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Kingdom of Sine

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Kingdom of Sine
Siin
— ca. 1335 (under the name Sine, previously the Sine was divided under seven main kingdoms or lamanats using the title Lamane or Maad.
–— 1969 (monarchy reinstated on 8 February 2019 with the cronwing of Maad a Sinig Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf–as King of Sine (Maad a Sinig).[1][2][3][4]
Map of Sine (ca. 1850)
Map of Sine (ca. 1850)
CapitalDiakhao
Common languagesSerer
Religion
Serer religion
GovernmentAbsolute monarchy, then constitutional monarchy from 2019 – present
Maad a Sinig, Lamane 
Historical eraMedieval
• Established
— ca. 1335 (under the name Sine, previously the Sine was divided under seven main kingdoms or lamanats using the title Lamane or Maad.
• Disestablished
— 1969 (monarchy reinstated on 8 February 2019 with the cronwing of Maad a Sinig Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf–as King of Sine (Maad a Sinig).[1][2][3][4]

The Kingdom of Sine (or Siin in Serer, variations: Sin or Siine) was a post-classical Serer kingdom along the north bank of the Saloum River delta in modern Senegal.[5] The inhabitants are called Siin-Siin or Sine-Sine (a Serer plural form or Serer-demonym, e.g. Bawol-Bawol and Saloum-Saloum / Saluum-Saluum, inhabitants of Baol and Saloum respectively).

History

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Further information: Timeline of Serer history, Serer ancient history, and States headed by Serer Lamanes

The history of Sine, which has been inhabited by the Serer people for centuries, can be divided into three main Serer historic periods (see below). For the Timeline of Serer history and Serer ancient history, see those articles.

At the time of the Serer lamans, Sine was not called Sine. Instead, the Sine was divided into seven lamanic states ruled by lamans, namely: Njafaj; Ña-UI; Joral; Ngohe-Pofin; Hiréna (west of Sine at the Petite Côte); and Singandum — which covers the two banks of the Sine valley.[6][7] Charles Becker and Victor Martin's paper on the settlement of Sine prior to the Guelowar period (c. 1350 – 3 August 1969,[8][9] and from 8 February 2019 – present, following the coronation of the current King of Sine Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf[2][1]), posits that, Sine had about sixty villages and all these villages were governed by the lamans.[6] Niokhobaye Diouf notes that, just before the Guelowar's arrival in Sine, there were three notable rulers using the Serer title laman[10] (Seereer proper: laamaan, abbreviated to the Serer vocable lam — meaning to inherit[11]). They were:

  • Lam Sango, sometimes called Diarno Diouala (or Jarno Jouala), residing in Palmarin
  • Lam Diémé Fadial (or Lamaan Jame Faajaal), residing in Fadial (Faajaal in Serer)
  • Lam Wal Satim Ndok, residing in Ndok (east of current Sine)[10]

These leaders had successors after Maissa Wali (the first Guelowar king) ascended the throne. However, their power and influence waned.[10]

The Wagadous were a 9th century[12] maternal dynasty of Soninke origin, and offshoots of the Ghana Empire[13] that ruled much of Senegal including Takrur by marrying into Serer lamanic families, notably the Joof,[12][14][15] Ngom,[14][15] and later the Njie family, especially in Baol,[12][14][15] amongst other notable families and long before the Faal dynasty of Cayor and Baol in the 16th century—who succeeded the Joof, Ngom and Njie patriclans.[14][15][13] The patriarch of the Faal paternal dynasty of Cayor and Baol, Damel–Teigne Amari Ngoneh Sobel Faal was the maternal grandson of Lingeer Sobel Joof (mother of Lingeer Ngoneh Sobel Njie, Amari's mother). The Princess Sobel Joof originated from the Joof royal family of Lambaye (the precolonial capital of Baol), and was of Wagadou matrilineage, and so was her grandson Amari.[16] She was a descendant of Maad Ndaah Njemeh Joof via the Yungari Ndaah Joof branch. The Faal family simply continued the old dynasty through marriage. The collapse of the Lamanic Era, and to a greater extent the Wagadou Era, coincided with the arrival of the Guelowars in the 14th century (c. 1335).[17][18] The Wagadous continued to rule in Baol as the reigning maternal dynasty in that country, although they did receive competition from other emerging matriclans vying for power, and by the time the Damel-Teigne Lat Sukabe Ngoneh Jaye Faal came on the throne in the 18th century, they completely lost power. Lat Sukabe enforced his own matriclan (Geej). In the Sine (and later in Saloum), their demise was a result of the Guelowar's arrival where Serer lamanic families formed marriage alliance with the Guelowars.[18][19]

