Jump to content

Chicago Seven

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Arjayay (talk | contribs) at 17:27, 7 November 2020 (Sp). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For the group of architects, see Chicago Seven (architects). For the Chicago album, see Chicago VII.
"Trial of the Chicago 7" redirects here. For the 2020 film, see The Trial of the Chicago 7.

Poster in support of the "Conspiracy 8"

The Chicago Seven (originally Chicago Eight, also Conspiracy Eight/Conspiracy Seven) were seven defendants—Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Rennie Davis, John Froines, and Lee Weiner—charged by the US federal government with conspiracy, inciting to riot, and other charges related to anti-Vietnam War and countercultural protests that took place in Chicago, Illinois, on the occasion of the 1968 Democratic National Convention. Bobby Seale, the eighth charged, had his proceedings declared a mistrial, dropping the number of defendants from eight to seven.

The trial resulted in five of the seven being convicted for inciting riots. All were acquitted of conspiracy. However, during the trial, Judge Julius Hoffman sentenced all of the defendants to lengthy sentences for contempt of court. In subsequent proceedings, the judge's contempt charges were reversed, and all of the convictions for inciting riots were overturned.

Background

Main article: 1968 Democratic National Convention protest activity

The 1968 Democratic National Convention was held in Chicago in late August to select the party's candidates for the November 1968 presidential election. Prior to and during the convention — which took place at the International Amphitheatre—rallies, demonstrations, marches, and attempted protests took place on the streets and in the lakefront parks, about five miles from the convention site. These activities were primarily in protest of President Lyndon B. Johnson's policies on the Vietnam War, which were vigorously contested during the presidential primary campaign and at the convention itself.

Anti-war groups had petitioned the city of Chicago for permits to march 5 miles (8.0 km) from the Loop to within sight of the convention site, to hold a number of rallies at the lakefront parks and also near the convention, and to camp in Lincoln Park. The city denied all permits, except for one afternoon rally at the old bandshell at the south end of Grant Park. The city also enforced an 11:00 pm curfew in Lincoln Park. Confrontations with protesters ensued as the police enforced the curfew, suppressed attempts to march to the International Amphitheatre, and cleared crowds from the streets.

The Grant Park rally on Wednesday, August 28, 1968, was attended by about 15,000 protesters; other nearby activities involved hundreds or thousands of protesters. After the rally at the bandshell, several thousand protesters attempted to march to the International Amphitheatre, but were stopped in front of the Conrad Hilton Hotel, where the presidential candidates and their campaigns were headquartered. Police worked to push the protesters out of the street, and then used tear gas, verbal and physical confrontation, and batons to beat people who began to chant "The whole world is watching". The police made scores of arrests. The television networks broadcast footage of what was later called a police riot,[1] cutting away from the nominating speeches for the presidential candidates.

Over the course of five days and nights, the police made numerous arrests, in addition to using tear gas, mace, and batons on the marchers.[2] Hundreds of protesters and police officers were injured. Dozens of journalists covering the actions were also clubbed by police or had cameras smashed and film confiscated. In the aftermath of what was later characterized as a "police riot" by the U.S. National Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence,[3] a federal grand jury indicted eight demonstrators and eight police officers.

Grand jury and indictment

Following the convention on September 9, 1968, a federal grand jury was convened to consider criminal charges. The grand jury focused on the possible grounds for charges in four areas:[4]

  • A conspiracy by protesters to cross state lines to incite a riot;
  • Violations by police of the civil rights of demonstrators by use of excessive force;
  • TV network violations of the Federal Communications Act; and
  • TV network violations of federal wiretap laws.

Over the course of more than six months, the grand jury met 30 times and heard some 200 witnesses. President Johnson's Attorney General, Ramsey Clark, discouraged an indictment, believing that the violence during the convention was primarily caused by mishandling of the protests by the Chicago police. The grand jury returned indictments only after President Richard Nixon took office and John Mitchell assumed the office of Attorney General. On March 20, 1969, eight protesters were charged with various federal crimes, and eight police officers were charged with civil rights violations.

