Bed bug

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Bedbug
Cimex lectularius
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Hemiptera
Suborder:
Heteroptera
Infraorder:
Cimicomorpha
Superfamily:
Cimicoidea
Family:
Cimicidae

Latreille, 1802
Subfamilies, Genera & Species

Subfamily Afrociminae

Subfamily Cimicinae

Subfamily Cacodminae

Subfamily Haematosiphoninae

Subfamily Latrocimicinae

Subfamily Primicimicinae

Bedbugs (or bed bugs) are small, elusive, parasitic insects of the family Cimicidae. They live by feeding exclusively on the blood of humans and other warm-blooded animals.[1][2] The name 'bed bug' is derived from the insect's preferred habitat infesting houses and especially beds or other common areas where people may sleep. Bedbugs, though not strictly nocturnal, are mainly active at night and are capable of feeding unnoticed on their hosts.

Bedbugs have been known by a variety of names including wall louse, mahogany flat, crimson rambler, heavy dragoon, and redcoat.[3]

Largely eradicated as pests in the developed world in the early 1940s, bedbugs have been resurgent since about 1995.[4]

Biology

There are 6 recognized subfamilies of Cimicidae and up to 23 genera, while the number of species has been given as anywhere from 75 to 108.[citation needed] The common bedbug (Cimex lectularius) is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found in temperate climates throughout the world. Other species include Cimex hemipterus, found in tropical regions, which also infests poultry and bats, and Leptocimex boueti, found in the tropics of West Africa and South America, which infests bats and humans. Cimex pilosellus and Cimex pipistrella primarily infest bats, while Haematosiphon inodora, a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.[5]

Adult bedbugs are reddish-brown, flattened, oval, and wingless. Bedbugs have microscopic hairs that give them a banded appearance. Adults grow to 4–5 mm in length and 1.5–3 mm wide. Newly hatched nymphs are translucent, lighter in color and become browner as they moult and reach maturity.

Bedbug (4 mm length 2.5 mm width), shown in a film roll plastic container. On the right is the recently sloughed skin from its nymph stage

Bedbugs use pheromones and kairomones to communicate regarding nesting locations, attacks, and reproduction.

The life span of bedbugs varies by species and is also dependent on feeding.

Feeding habits

Cimex lectularius, showing the insect’s skin-piercing mouthparts

Bedbugs are obligatory hematophagous (bloodsucking) insects. Most species only feed on humans when other prey are unavailable.[6][7][8] They are normally out at night just before dawn, with a peak feeding period of about an hour before sunrise,[citation needed] but have been observed feeding during the day.[citation needed] Bedbugs are attracted to their hosts primarily by carbon dioxide, secondarily by warmth, and also by certain chemicals.[9] They reach a detected host by crawling, or sometimes dropping from a height.[citation needed]

A bedbug pierces the skin of its host with two hollow feeding tubes. With one tube it injects its saliva, which contains anticoagulants and anesthetics, while with the other it withdraws the blood of its host. After feeding for about five minutes, the bug returns to its hiding place. The bites cannot usually be felt until some hours or even days later, as a dermatological reaction to the injected agents. The first indication of a bite usually comes from the desire to scratch the bite site. Because of their natural aversion for sunlight, bedbugs come out at night.[2]

Although bedbugs can live for a year without feeding,[10] they normally try to feed every five to ten days. When it's cold, bedbugs can live for about a year; at temperatures more conducive to activity and feeding, about 5 months.[11]

At the 57th Annual Meeting of the Entomological Society of America in 2009, it was reported that newer generations of pesticide-resistant bedbugs in Virginia could survive only two months without feeding.[12]

Predators

Natural enemies of bedbugs include the masked hunter (AKA "masked bedbug hunter"),[13] cockroaches,[14] ants, spiders, mites, and centipedes. The Pharaoh ant's (Monomorium pharaonis) venom is lethal to bedbugs. Rodents eat bedbugs, but bats do not, due to their distaste for the bedbug alarm pheromone, which is released when they are attacked. Biological control is not very practical for eliminating bedbugs from human dwellings.[15]

Reproduction

A bedbug (Cimex lectularius) traumatically inseminates another.

All bedbugs mate via traumatic insemination.[16][17][18] Instead of inserting their genitalia into the female's reproductive tract as is typical in copulation, males instead pierce females with hypodermic genitalia and ejaculate into the body cavity.