The Wagadous are still found in Serer country, though they have lost their power and dominance post-Guelowar. They now tend to form alliances with the matriclans Jafun, as well as the Cegandum and Kagaw, two of the oldest Serer matriclans.[20][21][22] The Cengandum (or Jegandoum) are linked to the Serer Mbosseh (or Mboosé) tradition and pangool.[22] The Mbosseh is one of the Serer holy festivals. The Serer community Kaolack, what was historically part of the Kingdom of Saloum, have their own way of celebrating the Mbosseh, and believed it to be the mythical protector of their town.[23] The Wagadous have close ties to the Cengandum and Kagaw.[22] A type of serpent called cocom in Serer, is one of the totems of the Cengandum. The totem of the Wagadous is the mbose tree (gardenia ternifolia)[24] whose genesis is found in the Serer creation narrative and Ndut classical teachings.[25][26] For more on that, see Serer maternal clans and Serer creation myth.

The lamanic families did maintain their lands, wealth and titles, though they did lose power with the establishment of a new order. There is a difference between lamans pre-Guelowar and lamans post Guelowar. The former had real powers and wealth, were heads of their states, and were the guardians custodians of Serer spirituality (A ƭat Roog). The latter kept their wealth and titles but were merely provincial chiefs. However, due to their connection to Serer religion, they did maintain some power, and could dethrone a reigning monarch if threatened.[27][28][29] Some of the notable Serer lamanic families included the Sarr family, the Joof family, the Ngom family, etc. These lamanic families formed a great council (the Great Council of Lamans[30][31][32]) to settle disputes.[33] It was similar to a higher court where the lamans sat to hear or disputes brought in front of them so they could pass judgement. It was the last resort if a laman from another part of Serer country could not decide on a case brought before him or the complainant was not satisfied with the judgment and needed their dispute to be decided by the Great Council of Lamans.[30][31][32] This Council would elect one of their own as head of the Council. During the Guelowars' arrival in Sine, it was Lamaan Jame Ngom of Faajaal, a member of the Ngom family who was the figure head. He was the one who crowned Maysa Wali, the first Guelowar to rule in Serer country, and spoke the proclamation words or crowning speech to him so he could repeat it during his coronation ceremony. Lamaan Jame Ngom was renowned for organising Serer wrestling tournaments in his country (Faajaal). It was through those tournaments that the patriarch of the Faye family, the "great Serer wrestler" Boukar Djillakh Faye demonstrated his skills and was given the hand of a princess in marriage.[34][35]

It was during the Guelowar Era when Sine was named "Sine", named after Sine-o-Méo Manneh (Serer proper: Siin o Meo Maane), sister of Maysa Wali Manneh (the one who named it after his sister[36]).[36]

Serer of Takrur Migration

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Main articles: Serer people, Serer history, and Takrur
Carte des peuplades du Sénégal de l'abbé Boilat (1853): an ethnic map of Senegal at the time of French colonialism. The pre-colonial states of Baol, Sine and Saloum are arrayed along the southwest coast, with the inland areas marked "Peuple Sérère".
19th-century junjung from Sine.

The Serer ethnic group are very diverse, and include the Serer Seex (pronounced Seh or Seeh); subgroups of the Seex with their various dialects of Serer proper; and the Cangin speaking Serers; who as a group in precolonial times, saw the entire Senegambia region as their home, as noted by the Tanzanian historian and author Godfrey Mwakikagile, who writes:

...the Serer traversed vast expanses of territory during pre-colonial times and saw the entire region [the Senegambia region] as their home, as their history of migration in the area clearly shows.[37]