Charges

The eight defendants were charged under the anti-riot provisions of Title X of the Civil Rights Act of 1968[5] which made it a federal crime to cross state lines with the intent to incite a riot, or to conspire to do so. The Chicago Eight indictments alleged crimes of three kinds:[6]

  • That all eight defendants conspired (together with another 16 other co-conspirators who were not indicted) to cross state lines to incite a riot, to teach the making of an incendiary device, and to commit acts to impede law enforcement officers in their lawful duties.
  • That David Dellinger, Rennie Davis, Tom Hayden, Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, and Bobby Seale individually crossed state lines to incite a riot.
  • That John Froines and Lee Weiner instructed other persons in the construction and use of an incendiary device.

The 16 who were named as alleged co-conspirators but not indicted were: Wolfe B. Lowenthal, Stewart E. Albert, Sidney M. Peck, Kathy Boudin, Corina F. Fales, Benjamin Radford, Thomas W. Neumann, Craig Shimabukuro, Bo Taylor, David A. Baker, Richard Bosciano, Terry Gross, Donna Gripe, Benjamin Ortiz, Joseph Toornabene, and Richard Palmer.[7]

There is evidence that at least one other person, Eric Weinberger, was considered for indictment.[8]

Trial

Bobby Seale as depicted by Franklin McMahon at the trial.

The original eight defendants indicted by the grand jury on March 20, 1969, were Abbie Hoffman, Jerry Rubin, David Dellinger, Tom Hayden, Rennie Davis, John Froines, Lee Weiner, and Bobby Seale. The trial began on September 24, 1969.[9] The defense attorneys were William Kunstler, Leonard Weinglass of the Center for Constitutional Rights, as well as Michael Kennedy, Michael Tigar, Charles Garry, Gerald Lefcourt, and Dennis Roberts. The presiding judge was Julius Hoffman, and the prosecutors were Richard Schultz and Tom Foran. On October 9, the governor of Illinois requested the United States National Guard for crowd control as demonstrations increased outside the courtroom.

When the names of the defendants were mentioned in court, at the early part of the trial, Judge Hoffman made a comment about defendant Abbie Hoffman (no relation); "He is not my son." In an immediate reply, Abbie called out, "Dad, dad, have you forsaken me?!" Right from the beginning of the trial, Judge Hoffman showed a marked bias for the prosecution in his rulings and a dislike of the defense lawyers, making it clear that he disapproved of Kunstler's long hair.[10]

According to The Chicago Tribune, "[b]eginning as the Chicago Eight Trial, it quickly became the Chicago Seven when Seale, after loudly disrupting the trial when he could not have the lawyer of his choice, was at first bound and gagged in the courtroom and then severed from the case for a later trial, which never occurred."[11][12] Seale requested that the trial be postponed so that his attorney Charles Garry could represent him (as Garry was about to undergo gallbladder surgery). The judge denied the postponement, and refused to allow Seale to represent himself. Seale vehemently protested the judge's illegal and unconstitutional actions, arguing that they were not only illegal, but also racist. Seale told the courtroom: "This racist administration government with its Superman notions and comic book politics. We're hip to the fact that Superman saved no black people. You got that?...You have did everything you could with those jive lying witnesses up there presented by these pig agents of the government to lie and say and condone some rotten racists, fascist crap by racist cops and pigs that beat people's heads in, and I demand my constitutional rights!"[10] The judge in turn accused Seale of disrupting the court, and on October 29, Hoffman ordered Seale to be bound, gagged, and chained to a chair, citing a precedent from the U.S. Supreme Court case Illinois v. Allen.[12][13]

For several days, Seale appeared in court bound and gagged before the jury, struggling to get free and managing to make muffled sounds. Defense attorney Kunstler declared, "This is no longer a court of order, Your Honor, this is a medieval torture chamber."[14] This was alluded to in Graham Nash's song, "Chicago", which opened with: "So your brother's bound and gagged, and they've chained him to a chair". Trying Seale with the other seven defendants also proved a fiasco, as it was revealed that Seale had not participated in the planning for the demonstration, but had gone to Chicago as a last-minute replacement for Eldridge Cleaver and was only in the city for two days of the convention.[15][16] Ultimately, Judge Hoffman severed Seale from the case, sentencing him to four years in prison for contempt of court, one of the longest sentences ever handed down for that offense in the U.S. up to that time.[17] Due to the judge's unconstitutional actions, the contempt charges against Seale were soon overturned by the U.S. Court of Appeals.[18]

