, too. Far less dramatic measures, such as the kidnapping and Germanisation of Polish children, were also, by the legal definition, genocide.
  14. ^ Law-Reports of Trials of War Criminals, The United Nations War Crimes Commission, Volume VII, London, HMSO, 1948 CASE NO. 37 The Trial of Haupturmfuhrer Amon Leopold Goeth page 9 The Tribunal accepted these contentions and in its Judgment against Amon Goeth stated the following : " His criminal activities originated from general directives that guided the criminal Fascist-Hitlerite organization, which under the leadership of Adolf Hitler aimed at the conquest of the world and at the extermination of those nations, which stood in the way of the consolidation of its power. The policy of extermination was in the first place directed against the Jewish and Polish nations. This criminal organization did not reject any means of furthering their aim at destroying the Jewish nation. The wholesale extermination of Jews and also of Poles had all the characteristics of genocide in the biological meaning of this term
  15. ^ Robert Gellately "The Third Reich, the Holocaust, and Visions of Serial Genocide" in: The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective, Cambridge University Press, 2003, ISBN 0521527503, pp. 253, 256. Quotes: "Genocidal intent seems to have been more or less assumed in discussions of the Poles by a wide range of Nazi officials and planners".By "intent" I mean that was a desire to erase the Polish state, nation, and culture from the face of the Earth." "Given these percentages, it would have been impossible for any of these nations to survive as cultures or nations in any meaningful sense, so that these plans explicitly accept that all four of these nations would for all intents and purposes would cease to exist. These plans in effect, therefore, called for nothing less than serial genocide."
  16. ^ The Racial State: Germany 1933-1945 Michael Burleigh, Wolfgang Wippermann, page 26-27
  17. ^ The Sarmatian Review, Tomy 22-25
  18. ^ Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian (1998). A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change. Routledge. p. 156 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Eh9KQTrOckC&q=page+156#v=onepage&q=page%20156&f=false
  19. ^ Batt, Judy; Wolczuk, Kataryna (2002). Region, State and Identity in Central and Eastern Europe. Routledge. p. 153. ISBN 9780714682259.
  20. ^ Sinkoff, Nancy (2004). Out of the Shtetl: Making Jews Modern in the Polish Borderlands. Society of Biblical Literature. p. 271. ISBN 9781930675162.
  21. ^ The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History page 361 by Helmut Walser Smith Anti-Polish racism remained a lasting legacy of the Kulturkampf because it proved essential to the political economy of German agriculture.Anti-Polish racism both reflected and supported the existence of an especially disempowered Polish rural proletariat, subject to oppression and exploitation by German landlords.
  22. ^ Sociology and Empire: The Imperial Entanglements of a Discipline Guided by Max Weber, German social scientists adopted the anti-Polish racism of the Prussian state, developing a cultural-racial economics of control that Schmoller and others used to assist German colonial control in Africa. Especially George Steinmetz;Fuyuki Kurasawa, “Durkheimian School and Colonialism page 185 - Duke University Press 2013
  23. ^ Wegner, Bernt (1997) [1991]. From Peace to War: Germany, Soviet Russia, and the World, 1939-1941. Berghahn Books. p. 50. ISBN 978-1-57181-882-9.
  24. ^ Ceran, Tomasz (2015). The History of a Forgotten German Camp: Nazi Ideology and Genocide at Szmalcówka. I.B.Tauris. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-85773-553-9.
  25. ^ "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 2005-11-28. Retrieved January 25, 2014.
  26. ^ "Poland | www.yadvashem.org". poland-historical-background.html. Retrieved 2019-05-25.
  27. ^ Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences. Rodopi. 1999. p. 32–33. {{cite book}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter |authors= (help)
  28. ^ William Schabas, Genocide in international law: the crimes of crimes, Cambridge University Press, 2000, ISBN 0-521-78790-4, Google Print, p.179
  29. ^ Poland's Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918-1947 by Tadeusz Piotrowski page 23 2007
  30. ^ "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 2005-11-28. Retrieved January 25, 2014. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion David Nicholls, Gill Nicholls ABC-CLIO 2000, page 201
  32. ^ Helen Boak. "Nazi policies on German women during the Second World War - Lessons learned from the First World War?". pp. 4–5.
  33. ^ Nazi Ideology and the Holocaust. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. January 2007. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-89604-712-9.