In the 11th century, the native Serers of ancient Takrur (successor of the Ghana Empire) were persecuted by the Muslims for refusing to abandon Serer religion in favour of Islam.[38][39][40][41] In 1030, the usurper[42] War Jabi invited the Muslim Almoravid Abdullah ibn Yasin to Takrur and converted to Islam.[39][43][42] By 1035, he forced the natives of Takrur to convert to Islam but the Serer natives refused to submit to Islam.[44][42] The Serer lamans in particular, who were the guardians of Serer spirituality, leaders and the landowning class, put up a strong resistance against the allied Muslim forces (the Black African tribes who converted to Islam and their Arabo-Berber allies) partly to preserve their religion, but also to preserve their assets and power. They were defeated by the Muslims. The introduction of Islam in Takrur led to "the Serer exodus" from Takrur, later the region of Fouta.[45][46] In the writings of early Arab sources such as Al Bakri–relating to Takrur, the terms lamlam, lemlem, or damdam became associated with "non-believers" of Islam in the region.[47][48] According to historians and authors Ibrahima Thiaw (2013) and Abdoulaye Bara Diop (1968), these words may have been a corruption of the Serer title "Lamaan, which was the term used for the heads of lineages and communal territories", and suggests that the Serer lamans were probably at the forefront of resisting Islamization.[47][48] Following their persecution, the Serers of Takrur who were Seex (or Seh) speaking people, a Serer language which the Fula language is most closely related to, headed south to join their Serer relatives in the south. The Serer exodus from Takrur only affected the Serers of Takrur, not the entire Serer group which is very diverse and spread throughout the region. Ancient Takrur was part of Serer country.[49][46] Although Takrur (later the Fouta region) became Islamic, it losts its Serer identity following the Serer exodus.[50] In summarizing the influence of Serer culture, history, religion and tradition on the Senegambia region in his paper "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays Sereer" (1993), historian and author Professor Charles Becker writes that:

Finally we should remember the important relic call Sereer in Fouta, but also in the former countries of the Ferlo, Jolof and Kajoor, which marked the migration of proto-Sereer, whose imprint on the Fouta was so significant and remains in the memory of the Halpulaareen [speakers of the Pulaar language such as Fula and Toucouleur people].[50]

According to historian David Galvan, "The oral historical record, written accounts by early Arab and European explorers, and physical anthropological evidence suggest that the various Serer peoples migrated south from the Futa Tooro region (Senegal River valley) beginning around the eleventh century, when Islam first came across the Sahara."[51]: p.51  Over generations these people, possibly Pulaar speaking herders originally, migrated through Wolof areas and entered the Siin and Saluum river valleys. This lengthy period of Wolof-Serer contact has left us unsure of the origins of shared "terminology, institutions, political structures, and practices."[51]: p.52 

Founding of Sine and the Jolof Empire

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The actual foundation of the Kingdom of Sine is unclear, but in the 13th or 14th century Mandinka migrants entered the area from the southeast. They were led by a matrilinial clan known as the Gelwar. Near Niakhar they encountered the Serer, who had already established a system of lamanic authorities, and joined to create a Gelwaar-led state with its capital at or near a Serer lamanic estate at Mbissel.[51]: p.54 [52][53]

Father Henry Gravrand reports an oral tradition that one Maad a Sinig Maysa Wali Jaxateh Manneh fleeing with his family from Kaabu following a battle in 1335 which he calls the Battle of Troubang.[54]

The Senegalese historians and authors Babacar Sedikh Diouf and Biram Ngom notes that, the Guelowar dynasty who originated from Kaabu, offshoots of the Ñaanco dynasty of Kaabu, had a form of dynastic struggle in Kaabu, culminating in the Guelowars' migration to Serer territory—seeking refuge in Sine.[33] The Serer, who had suffered religious and ethnic persecution several centuries earlier (and long after that), resulting in the Serer exodus from the north (Takrur) in the 11th century,[55][49][56] agreed to grant them asylum, an asylum sanctioned by the Council of Great Lamans (the Serer landowning class).[33] Through marriage, the Serer–Guelowar alliance was born—where Serer men from the noble families of Sine and later Saloum, married Guelowar women and the offsprings of those unions ruled as kings, and the children of such unions and their descendants identifying themselves as Serer, spoke the Serer language, followed Serer religion and customs, and saw themselves as Serer.[18][19][57] On the subject of Maysa Wali, the first Guelowar to rule in Serer country, Diouf writes:

"Maysa Waly was first appointed legal adviser to the Council of the Great Lamans after his famous judgment. Gradually, he strengthened his power and authority and ended up being recognized as king."[33]