The Chicago Eight were then reduced to the Chicago Seven. The defendants, particularly members of the Youth International Party ("yippies"), Hoffman and Rubin, mocked courtroom decorum and the widely publicized trial became a focal point for a growing legion of protesters. One day, defendants Hoffman and Rubin appeared in court dressed in judicial robes. Hoffman blew kisses at the jury. Judge Hoffman was a frequent target of the defendants, who insulted him to his face.[19] Abbie Hoffman told Judge Hoffman "you are a shande fur de Goyim [Yiddish for 'disgrace [even] for the gentiles']. You would have served Hitler better." He later added that "your idea of justice is the only obscenity in the room."[19] Both Davis and Rubin told the judge "this court is bullshit."

I pointed out that it was in the best interests of the city to have us in Lincoln Park ten miles away from the convention hall. I said we had no intention of marching on the convention hall, that I didn't particularly think that politics in America could be changed by marches and rallies, that what we were presenting was an alternative lifestyle, and we hoped that people of Chicago would come up, and mingle in Lincoln Park and see what we were about.

— Abbie Hoffman, from the Chicago Seven trial.[20]

While defending the Chicago Seven, [Kunstler] put the war in Vietnam on trial, asking Judy Collins to sing "Where Have All The Flowers Gone?" from the witness stand, placing a Viet Cong flag on the defence table, and wearing a black armband to commemorate the war dead.

— Ron Kuby, in his 1995 eulogy of Kunstler.[21]

The trial lasted for months, with many celebrated figures from the American left and counterculture called to testify, including singers Phil Ochs, Judy Collins, Arlo Guthrie, and Country Joe McDonald; writers Norman Mailer and Allen Ginsberg; and activists Timothy Leary and Jesse Jackson. Ochs, who was involved in planning for the demonstrations, told the court that he had acquired a pig to nominate as a presidential candidate. Rubin tried to deliver the acceptance speech for the pig, named Pigasus, but before he could finish, police arrested him and Ochs under a livestock ordinance; this charge was later changed to disorderly conduct.[22][23]

Ramsey Clark, who had been the U.S. Attorney General under President Johnson at the time of the 1968 Democratic Convention, was barred by Judge Hoffman from testifying before the jury after he had allowed Clark to testify outside the presence of the jury. Judge Hoffman upheld all of the prosecution's objections to 14 of Kunstler’s 38 questions for Clark.[24]

Contempt citations

While the jury deliberated on the verdict, Judge Hoffman cited all the defendants — plus their attorneys Kunstler, Kennedy, Weinglass, Lefcourt, Roberts and Tigar — for numerous contempts of court, imposing sentences ranging from 2½ months to four years.[11] Judge Hoffman gave Kunstler four years in prison for addressing him as "Mr. Hoffman" instead of "Your Honor", Abbie Hoffman received 8 months for laughing in court, Hayden one year for protesting the treatment of Seale, and Weiner two months for refusing to stand when Judge Hoffman entered the courtroom.[25] Despite also engaging in occasional courtroom disruption, it was acknowledged that Froines' courtroom antics were mild compared to those of his other Chicago Seven co-defendants.[26]

Verdict

On February 18, 1970, each of the seven defendants was acquitted of conspiracy.[27] Two (Froines and Weiner) were acquitted completely, while the remaining five were convicted of crossing state lines with the intent to incite a riot. The crime was instituted by the anti-riot provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, a provision that was introduced in the House by Representative William C. Cramer of Florida.[5] On February 20, they were sentenced to five years in prison and fined $5,000 each.[28]