The "bedbug alarm pheromone" consists of (E)-2-octenal and (E)-2-hexenal. It is released when a bedbug is disturbed, for example, during an attack by a predator. A 2009 study demonstrated that the alarm pheromone is also released by male bedbugs to repel other males who attempt to mate with them.[19]

C. lectularius and C. hemipterus will mate with each other given the opportunity, but the eggs then produced are usually sterile. In a 1988 study, 1 egg out of 479 was fertile and resulted in a hybrid, C. hemipterus x lectularius.[20][21]

Other

Slide of Cimex lectularius

Ecdysis

Bedbugs will shed their skins through a molting process (ecdysis) throughout multiple stages of their lives. The discarded outer-shells look as clear, empty exoskeletons of the bugs themselves.

Defecations

Bedbug droppings are black or nearly black in color. They vary in size, ranging from tiny to the size of the bugs themselves. The defecation itself is digested blood.[citation needed]

Bites

Most observed bites consist of a raised red bump or flat welt, and are often accompanied by very intense itching. The red mark is the result of an allergic reaction to the anesthetic contained in the bedbug's saliva, which is inserted into the blood of its victim. Reactions to bedbug bites may appear indistinguishable from mosquito bites although they tend to last for longer periods. Bites may not become immediately visible and can take up to nine days to appear. Bedbug bites tend not to have a red dot in the center such as is characteristic of flea bites. A trait shared with flea bites is tendency towards the pattern of sequential bites often aligned in rows of three. This may be caused by the bedbug being disturbed while eating and relocating half an inch or so farther along the skin before resuming feeding. Alternatively, the arrangement of bites may be caused by the bedbug repeatedly searching for a blood vein.

People react differently to bedbugs, and individual responses vary with factors including skin type, environment, and the species of bug. This also means the presence of itchy welts cannot be used as the only indicator of a presence. It is possible for an initial infestation within a household to be asymptomatic and go undetected. In some rare cases, allergic reactions to the bites may cause nausea and illness. In a large number of cases, estimated to be fifty percent of all people, there is no visible sign of bites whatsoever, greatly increasing the difficulty of identifying and eradicating infestations. People commonly respond to bed bug infestations and their bites with anxiety, stress, and insomnia. Development of refractory delusional parasitosis is common, as victims develop an overwhelming obsession with bedbugs.[22] Individuals may also develop skin infections and scars from scratching the bedbug bite locations.

A bedbug nymph feeding on host

Most patients who are placed on systemic corticosteroids to treat the itching and burning often associated with bedbug bites find that the lesions are poorly responsive to this method of treatment. Antihistamines have been found to reduce itching in some cases, but they do not affect the appearance and duration of the lesions. Topical corticosteroids, such as hydrocortisone, have been reported to resolve the lesions expediently and decrease the associated itching.[23]

Victims may relieve itching and inflammation for several hours by using a blowdryer or hot washcloth to heat the area of the bite. Many patients experience temporary relief of itching and inflammation with the application of hot water.[24] The water temperature should be about 50 °C (120 °F), or this procedure may aggravate the symptoms. To avoid scalding the skin, this treatment should only be self-administered.

Disagreement exists as to why heat causes symptoms to abate. Varying hypotheses propose that heat overwhelms the nerve endings that signal itch, that heat neutralizes the chemical that causes the inflammation, or that heat triggers a large release of histamine, causing a temporary histamine deficit in the area. Another theory is that the heat denatures the proteins in the bedbug saliva, changing their composition enough so that they no longer trigger the body's defensive mechanisms.

Disease transmission

Bed bugs would seem to have all the prerequisites for passing diseases from one host to another, and at least twenty-seven known pathogens (some estimates are as high as forty-one) are capable of living inside a bed bug or on its mouthparts, yet there are no known cases of such transmission. Extensive laboratory testing indicates that bed bugs are unlikely to pass disease from one person to another.[25][26]

Other effects on health

The salivary fluid injected by bed bugs typically causes the skin to become irritated and inflamed, although individuals can differ in their sensitivity. A few cases of bullous eruptions have been reported[27][28] Anaphylactoid reactions from the injection of serum and other nonspecific proteins are observed and the saliva of the bedbugs may cause anaphylactic shock, though rarely.[29] In rare cases of intense and neglected infestation, sustained feeding by bedbugs may lead to anemia.[30] It is also important to watch for and treat any secondary bacterial infection.[citation needed] Systemic poisoning may occur if the bites are numerous.[31]