Charles Becker notes that Gravrand had not recognised that this is actually a description of the 1867 (or 1865) Battle of Kansala although he agrees that the migration of the Guelowar can probably be explained by a war or a conflict of succession.[58] The Mandinka term "troubang" mean "genocide" ; "to wipe out"; or "to annihilate" a family, clan, or people.[59][60][61] In essence, alluding to the defeat (whether through war or conflict) of the Guelowars by the reigning Ñaanco dynasty of Kaabu and/or were forced to leave—which historians pretty much agree on, culminating in the refuge status of the former.[59][61][62] Serer oral history says that after Maysa Wali assimilated into Serer culture and served as legal advisor to the laman council of electors.[63] He was chosen by the lamans and people to rule.[63] He served as King of Sine from c. 1350-1370.

Almost a decade after his coronation, Maysa Wali elected the legendary Ndiadiane Ndiaye (Serer proper: Njaajaan Njaay) in c. 1360 as first Emperor of the Jolof Empire. He was the first king of modern Senegal to voluntarily gave his allegiance to Ndiadiane Ndiaye and asked others to do so, thereby making Sine a vassal of the Jolof Empire.[64] It is for this reason that scholars agree that the Jolof Empire was not an empire founded by conquest, but through a voluntary confederacy of states.[65][66] Serer oral tradition says that Sine never paid tribute to Ndiadiane Ndiaye nor any of his descendants, that the Jolof Empire never subjugated the kingdom, and Ndiadiane Ndiaye himself (a Serer[64][67]) received his name from the mouth of Maysa Waly.[68][64][67] The historian Sylviane Diouf states that "Each vassal kingdom—Walo, Takrur, Kayor, Baol, Sine, Salum, Wuli, and Niani—recognized the hegemony of Jolof and paid tribute."[69] The Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum were the first to leave the Jolof Empire, at least twenty-nine years before the famous Battle of Danki in 1549,[70] the battle which saw the other kingdoms gained their independence from Jolof.[70][71] The Serer Kingdoms of Sine and Saloum also survived up to 1969 whilst the other Kingdoms such as Waalo, Jolof, Cayor, Baol, etc., fell in the 19th century. Futa Toro collapsed following the Futa Revolution of 1776 caused by Islamist who ousted their Animist Denianke dynasty.[72] Although Futa tried to re-establish itself post 1776 under the banner of Islamism and Islamic jihads, it collapsed again when it was incorporated into the French colonial empire in the second half of the 19th century.[73]

Middle Ages

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Mbegane Ndour was the king of Sine around the turn of the 16th century (approx. 1495-1514 [citation needed]). Lilyan Kesteloot and Anja Veirman advanced the claim that, Mbegane defeated the Takruri marabout Moussa Eli Bana Sall, who at that time reigned over Saloum, by poisoning him with a viper.[74]: 87  The authors then went on to claim that, Mbegane Ndour was born of the matrilineal royal clan, but out of wedlock and with a relatively unimportant father. His marriage, they claim, with a princess and priestess of Baol propped up his legitimacy as well as helping him conquer Saloum.[74]: 89 

The precolonial kingdoms of modern Senegal, whether they are Serer Kingdoms, Wolof, Fula, Mandinka, Jola, Toucouleur, etc., do not have a history of producing kings or queens born out of wedlock.[75] The reverse is true amongst many of Europe's royal families, which have produced many "royal bastards" throughout European dynastic history.[76]

Portuguese explorers in the 15th century referred to Sine as the kingdom of Barbaçim, a corruption of 'Bur-ba-Sine' (Wolof for 'King of Sine'), and its people as Barbacins (a term frequently extended by early writers to Serer people generally, while others insisted that Serreos and Barbacins were completely distinct peoples.) Old European maps frequently denote the Saloum River as the "River of Barbacins/Barbecins".[77] Alvise Cadamosto, a 15th-century Venetian navigator, slave trader, and chronicler, mistakenly distinguished between the "Sereri" (Serer people) and the "Barbacini", which seems to indicate that he was referring to two different people when in fact, the Kingdom of Sine was a Serer Kingdom where the "King of Sine" ("Barbacini") i.e., Maad a Sinig took residence.[78][79] Alvise Cadamosto never set foot in Serer country.[79] Everything he wrote about the Serer actually came from his Wolof interpreters.[79]