Dellinger told the court that whatever punishment he faced in prison "will be slight compared to what has happened already to the Vietnamese people, to the black people, to the criminals with whom we are now spending our days in the Cook County jail".[29] Hayden charged that the responsibility with the riots at the Chicago Democratic convention lay with Chicago Mayor Richard Daley who had denied permits for protesters, saying: "We had no choice. We had no choice in this trial. The people always do what they have to do".[29]  Abbie Hoffman pointed to the portraits of American Revolutionary War heroes on the wall behind Judge Hoffman and said: "I know those guys on the wall. I know them better than you, I feel. I know Adams. I mean, I know all the Adams. They grew up twenty miles from my home in Massachusetts. I played with Sam Adams on the Concord Bridge. I was there when Paul Revere rode right up on his motorcycle and said, 'The pigs are coming, the pigs are coming. Right into Lexington'. I was there".[29] In a final gesture of contempt towards those on trial, Judge Hoffman ordered that the barbers of the Cook County Jail cut the long hair of the defendants and defense lawyers that he found so offensive.[29] At a press conference, Sheriff Joseph Woods of Cook County proudly displayed Abbie Hoffman's shorn hair.[29]

Appeal

On November 21, 1972, all of the convictions were reversed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit on the basis that the judge was biased in his refusal to permit defense attorneys to screen prospective jurors for cultural and racial bias,[30] and the FBI surveillance of the defense lawyers' offices.[31] The Justice Department decided against retrying the case. During the trial, all of the defendants and both defense attorneys were cited for contempt and sentenced to jail, but those convictions were also overturned on appeal. The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals concluded that the personal nature of the conduct at issue required all of the contempt charges to be tried before another judge, and that each appellant whose sentence exceeded six months was entitled to a jury trial on the charge. [32]

The contempt charges were retried before a different judge, who found Dellinger, Rubin, Hoffman, and Kunstler guilty of some of the charges, but did not sentence any of them to jail or fines.[33]

Cultural representations

Music

Over 25 songs referenced the Chicago Seven and the 1968 Chicago demonstrations outside the Democratic National Convention.[34] One of the first, released in 1968, was "Telling It Straight in '68" by country artist Jim Hartley, about the 1968 presidential election, which noted the confrontation in Chicago. A popular song was by Graham Nash, called "Chicago", for his debut album, Songs for Beginners. The songs's first line, "So your brother's bound and gagged, and they've chained him to a chair", is a reference to Bobby Seale.[35] Other notable songs included "William Butler Yeats Visits Lincoln Park and Escapes Unscathed" and "Where Were You in Chicago" by Phil Ochs, featured on his 1969 album Rehearsals for Retirement, "Circus '68 '69" (1970) by Charlie Haden, "Christmas in My Soul" (1970) by Laura Nyro, "Free Bobby Now" (1970) by Black Panther group The Lumpen (about Bobby Seale), "Chicago's 7" by Walt Wilder, "Chicago 7" by Warren Farren, "Chicago Seven" (1971) by blues artist Memphis Slim, and "The Chicago Conspiracy" (1972) by David Peel.[34]