History

An 1860 engraving of parts of a bedbug. A. Intestines.—B. Antenna of the Male.—C Eye.—D. Haustellum, or Sucker, closed.—E. Side view of Sucker.—F. Under Part of Head.—G. Under Lip.—GG. Hair of the Tube, and outside Cases.—H. Egg-Bag.—I. Worm emerging from the Eggs

Middle East

C. lectularius may have originated in the Middle East, in caves inhabited by bats and humans.[7]

Europe

Bedbugs were mentioned in ancient Greece as early as 400 BCE (later mentioned by Aristotle). Pliny's Natural History, first published c. 77 CE in Rome, claimed that bedbugs had medicinal value in treating ailments such as snake bites and ear infections. (Belief in the medicinal use of bedbugs persisted until at least the 18th century, when Guettard recommended their use in the treatment of hysteria.[32]) Bedbugs were first mentioned in Germany in the 11th century, in France in the 13th century, and in England in 1583,[7] though they remained rare in England until 1670. It was believed by some in the 18th century that bedbugs had been brought to London with supplies of wood to rebuild the city after the Great Fire of London (1666). Scopoli noted their presence in Carniola (present day Slovenia and Italy) in the 18th century.[33][34]

Eighteenth and 19th century Europeans believed bedbugs to feed on the sap of certain trees (especially fir), paste (which may have included tree sap), other insects, and Acari.[35][36]

Americas

Bedbugs were known at least as early as 1726 in Jamaica.[37]

Bedbugs were originally brought to the United States by early colonists from Europe. Bedbugs were believed to be altogether eradicated 50 years ago in the United States and elsewhere with the widespread use of DDT. One recent theory about bedbug reappearance involves potential geographic epicentres. Investigators have found three apparent United States epicentres at poultry facilities in Arkansas, Texas, and Delaware. It was determined that workers in these facilities were the main spreaders of these bedbugs, unknowingly carrying them to their places of residence and elsewhere after leaving work.[38] Bedbug populations in the United States have increased by 500 percent in the past few years. The cause of this resurgence is still uncertain, but it is thought to be related to increased international travel,[39] the use of new pest-control methods that do not affect bedbugs,[40] and increasing pesticide resistance.[41] In the last few years, the use of baits rather than insecticide sprays is believed to have contributed to the increase.[citation needed] With the advent of cockroach bait in the early 1990s, the use of residual insecticides and other liquid sprays were drastically reduced. As it turned out, pest control professionals had not realized that during their monthly treatments for cockroaches (particularly the German cockroach,[citation needed] which infests hotels as bedbugs do) they had helped in the control of bedbugs. This process may have started with the use of DDT but it is no coincidence that the dramatic rise in bedbug activity came approximately 10 or so years after professionals stopped spraying for cockroach activity.

Global resurgence

Bedbug cases have been on the rise recently across the world. Prior to the mid-twentieth century, bedbugs were very common. According to a report by the UK Ministry of Health, in 1933 there were many areas where all the houses had some degree of bedbug infestation.[42] Since the mid-1990s, reports of bedbug cases have been rising. Figures from one London borough show reported bedbug infestations doubling each year from 1995 to 2001. The rise in bedbug infestations has been hard to track because bedbugs are not an easily identifiable problem. Most of the reports are collected from pest-control companies, local authorities, and hotel chains.[42] Therefore, the problem may be more severe than is currently believed.[23]

As stated above, the most-cited reason for the dramatic worldwide rise in bedbug cases in recent decades is increased international travel.[43] In 1999, four separate infestations throughout the United Kingdom alerted people to the possibility of an increase in the worldwide bedbug population, facilitated by international travel and trade. However, there is evidence of a previous cycle of bedbug infestations in the United Kingdom. The Institution of Environmental Health Officers maintained statistics for bedbug infestations—data collected from reports and inspections. In the period 1985–1986, the Institution of Environmental Health Officers reported treating 7,771 infestations in England and Wales, and 6,179 infestations in 1986–1987. There were also reports of infestations in Belfast and in Scotland.[44]

Blood-fed Cimex lectularius (Note the differences in color with respect to digestion of blood meal)

Since 1999, infestations have been reported in the United Kingdom, Germany, Spain, Australia, Canada, India, Israel[45] and the United States.