19th century and colonialism

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Like most of their subjects in the 19th century, the Serer Kings of Sine and Saloum continued to follow Serer religion. On 18 July 1867,[80] the prolific 19th century Sengalese Muslim cleric, jihadist, and slave trader[81][82][83] Maba Diakhou Bâ was defeated at The Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune fighting against the King of Sine Maad a Sinig Kumba Ndoffene fa Maak Joof—when he tried to launch jihad in Sine, but failed. Maba and his allied forces namely Jolof and Cayor suffered a severe defeat, and he was killed in that battle.[84][80]

The rulers of Sine retained their title (Maad a Sinig) throughout the colonial period and did not lose official recognition until 1969 after the death of Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof (the last absolute monarch of Sine, reigned: 1924 – 1969).[85]

Post Colonialism

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In 2019, the Serer people of Sine decided to reinstate their monarchy, and Maad a Sinig Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf (commonly known as Maa Sinig Niokhobaye Diouf Fat Diène or Niokhobaye Fat Diéne Diouf) was crowned King of Sine (Maad a Sinig) on 8 February 2019 at Diakhao, the precolonial capital of Sine. He belongs the Royal House of Semou Njekeh Joof via the branch of Maad a Sinig Semou Maak Joof, and a member of the Guelowar matrilineage through his mother Lingeer Fatou Diène. On 8 February 2020, fifty-one years after the death of the former King, Mahecor Joof, Niokhobaye Diouf celebrated his first anniversary on the throne.[1][2][3][4] Since Sine is now part of independent Senegal, Niokhobaye Diouf is a constitutional monarch with no official powers, compared to his predecessors. His role is simply ceremonial and diplomatic. He does however, have great influence in the and has been able utilise his influence on the President of Senegal (notably Macky Sall), and the old pleasant cousinship between the Serer and Jola people by liaising with the King of Oussouye (Maan Sibiloumbaye Diédhiou) to help effect economic and cultural development, as well as bring about peace in Casamance, following decades long of the Casamance conflict—which has plagued the Gambia, Senegal, and Guinea-Bissau since 1982.[86][3][4] Since 2023, he has been vocal in calling for a peaceful transition of political power in preparation for Senegal's 2024 Presidential Elections.[87]

The Serer Kingdom of Saloum also reinstated their monarchy in 2017 culminating in the contentious coronation of King of Saloum Thierno Coumba Daga Ndao on 21 May 2017 at Kahone (the precolonial capital of Saloum).[88] He is the maternal uncle of the current King of Sine Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf.[87]

Economy

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The economic base of Sine was agriculture and fishing. Millet and other crops were grown. Sine was very reluctant to grow groundnut for the French market, in spite of French colonial directives. It was less dependent on groundnut than other states. Deeply rooted in Serer conservatism and Serer religion, for several decades during the 19th century, the Serer farmers refused to grow it or when they did, they ensured that their farming cycle was not only limited to groundnut production. Their religious philosophy of preserving the ecosystem affected groundnut production in Sine. Even after mass production was later adopted, succession struggles in the late 19th century between the royal houses hampered production. However, the Kingdom of Sine was less susceptible to hunger and indebtedness, a legacy which continued right up to the last absolute monarch of Sine – Maad a Sinig Mahecor Joof. It was very common for people from other states to migrate to the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum in search of a better life. The inhabitants of Sine (the "Sine-Sine") rarely migrated.[89]

Social organisation

[edit]
See also: Serer religion and Saltigue

Some of the king's government (or the political structure of Sine) include: the Lamanes (provincial chiefs and title holders, not to be confused with the ancient Serer Lamanes); the heir apparents such as the Buumi, Thilas and Loul (in that order); the Great Farba Kaba (chief of the army); the Farba Binda (minister of finance, the police and the royal palace) and the Great Jaraff (the king's advisor and head of the noble council of electors responsible for electing the kings from the royal family).[90][91]

Political structure of Sine

[edit]

The following list gives a condensed version of the political structure of Sine:[91]

Maad a Sinig (king of Sine)