Film

  • Mixing fact and fiction, Haskell Wexler's 1969 film Medium Cool centers on the relationship between a cameraman and young widow as they are surrounded by the turmoil and violence during the "long hot summer" of Chicago. Wexler mixed staged scenes with documentary footage he shot at the demonstrations, creating a film in which his characters interacted seamlessly with the protesters. At one point, the viewer can hear another filmmaker telling Wexler he is getting too close to the action.
  • A BBC-produced docudrama titled The Chicago Conspiracy Trial was based on trial transcripts and aired in the United Kingdom in October 1970. The film was subsequently aired by Bayerischer Rundfunk (Bavarian Television) in West Germany in July 1971, and in the US by PBS in July 1975.[36]
  • French filmmakers Jean-Luc Godard and Jean-Pierre Gorin, under the collective Dziga Vertov Group, made a film depicting the 1970 trials called Vladimir et Rosa. In it, Judge Julius Hoffman is referred to as "Judge Himmler" and the accused become microcosms of French revolutionary society. The historic figures of Lenin and Karl Rosa also appear, played by Godard and Gorin, respectively.
  • In the 1971 Peter Watkins film Punishment Park, fictional members of the counterculture are put on trial for similar "crimes". Like Black Panther Party activist Bobby Seale, one of the African-American defendants is bound and gagged as he was at the historic trial.
  • Woody Allen satirized the trial in his 1971 film Bananas. Allen's character, Fielding Melish, is on trial and defending himself. The judge orders Melish bound and gagged. In the next scene, a bound and gagged Allen coerces a confession, à la Perry Mason, from a prosecution witness in his cross-examination.
  • In 1987, HBO aired Conspiracy: The Trial of the Chicago 8, a docudrama based on the court transcript as the primary source for the script. All eight of the original defendants, along with defense attorneys William Kunstler and Leonard Weinglass, participated in the project and provided commentary throughout the film. It was awarded the 1988 CableACE Award for Best Dramatic Special.[37]
  • The 2000 film, Steal This Movie, is mostly about Abbie Hoffman (played by Vincent D'Onofrio), but also looks at the trial.
  • In the 2007 film Chicago 10, Oscar-nominated director Brett Morgen intercuts archival footage from the period, including the events of August 1968, with animated scenes based on the trial transcript. The film premiered at the 2007 Sundance Film Festival and was released in theaters in February 2008.
  • The Great Chicago Conspiracy Circus, by Cannes-winning director Kerry Feltham, was a feature film made at the time of the trial, based on the trial transcript and distributed by New Line Cinema. It was released in January 2008 on DVD. The film won the Berlin Film Festival jury prize,[38] as well as positive reviews from the New York Times[39] and Newsweek[citation needed].
  • Archival footage of events at the Chicago demonstrations was featured in the 2010 documentary Phil Ochs: There but for Fortune. The film also featured interviews with many of Ochs' associates, including Rubin and Hoffman. It was a dual portrait of the singer-songwriter's career and the protest movements of the 1960s.[40][41]
  • The Chicago 8, written and directed by Pinchas Perry, was filmed in September and October 2009 and released on October 23, 2012. The film is based closely on the trial transcripts and most of the action takes place in the courtroom.[42]
  • Writer Aaron Sorkin directed a film entitled The Trial of the Chicago 7, released in 2020, which was based on a script he had written in 2007.[43] Producers Steven Spielberg, Walter F. Parkes, and Laurie MacDonald collaborated on the development of Sorkin's script, with Spielberg intending to direct the film. Sacha Baron Cohen was originally cast as Abbie Hoffman,[44] while Spielberg approached Will Smith for the role of Bobby Seale, and planned to meet with Heath Ledger about playing Tom Hayden.[45] The Writers Guild of America strike, which started in November 2007 and lasted 100 days,[46] delayed filming and the project was suspended.[47] Sorkin was later to continue to rewrite the script for Spielberg, and the director intended to mostly cast unknowns to keep the budget down.[48] Paul Greengrass[49] and Ben Stiller[50] were rumored as replacement directors, but the project did not move forward until Sorkin agreed to direct the project himself.[51] The film was eventually released in 2020, distributed by Netflix. Top-name actors Sacha Baron Cohen, Mark Rylance, Michael Keaton, Eddie Redmayne, Joseph Gordon-Levitt and Frank Langella were featured in the cast.

Theatre and plays

  • In 1972, playwright and screenwriter David Petersen's play Little Orphan Abbie based on the transcript of the trial, opened in Seattle, directed by Jody Briggs and starring Glenn Mazen. It got good reviews and sold out every night; its run was extended twice. It was slated for production in New York by director Joe Papp, but had to be postponed and finally cancelled due to extended runs of other plays. It was later produced in Los Angeles, first on stage at the Burbage Theater, directed by Ron Hunter. It was later shot for television by Telemedia Productions, directed by Dick Studebaker. The television version used stock footage of the events in the parks and on the streets of Chicago during the riots.[52]
  • In 1993, British playwright John Goodchild adapted the original trial transcripts for a radio play produced by L.A. Theatre Works, titled The Chicago Conspiracy Trial. Its cast included David Schwimmer (Abbie Hoffman), Tom Amandes (Richard Schultz), George Murdock (Judge Julius Hoffman), and Mike Nussbaum (William Kunstler). The play received an award at the New York Television Festival in 1993.