  34. ^ Ulrich Herbert (1997). Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany Under the Third Reich. Cambridge University Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN 978-0-521-47000-1.
  35. ^ Nazism, War and Genocide: Essays in Honour of Jeremy Noakes Jeremy Noakes, Neil Gregor University of Exeter Press, 2005, page 85
  36. ^ Law Reports of the Trials of War Criminals. United Nations War Crimes Commission. Vol. XIII. London: HMSO, 1949 Trial of Ulrich Greifelt and Others, United States Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 10 October 1947 – 10 March 1948, Part IV
  37. ^ Mikolaj Terles (1 July 2008). Ethnic Cleansing of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia: 1942–1946. Alliance of the Polish Eastern Provinces, Toronto Branch, 1993. ISBN 978-0-9698020-0-6 – via Google Books, search inside. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  38. ^ "Poland – Virtual Jewish History Tour" at Jewish Virtual Library via Internet Archive.
  39. ^ "Polish Jews History", at PolishJews.org via Internet Archive.
  40. ^ The Torah Ark in Renaissance Poland: A Jewish Revival of Classical Antiquity, Ilia M. Rodov, Brill, pages 2-6
  41. ^ Hagen, William W. "Before the" final solution": Toward a comparative analysis of political anti-Semitism in interwar Germany and Poland." The Journal of Modern History 68.2 (1996): 351-381.
  42. ^ Piotr Wróbel (2006). Polish-Jewish Relations. Northwestern University Press. pp. 391–396. ISBN 0-8101-2370-3. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  43. ^ August Grabski. "Book review of Stefan Grajek: Po wojnie i co dalej? Żydzi w Polsce, w latach 1945−1949 translated from Hebrew by Aleksander Klugman, 2003" (PDF). Central and Eastern European Online Library (CEEOL) (in Polish). Kwartalnik Historii Żydów (Jewish History Quarterly). p. 240 – via direct download, 1.03 MB.
  44. ^ Marek Jan Chodakiewicz, After the Holocaust Polish-Jewish Conflict in the Wake of World War II, Columbia University Press, New York 2003, ISBN 0-88033-511-4.
  45. ^ Lukas, Richard, PhD. (1989). Out of the Inferno: Poles Remember the Holocaust. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 5, 13, 111, 201.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link); also in Lukas (2012) [1986]. The Forgotten Holocaust: Poles Under Nazi Occupation 1939-1944. New York: University of Kentucky Press/Hippocrene Books. ISBN 0-7818-0901-0.
  46. ^ AFP; AP; Gambrell, Jon; AFP; RANDOLPH, Eric; Noorani, Ali; Gross, Judah Ari (January 25, 2017). "Anti-Semitism seen on the rise in Poland". The Times of Israel. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
  47. ^ "Anti-Semitism being 'normalised' in Poland, Jewish Congress warns". The Telegraph. August 31, 2017. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
  48. ^ Bilewicz, Michał, Mikołaj Winiewski, and Zuzanna Radzik. "Antisemitism in Poland: Psychological, Religious, and Historical Aspects." Journal for the Study of Antisemitism 4 (2016): 423-440., quote: Overall, the case of Poland is an example of the endurance of antisemitism without Jews—or at least with a scant Jewish population (Lendvai, 1971). This leads to an interesting question about the psychological reasons of such long-enduring prejudice without an object. Based on the research and observation of political and social life in Poland, one could say that antisemitism plays several important functions in contemporary Polish society: it is one of the informal tenets of religiosity in current Poland; it defines a scapegoat for the problems and troubles of the post-transition period; it allows the denial of responsibility for historical crimes toward Jews; and it supports perceiving the ingroup as the main victim of the Nazi occupation. These functions clearly allow antisemitism to exist—even without any significant Jewish presence in the country. At the same time, however, there is no link between such antisemitism and attitudes toward contemporary Israel. In this case, Polish society is far less anti-Jewish than many other European societies; in addition, the political representation of antisemitic prejudice is very limited—most politicians who were actively using antisemitic rhetoric are currently out of political life or at the margins of mainstream political debate
  49. ^ Rebecca Jean Emigh; Iván Szelényi (2001). Poverty, Ethnicity, and Gender in Eastern Europe During the Market Transition. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-0-275-96881-6. Retrieved 27 November 2015.
  50. ^ "Poles Vent Their Economic Rage on Gypsies". The New York Times. July 25, 1991. Retrieved January 26, 2011.
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Further reading

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