  • Heir apparent
  • Central hierarchy
    • Great Jaraaf (head of the noble council responsible for electing kings; he is the equivalent of prime minister)
    • Great Farba Kaba (chief commander of the army)
    • Farba mbinda (minister of finance)
    • Lingeer (queen regnant/queen mother, head of the female court)—equivalent of minister for women, also judge cases relating to women))
  • Royal entourage
    • Paar no Maad (the chief griot of the king, who was very powerful and influential, usually very rich/financially well off due to their profession, knowledge, and master of speech), in Wolof kingdoms, they are referred to as buur geweel))
    • Family
  • Territorial command (the title holders)
    • Lamane (holders of noble title and land)—they are the descendants of the ancient Serer lamaans (the lamanic families))

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b c Boursine.org (the official website of the Royal Institution of Sine), "Intronisation du Maad sinig Niokhobaye Diouf" (posted on 12 February 2020) [1] (retrieved: 27 March 2024)
  2. ^ a b c Actu Sen, "Intronisation du Roi “Maad a Sinig” de Diakhao : 51 ans après, le Sine restaure la couronne." By Matar Diouf (10 February 2020) [2] (retrieved: 27 March 2024)
  3. ^ a b c Le Quotidien, "Caravane de la paix : Les rois d’Oussouye et du Sine apôtres de la bonne parole." By Alioune Badara Ciss (27 May 2023) [3] (retrieved: 27 March 2024)
  4. ^ a b c The Point, "King of Madala Sinic [Maad a Sinig] visits Senegalese Embassy in Gambia." By Adama Jallow (23 May 2023).[4] (retrieved: 27 March 2024)
  5. ^ Martin A. Klein, Islam and Imperialism in Senegal Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Edinburgh University Press (1968). p 7
  6. ^ a b Ngom, Biram, "La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin." Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1987, p. 7-8
  7. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation Sereer: Cosaan, Les Origines." Nouvelles Editions africaines, (Dakar) 1983. pp. 55-6, 164, 192, ISBN 2-7236-0877-8
  8. ^ Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum." Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3–4, 1986–1987, p. 238 (PDF)
  9. ^ Faye, Louis Diène, "Mort et Naissance le monde Sereer." Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines (1983), p. 59, ISBN 2-7236-0868-9
  10. ^ a b c Diouf, Niokhobaye, p. 705-6
  11. ^ Thiaw, Issa Laye, "La femme Seereer (Senegal)", L'Harmattan (2005), p. 54, ISBN 9782747589079
  12. ^ a b c Chavane, Bruno A., "Villages de l’ancien Tekrour", Vol. 2, Hommes et sociétés. Archéologies africaines, KARTHALA Editions, 1985, pp. 28-34, 38, ISBN 2-86537-143-3
  13. ^ a b Kesteloot, Lilyan; Veirman, Anja; "Le mboosé: mythe de fondation et génie protecteur de Kaolack." IFAN (2007), p. 43
  14. ^ a b c d Phillips, Lucie Colvin, "Historical Dictionary of Senegal", Scarecrow Press (1981), pp. 52-71, ISBN 0-8108-1369-6
  15. ^ a b c d Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire. "Bulletin de l'Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire." Volume 38. IFAN (1976), pp 557-504.
  16. ^ Diouf, Mamadou, "Le Kajoor au XIXe siècle: pouvoir ceddo et conquête coloniale." (Hommes et sociétés, ISSN 0993-4294), Karthala Editions, (2014), p. 306, ISBN 9782811112455
  17. ^ Sarr, Alioune. "Histoire du Sine-Saloum." Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3–4, 1986–1987, p. 235-6 (PDF)
  18. ^ a b c Ngom, Biram, "La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin." Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1987, p 13
  19. ^ a b Galvan, Dennis Charles, "The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal." Berkeley, University of California Press (2004), p. 54 [5] (retrieved 28 March 2024)
  20. ^ "Bulletin de l'Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire: Sciences humaines, Volume 45", Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire, IFAN (1983), pp 387–401
  21. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation Sereer - Cosaan", Nouvelles Editions africaines (1983), p. 200, ISBN 2723608778