Art

On November 5, 1969, Richard Avedon made his first wall-sized mural portrait of the Chicago Seven in what appears to be a police-like line-up before the trial was completed. It was first exhibited at the Minneapolis Institute of Art in the summer of 1970 and has since been exhibited in museums around the world. Avedon called the group of defendants "heroic." [53][54]

See also

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

References

  1. ^ Max Frankel (December 2, 1968). "U.S. Study scores Chicago violence as "a police riot"". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved December 31, 2007.
  2. ^ Schultz, John (April 15, 2009). No One Was Killed: The Democratic National Convention, August 1968. The University of Chicago Press. pp. 2–5. ISBN 978-0-226-74078-2.
  3. ^ Frankel, Max (December 2, 1968). "U.S. Study scores Chicago violence as "a police riot"". The New York Times. p. 1. Retrieved December 31, 2007.
  4. ^ Epstein, Jason (1970). Great Conspiracy Trial. New York: Random House. pp. 28–29.
  5. ^ a b "Brief History Of Chicago's 1968 Democratic Convention". CNN. Retrieved April 28, 2010.
  6. ^ Clavir, Judy; John Spitzer, eds. (1970). The Conspiracy Trial: The Extended Edited Transcript of the Trial of the Chicago Eight. Complete with motions, rulings, contempt citations, sentences, and photographs. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs Merrill. pp. 601–06.
  7. ^ "Indictment in the Chicago Seven Conspiracy Trial". Famous Trials: Chicago Seven. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
  8. ^ Hasbrouck, Edward. "How the Chicago 8 ("Chicago 7") might have been the Chicago 9". Retrieved October 20, 2020.
  9. ^ Langguth, A.J. Our Vietnam: The War 1954-1975, New York: Simon and Schuster 2000 p. 552
  10. ^ a b Langguth, A.J. Our Vietnam: The War 1954-1975, New York: Simon and Schuster 2000 p. 553
  11. ^ a b Davis, R. (September 15, 2008). "The Chicago Seven trial and the 1968 Democratic National Convention". The Chicago Tribune.
  12. ^ a b Epstein, Jason (December 4, 1969). "A Special Supplement: The Trial of Bobby Seale". The New York Review of Books. The New York Times. Retrieved April 19, 2016.
  13. ^ US Supreme Court Center, 397 U.S. 337 (1970)
  14. ^ Bill of Rights Archives (April 22, 2016). "The Case of the Defendant Who was Bound and Gagged". Constitutional Rights Foundation. Constitutional Rights Foundation. Retrieved April 22, 2016.
  15. ^ "A Special Supplement: The Trial of Bobby Seale". Nybooks.com. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  16. ^ "Bobby Seale, Bound and Gagged | Political Activists on Trial | Explore | Drawing Justice: The Art of Courtroom Illustration | Exhibitions at the Library of Congress | Library of Congress". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA.
  17. ^ Contempt in Chicago, Time Magazine, Friday, Nov. 14, 1969
  18. ^ Ragsdale, Bruce (April 22, 2016). "The Chicago Seven Conspiracy Trial". Federal Judicial Center. Retrieved April 22, 2016.
  19. ^ a b J. ANTHONY LUKAS (February 6, 1970). "Judge Hoffman Is Taunted at Trial of the Chicago 7 After Silencing Defense Counsel". The New York Times (paid access). Retrieved October 7, 2008.
  20. ^ "Testimony of Abbie Hoffman in the Chicago Seven Trial". Famous Trials: Chicago Seven. Archived from the original on September 11, 2017. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
  21. ^ Tobias, Ted. "In Tribute", Pg 84
  22. ^ "Excerpts from the Testimony of Phil Ochs". Famous Trials: Chicago Seven. Retrieved July 26, 2018.
  23. ^ "Chicago DNC 1968". New York Daily News. August 20, 2008. Retrieved January 24, 2011.