Many bedbugs have grown resistant to insecticides, including DDT. In a study bedbugs were collected from across the United States. These bedbugs were up to several thousands of times more resistant to pyrethroids than laboratory bedbugs.[46] New York City bed bugs have been found to be 264 times more resistant to deltamethrin than Florida bedbugs due to nerve cell mutations.[47] Another problem with current insecticide use is that the broad-spectrum insecticide sprays for cockroaches and ants that are no longer used had a collateral impact on bedbug infestations. Recently, a switch has been made to bait insecticides that have proven effective against cockroaches but have allowed bedbugs to escape the indirect treatment.[42]

The number of bedbug infestations has risen significantly since the early 21st century. The National Pest Management Association reported a 71% increase in bedbug calls between 2000 and 2005.[46] The Steritech Group, a pest-management company based in Charlotte, North Carolina, claimed that 25% of the 700 hotels they surveyed between 2002 and 2006 needed bedbug treatment. In 2003, Burl and Desiree Mathias, a brother and sister staying at a Motel 6 in Chicago were awarded $372,000 in punitive damages and $10,000 in actual damages after being bitten by bedbugs during their stay.[48][49][50] These are only a few of the reported cases since the turn of the 21st century.[51]

The resurgence of infestations led the United States Environmental Protection Agency to hold a National Bed Bug Summit April 14–15, 2009.[52][dead link]

A perceived cause of the bedbug resurgence is the growing push to recycle mattresses. Not only are mattresses to be recycled, collected, and stored with those already processed, but it is very difficult to ensure that no bedbugs or eggs survive the processing.[citation needed]

Traditional control methods

Plants traditionally used as bedbug repellents include black cohosh (Actaea racemosa), Pseudarthna hookeri, and Laggera alata (Chinese yángmáo cǎo | 羊毛草), though information about their effectiveness is lacking.[15] Eucalyptus saligna oil was reported by some Zairean researchers to kill bedbugs, among other insects.[53][54]

In the 18th century, turpentine was used in combination with henna (Lawsonia inermis, aka camphire) flowers and alcohol, as an insecticide that also reputedly killed bedbug eggs.[55]

Other items that were believed to kill bedbugs in the early 19th century include "infused oil of Melolontha vulgaris" (presumably a kind of cockchafer), fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), Actaea spp. (e.g. black cohosh), tobacco, "heated oil of Terebinthina" (i.e. turpentine), wild mint (Mentha arvensis), narrow-leaved pepperwort (Lepidium ruderale), Myrica spp. (e.g. bayberry), Robert Geranium (Geranium robertianum), bugbane (Cimicifuga spp.), "herb and seeds of Cannabis", "Opulus" berries (possibly a kind of maple, or European cranberrybush), masked hunter bugs (Reduvius personatus), "and many others."[56] In the mid-19th century, smoke from peat fires was recommended.[57]

The use of black pepper is attested in George Orwell's 1933 non-fiction book Down and Out in Paris and London.

Dusts have been used to ward off insects from grain storage for centuries, including "plant ash, lime, dolomite, certain types of soil, and diatomaceous earth (DE) or Kieselguhr"[58] Of these, Diatomaceous earth in particular has seen a revival as a non-toxic residual pesticide for bedbug abatement. When it attaches to a bedbug, it abrades the waxy cuticle that covers its exosekeleton, causing it to die of dehydration[citation needed]. Insects exposed to diatomaceous earth may, however, take several days to die.[58]

Basket-work panels were put around beds and shaken out in the morning, in the UK and in France in the 19th century. Scattering leaves of plants with microscopic hooked hairs around a bed at night, then sweeping them up in the morning and burning them, was a technique reportedly used in Southern Rhodesia and in the Balkans.[11]

Infestations

File:DSCF0005.JPG
Bedbug (shown on writing paper)

There are several ways in which dwellings can become infested with bedbugs and their eggs.

  • bugs and eggs can hitchhike in, on clothing and luggage;
  • infested items (e.g., furniture, clothes) might be brought home;
  • bugs might move from a nearby dwelling or infested item, if there are easy routes
  • wild animals and pets can bring them in[59]
  • infestations can restart from any viable eggs that remain, even if all live bugs have been killed.

Infestations can range from a few bugs up to (in rare cases) tens of thousands. With smaller infestations, sometimes people are not aware of the insects and do not notice the bites.

Bedbugs can infest nursing homes, furniture rental stores, hospitals, jails, homeless shelters, movie theaters, cruise ships, public housing, moving vehicles, and public transportation.

Nesting locations

An engorged female bedbug (Cimex lectularius) with eggs, discovered in the screw hole of a wooden bed frame

Bedbugs travel easily and quickly along pipes and boards, and their bodies are very flat, which allows them to hide in tiny crevices. In the daytime, they tend to remain hidden. Bedbugs can be found on their own but often congregate once established. They usually remain close to hosts.