  22. ^ a b c Kesteloot, Lilyan; Veirman, Anja; "Le mboosé: mythe de fondation et génie protecteur de Kaolack." IFAN (2007), p. 37
  23. ^ Kesteloot, Lilyan; Veirman, Anja; "Le mboosé: mythe de fondation et génie protecteur de Kaolack." IFAN (2007 - rep.), [in] Chrétien, Jean-Pierre; & Triaud, Jean-Louis; "Histoire d'Afrique: les enjeux de mémoire." Collection "Hommes et sociétés." Hommes et sociétés. KARTHALA Editions (1999), P. 83, ISBN 9782865379040 [6] (retrieved 29 March 2024)
  24. ^ Kesteloot, Lilyan, Veirman, Anja, "Le mboosé: mythe de fondation et génie protecteur de Kaolack", IFAN (2006), p 36
  25. ^ Gravrand, "Cosaan", p 200
  26. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "La Civilisation Sereer: Pangool." Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal (1990), p 284, ISBN 2-7236-1055-1
  27. ^ Ngom, Biram Éthiopiques (revue), numéro 54, nouvelle série, vol. 7, semestre 1991
  28. ^ Kesteloot, Lilyan, Dieux d'eau du Sahel : voyage à travers les mythes, de Seth à Tyamaba, L'Harmattan, Paris, ; IFAN, Dakar, 2007, p. 123 (ISBN 978-2-296-04384-8)
  29. ^ Galvan, Dennis Charles. "The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal." Berkeley, University of California Press (2004) pp 53, 185
  30. ^ a b Ngom, Biram (comprising notes of Babacar Sédikh Diouf): "La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin", Université de Dakar, Dakar (1987), pp. 13, 17
  31. ^ a b Gravrand, Henry, "Pangool." p. 16
  32. ^ a b Société française d'histoire d'outre-mer, "Revue francaise d'histoire d'outre-mer, Volume 68." 1982, pp. 382-3
  33. ^ a b c d (Babacar Sédikh Diouf) [in] Ngom, Biram, "La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin." Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1987, p 69 (p. 5-9 [in] Ngom)
  34. ^ Becker, Charles, Vestiges historiques, témoins matériels du passé dans les pays sereer, CNRS-ORSTOM, Dakar, 1993, p. 8
  35. ^ Ngom, Biram (comprising notes of Babacar Sédikh Diouf): "La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin", Université de Dakar, Dakar (1987), pp. 10-12 (PDF)
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  39. ^ a b Streissguth, Thomas, "Senegal in Pictures, Visual Geography." Second Series, Twenty-First Century Books (2009), p. 23, ISBN 1-57505-951-7
  40. ^ Oliver, Roland Anthony; Fage, J. D., "Journal of African history", Volume 10, Cambridge University Press (1969), p. 367,
  41. ^ Mwakikagile, Godfrey, "Ethnic Diversity and Integration in The Gambia: The Land, The People and The Culture," (2010), p. 11, ISBN 9987-9322-2-3
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  46. ^ a b Becker, Charles, "Vestiges historiques, témoins matériels du passé dans les pays sereer." CNRS-ORSTOM, Dakar, (1993), p. 2
  47. ^ a b Thiaw, Ibrahima, "From the Senegal River to Siin: The Archaeology of Sereer Migrations in North-Western Senegambia." p. 107 [in] "Migration and Membership Regimes in Global and Historical Perspective: An Introduction Studies in Global Migration History." Contributors: Bosma, Ulbe; Kessler, Gijs; & Lucassen, Leo. BRILL (2013), ISBN 9004251154
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  51. ^ a b c Galvan, Dennis Charles, The State Must Be Our Master of Fire: How Peasants Craft Culturally Sustainable Development in Senegal Berkeley, University of California Press, 2004 p.51
  52. ^ Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal. Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Stanford: Stanford University Press.[8] ISBN 978-0804706216 p.8
  53. ^ Van de Walle, Étienne (2006). African Households: Censuses And Surveys. M.E. Sharpe. p. 80. ISBN 978-0765616197.
  54. ^ Sarr, Alioune. "Histoire du Sine-Saloum." Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3–4, 1986–1987, p. 235, note 7 (PDF)
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  56. ^ Becker, Charles, "Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer". Dakar (1993). CNRS – ORS TO M