  24. ^ "Chicago 7 Judge Bars Ramsey Clark As Defense Witness". The New York Times. January 29, 1970. Retrieved November 3, 2020.
  25. ^ Langguth, A.J. Our Vietnam: The War 1954-1975, New York: Simon and Schuster 2000 p. 560
  26. ^ Libman, Gary (January 30, 1990). "'60s Radical Puts Past Behind Him". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved August 29, 2020.
  27. ^ "Protesting and the Chicago Seven". 1970 Year in Review. UPI. 1970. Retrieved April 26, 2016.
  28. ^ The Chicago Seven Trial: Excerpts from the Trial Transcript, Famous Trials: Chicago Seven
  29. ^ a b c d e Langguth, A.J. Our Vietnam: The War 1954-1975, New York: Simon and Schuster 2000 p. 561
  30. ^ United States v. Dellinger, 472 F.2d 340 (7th Cir. 1972).
  31. ^ "Background: Chicago 7 trial". The Chicago Tribune. October 24, 2016.
  32. ^ In re Dellinger, 461 F.2d 389 (7th Cir. 1972).
  33. ^ In re Dellinger, 370 F.Supp. 1304 (N.D.Ill. 1973).
  34. ^ a b Brummer, Justin. "Vietnam War - 1968 Chicago Seven / Eight Songs". RYM. Retrieved June 23, 2020.
  35. ^ "Mr. Fish: Mr. Fish in Conversation With Graham Nash - Interviews". Truthdig. Retrieved March 31, 2016.
  36. ^ Carnovsky, Morris; Cox, Ronny; Jr, Al Freeman; Gorman, Cliff (July 12, 1975), The Chicago Conspiracy Trial, retrieved March 10, 2017
  37. ^ Siebert, Perry. "Conspiracy: The Trial of the Chicago 8". Allmovie. Retrieved January 24, 2011.
  38. ^ "Kerry Feltham: Filmography". kerryfeltham.com. Archived from the original on March 17, 2016.
  39. ^ A. H. Weiler (May 31, 1971). "Great Chicago Conspiracy Circus". New York Times. Retrieved August 2, 2008.
  40. ^ Rooney, David (January 2, 2011). "Phil Ochs: There But for Fortune – Film Review". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved January 8, 2011.
  41. ^ Holden, Stephen (January 4, 2011). "Aspiring to Musical Power and Glory". The New York Times: C6. Retrieved January 8, 2011.
  42. ^ Beck, Marilyn; Stacy Jenel Smith (October 27, 2009). "Romano, Bakula, Braugher Had 'Men' Chemistry". Jacksonville Observer. Retrieved January 24, 2011.
  43. ^ Michael Fleming, Pamela McClintock (July 12, 2007). "Sorkin on 'Trial' at DreamWorks". Variety. Retrieved September 23, 2007.
  44. ^ Harlow, John (December 30, 2007). "No more jokes as Borat turns war protester". The Sunday Times. London. Retrieved December 31, 2007.
  45. ^ "Will Smith Confirms Involvement in Spielberg's CHICAGO 7". Collider. January 15, 2008. Archived from the original on January 20, 2008. Retrieved January 22, 2008.
  46. ^ Paul Greengrass in Talks for Aaron Sorkin-Penned 'The Trial of the Chicago 7' , Rebecca Ford, The Hollywood Reporter, 23 July 2013.Retrieved: 26 April 2015.
  47. ^ Sperling, Nicole (February 22, 2008). "Spielberg's 'Chicago 7' delayed". Entertainment Weekly. Archived from the original on February 26, 2008. Retrieved February 23, 2008.
  48. ^ Nikki Finke (February 22, 2008). "Spielberg Delays Start Of 'Chicago 7' Due To "Uncertainty Over A SAG Strike"". LA Weekly. Retrieved February 23, 2008.
  49. ^ Miller, Neil (August 10, 2008). "Paul Greengrass to Direct The Trial of the Chicago 7?". Film School Rejects. Retrieved August 10, 2008.
  50. ^ "Ben Stiller Might Direct Sorkin's The Trial of the Chicago 7?!". FirstShowing.net. October 22, 2008. Retrieved February 18, 2014.
  51. ^ Hipes, Patrick (October 26, 2018). "'Trial Of The Chicago 7' Movie Ramps Up Again With Aaron Sorkin & Sacha Baron Cohen".
  52. ^ Johnson, Wayne (March 6, 1972). "Arts and Entertainment". Seattle Times. p. A 18.
  53. ^ Menand, Louis, "This is the End," (2012) Murals and Portraits (New York: Gagosian Gallery)
  54. ^ "The Chicago Seven, Chicago". Retrieved October 16, 2020.