Exact nesting locations can vary greatly. Bedbugs are easier to find once an infestation has become concentrated. It is very common for bedbugs to nest in or near beds or couches. Bedbugs will also infest and nest in clutter that is often scattered around a sleeping area.

Complete disassembly and subsequent treatment of entire bed frames may be necessary to reveal all nesting spots.

Although bedbugs show a clear preference for hiding amongst certain materials such as wood or fabric, the nesting sites of a bedbug's choosing can literally be in any location that might allow them to remain nearest to their host and meal supply undetected.

Bedbugs may also take refuge in unsuspected areas such as cars, luggage, moving vans, RVs, etc. Bedbugs may also nest near other intruding animals that might be living within the house structure (such as near the roosting sites of bats, rodents, or birds, etc.).

Detection

Bedbugs are elusive and usually nocturnal, which can make individual bugs difficult to detect. Bedbugs often lodge unnoticed in dark crevices, and eggs can be nestled in fabric seams.

Signs of bedbugs often appear before bugs are seen. These include fecal spots, crushed bedbugs and/or blood smears on sheets, moults, itchy welts from their bites (in those that react), etc. Patterns of bites in a row (marking the paths of blood vessels near the surface of the skin) or in a cluster (on skin areas left exposed during sleep) are typical of bites, as the insects may be disturbed while feeding.[citation needed]

Defecations will smear if rubbed with a wetted finger or bleed if moistened.[citation needed] Defecations might be seen anywhere between a feeding site and a nesting location. White bed-clothes and upholstery make it easier to spot bedbugs and their defecations.

Frequent (even daily) checking for bedbug signs is recommended up to several months after an infestation has treated.[citation needed] Using a flashlight to search for signs of bedbugs or for the bugs themselves can help in detection. LED night vision lights are specially useful.[citation needed]

Canine detection teams can pinpoint infestations. Bed bug detection dogs are trained to find the bed bugs through smell, often in a matter of minutes, where a (human) pest control practitioner might take an hour, and with an accuracy rate of 90%.[15] In the United States, about 100 dogs are used to find bed bugs as of mid-2009.[60]

Control and elimination

Pesticides

With the widespread use of DDT in the 1940s and '50s, bedbugs mostly disappeared from the developed world in the mid-twentieth century,[61] though infestations remained common in many other parts of the world[11]. Rebounding populations present a challenge because of developed resistance to various pesticides including DDT, and organophosphates.[62][63] DDT was seen to make bedbugs more active in studies done in Africa.[64]

Controlled atmospheres

Experiments with high concentrations of carbon dioxide have succeeded in killing bedbugs within 24 hours.[65][dead link] Higher concentrations kill faster.[66] Exposure to nearly-pure nitrogen atmospheres appears to have relatively little effect even after 72 hours.[66]

Sanitization

A suspect mattress is sometimes protected by wrapping it in a disposable plastic sheeting, sealing all the seams and putting it on a bed. Encasing mattress and box springs in impermeable bed-bug bite-proof encasements after a treatment for an infestation is an alternative treatment which works better and is more comfortable whereas wrapping bedding in plastic causes sweating.

Once a bed is disinfected and isolated, care should be taken to avoid reinfesting the bed by not sleeping or resting on the bed in clothing that has been potentially contaminated. Preventing the bed from touching the walls, as well as preventing bedding from draping the floor, or not allowing objects to lean against the bed frame will help to stop bedbugs from being reintroduced onto the bed.

Direct spraying of rubbing alcohol kills affected bedbugs and eggs.[citation needed]

Heat

Bedbugs show strong resistance to dessication, able to survive low humidity and a 35–40°C range even with loss of one-third of body weight; earlier life stages are more susceptible to drying out than later ones.[67] The thermal death point for the common bedbug (C. lectularius) is high: 45 °C (113 °F), and all stages of life are killed by 7 minutes of exposure to 46 °C (115 °F).[15] However, in heating buildings, to ensure that no bedbugs survive in cooler locations, the US Department of Defense recommends using a temperature of at least 49 °C (120 °F), at 20-30% relative humidity, for at least 20 minutes.[65][dead link]

The use of a fabric steamer on the infestations will kill the eggs and the bugs instantly.[citation needed] Since steam will penetrate the pores of a mattress, it can reach deep into the corners of beds.[citation needed] Individual items can be treated with heat. Oven-like devices have been designed specifically for this purpose and are available on the market.[citation needed] Clothing can be sanitized by a 120 °F (49 °C) laundry dryer.

Enclosing a mattress in a black plastic bag and placing it in the sun on a hot day is not considered effective, because temperatures won't necessarily be high enough everywhere.[68]

Cold

There is uncertainty as to how long bedbugs can survive cold temperatures. Below 16.1 °C (61 °F), adults enter semi-hibernation and can survive longer.[69] Bedbugs can survive for at least five days at −10 °C (14 °F) but will die after 15 minutes of exposure to −32 °C (−25.6 °F)[15] It is believed that storing infested items below −19 °C (0 °F) for at least four days will be successful. Carbon dioxide deployed in the form of "snow" may kill bedbugs by rapid freezing.[65][dead link]

Barrier strategy

An example of duct tape curled over lengthwise to create a sticky barrier
Improvised duct tape barrier (over protective masking tape) around the leg of a bed

It is possible to create a temporary barrier around furniture that will help prevent bedbugs from crawling onto it. A successful barrier assumes the entire piece of furniture has been disinfected of all bedbugs beforehand. This strategy can reduce further bedbug bites. Nevertheless although bedbugs cannot fly, they have been observed climbing a higher surface in order to then fall to a lower one, such as climbing a wall in order to fall onto a bed.

Bedbugs cannot cross petroleum jelly and have difficulty climbing metal or glass, hence furniture legs can be put in a tin can, the bottom of which is thickly coated with petroleum jelly. Furniture can also be isolated by applying a layer of duct tape that has been curled lengthwise over on itself with the sticky side out. This creates a sticky barrier that will prevent bedbugs from crawling up. Double-sided duct tape can also be used.

Vermin and pets may complicate a barrier strategy.

Traps

Traps have been devised using a combination of heat, carbon dioxide and kairomones to attract bedbugs into a container from which they cannot escape.[9]

Glue traps placed in strategic areas around the home, sometimes used in conjunction with heating pads or balloons filled with exhaled breath offering a carbon dioxide source, may be used to trap and thus detect bedbugs.[citation needed] There are also commercial traps like 'flea' traps whose effectiveness is questionable except perhaps as a means of detection.[citation needed] Perhaps the easiest trapping method is to place double-sided carpet tape in long strips near or around the bed and check the strips after a day or more.[citation needed] However, bedbugs can simply walk across the sticky surface of tape, which, while slowing them down, will not stop them from crossing.[citation needed]

Some traps placed around furniture legs use a combination of petroleum jelly and slippery surfaces to catch bedbugs.[citation needed]

Suddenly turning on a light or torch may startle bugs and ease their catching.[citation needed]

See also

References

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  33. ^ "That soon after the Fire of London, in some of the new-built Houses they were observ'd to appear, and were never noted to have been seen in the old, tho' they were then so few, as to be little taken notice of; yet as they were only seen in Firr-Timber, 'twas conjectured they were then first brought to England in them; of which most of the new Houses were partly built, instead of the good Oak destroy'd in the old." John Southall, A Treatise of Buggs [sic], pp. 16-17. http://www.archive.org/details/atreatisebuggss00soutgoog
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Further reading

  • David Cain, Richard Strand. Bed Bug Beware: An easy to understand guide to bed bugs, their prevention and control. Loughborough, United Kingdom: Foxhill Publishing, March 2009. ISBN 978-0-9562617-0-0
  • Larry Pinto, Richard Cooper, Sandy Kraft. Bed Bug Handbook: The Complete Guide to Bed Bugs and Their Control. Mechanicsville, Maryland: Pinto & Associates, December 2007. ISBN 978-0-9788878-1-0
  • Forsyth, Adrian. A Natural History of Sex: The Ecology and Evolution of Mating Behavior. Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books, 2001. ISBN 1-55209-481-2.
  • MacQuitty, Miranda, and Lawrence Mound. Megabugs: The Natural History Museum Book of Insects. New York: Random House Children's Books, 1995. ISBN 1-898304-37-8, ISBN 1-85868-045-X.
  • Goddard, Jerome A. The Physician’s Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance (second edition).
  • Quammen, David. The Flight of the Iguana: A Sidelong View of Science and Nature. New York: Delacorte Press, 1988. ISBN 0-385-29592-8, ISBN 0-385-26327-9, ISBN 0-684-83626-2. Provides detail about Xylocaris maculipennis.

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cimicidae.
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Bug (insect)".

Generic information

Health and control aspects

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