Further reading

Five editions of excerpts from the transcript of the trial have been published
  • Edited by Judy Clavir and John Spitzer. The Conspiracy Trial: The extended edited transcript of the trial of the Chicago Eight. Complete with motions, rulings, contempt citations, sentences and photographs. Introduction by William Kunstler and foreword by Leonard Weinglass. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1970. ISBN 0-224-00579-0. OCLC 16214206
  • Contempt: Transcript of the contempt citations, sentences, and responses of the Chicago Conspiracy 10. With an introduction by Harry Kalvern, Jr., a foreword by Ramsey Clark, and courtroom sketches by Bill Jones, John Downs, and James Yep. Chicago: The Swallow Press, 1970.
  • Edited and with illustrations by Jules Feiffer. Pictures at a Prosecution: Drawings and Texts from the Chicago Conspiracy Trial. New York, Grove Press, Inc., 1971.
  • Edited by Mark L. Levine, George C. McNamee, and Daniel Greenberg. The Tales of Hoffman. Introduction by Dwight Macdonald. New York: Bantam, 1970.
  • Edited with an introduction by Jon Wiener. Conspiracy in the Streets: The Extraordinary Trial of the Chicago Seven. Afterword by Tom Hayden and drawings by Jules Feiffer. New York: The New Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-56584-833-7
Books about the trial
  • Dellinger, Dave. More Power Than We Know: The people's movement toward democracy. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books/Doubleday, 1975. ISBN 0-385-00178-9
  • Dellinger, Dave. Revolutionary Nonviolence. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1970.
  • Dellinger, David. From Yale to Jail: The life story of a moral dissenter. New York: Pantheon Books, 1993. ISBN 0-679-40591-7
  • Epstein, Jason. Great Conspiracy Trial. New York: Random House and Vintage Books. 1970. ISBN 0-394-41906-5
  • Hayden, Tom. Reunion: A memoir. New York: Random House, 1988.
  • Hayden, Tom. Trial. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970. ISBN 003-085385-0
  • Hoffman, Abbie. Soon to Be a Major Motion Picture. New York: Perigee Books (G.P. Putnam's Sones), 1980.
  • Hoffman, Abbie and others. The Conspiracy. New York: Dell, 1969.
  • Kunstler, William M. Trials and Tribulations. New York: Grove Press, 1985. ISBN 0-394-54611-3
  • Lukas, J. Anthony. The Barnyard Epithet & Other Obscenities: Notes on the Chicago Conspiracy Trial. Drawings by Irene Siegel. NYC: Harper & Row, 1970.
  • Okpaku, Joseph and Verna Sadock. Verdict! The Exclusive Picture Story of the Trial of the Chicago 8. New York: The Third Press – Joseph Okpaku Publishing Co., Inc., 1970.
  • Rubin, Jerry. We Are Everywhere. New York: Harper & Row, 1971. ISBN 006-013724-X
  • Schultz, John. Motion Will Be Denied: A New Report on the Chicago Conspiracy Trial. New York: Morrow, 1972. Revised and published as The Chicago Conspiracy Trial. New introduction by Carl Oglesby and new afterword by the author. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-226-74114-7
  • Seale, Bobby. Seize the Time: The story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton. New York: Random House and Vintage Books, 1970.
  • Weiner, Lee. Conspiracy to Riot: The Life and Times of One of the Chicago 7. Cleveland: Belt Publishing, 2020. ISBN 9781948742689
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chicago_Seven&oldid=987531570"