  57. ^ Gravrand, Henry, "Le Gabou dans les traditions orales du Ngabou." Éthiopiques 28 special issue No, socialist journal of Black African culture (1981)
  58. ^ Sarr, Alioune, Histoire du Sine-Saloum (Sénégal) Introduction, bibliographie et notes par Charles Becker. 1986–87, p 235
  59. ^ a b Institut fondamental d'Afrique noire, "Bulletin de L'Institut Fondamental D'Afrique Noire: Sciences humaines. Série B." IFAN (1972), p. 747
  60. ^ "Présence africaine, Issue 5." Editions du Seuil, p. 836
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  63. ^ a b Ngom, Biram : "La question Gelwaar et l’histoire du Siin", Université de Dakar, Dakar, 1987, p 69
  64. ^ a b c Diop, Cheikh Anta, & Modum, Egbuna P., "Towards the African renaissance: essays in African culture & development", 1946–1960, p. 28
  65. ^ Charles, Eunice A. Precolonial Senegal: the Jolof Kingdom, 1800–1890. African Studies Center, Boston University, 1977. p 3
  66. ^ Ham, Anthony. West Africa. Lonely Planet. 2009. p 670. (ISBN 1741048214)
  67. ^ a b Research in African literatures, Volume 37. University of Texas at Austin. African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas at Austin, p 8. African and Afro-American Studies and Research Center, University of Texas (at Austin) (2006)
  68. ^ Diouf, Niokhobaye. Chronique du royaume du Sine par suivie de Notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, 1972. p. 706
  69. ^ Diouf, Sylviane, Servants of Allah: African Muslims enslaved in the Americas (New York: New York University Press, 1998), 19
  70. ^ a b Charles, Eunice A., "Precolonial Senegal: The Jolof Kingdom, 1800–1890", Boston University, "African Studies Program, African Research Studies, Issues 12-14", (1977), p. 3
  71. ^ Yoro Diaw [in] Barry, Boubacar, "The Kingdom of Waalo: Senegal Before the Conquest", Diasporic Africa Press (2012), p. 19, ISBN 9780966020113 [9]
  72. ^ Suret-Canale, Jean, "Essays on African History: From the Slave Trade to Neocolonialism." C. Hurst & Co. Publishers (1988), p. 86, ISBN 9780905838434 - [10] (retrieved 11 April 2024)
  73. ^ Oliver, Roland; & Atmore, Anthony; "Africa since 1800." Cambridge University Press (2005), p. 77, ISBN 9781139443982
  74. ^ a b Kesteloot, Lilyan; Veirman, Anja (1999). "Un lieu de mémoire sans stèle et sans visite guidée : le culte du Mboose à Kaolack (Sénégal)". Histoire d'Afrique : les enjeux de mémoire (in French). Paris: Karthala. pp. 83–91. ISBN 978-2-86537-904-0.
  75. ^ Wright, Donald R., "Oral Traditions from the Gambia: Family elders." Ohio University Center for International Studies, Africa Program (1979), p. 48, ISBN 9780896800847
  76. ^ Beauclerk-Dewar, Peter de Vere; & Powell, Roger S., "Right Royal Bastards: The Fruits of Passion." Burke's Peerage & Gentry (2006), pp. xx - 2, ISBN 9780971196681 (the entire book is dedicated to the "royal bastards" of Europe).
  77. ^ Teixeira da Mota (1946: Pt. 1, p.58). For a detailed 16th-century Portuguese description of the Kingdom of Sine, see Almada (1594: Ch.2)
  78. ^ Boulègue, Jean. Le Grand Jolof, (XVIIIe – XVIe Siècle). (Paris, Edition Façades), Karthala (1987), p 16
  79. ^ a b c *
  80. ^ a b Sarr, Alioune, "Histoire du Sine-Saloum." Introduction, bibliographie et Notes par Charles Becker, BIFAN, Tome 46, Serie B, n° 3-4, 1986–1987. pp 37-39
  81. ^ Dispatch 175, March 23, 1863, CO 87/76, TNA, Kew. [in] Klein, Martin A., "Islam and Imperialism in Senegal, Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914," Edinburgh University Press (1968).
  82. ^ Sanneh, Lamin O., "Beyond Jihad: The Pacifist Tradition in West African Islam." Oxford University Press (2016), p. 206, ISBN 9780199351619 [11] (retrieved 12 April 2024)
  83. ^ Akyeampong, Emmanuel Kwaku; & Gates, Professor Henry Louis, Jr., "Dictionary of African Biography, Volumes 1-6." OUP USA (2012), p.p 323-4, ISBN 9780195382075 [12] (retrieved 12 April 2024)
  84. ^ Diouf, Niokhobaye. "Chronique du royaume du Sine." Suivie de notes sur les traditions orales et les sources écrites concernant le royaume du Sine par Charles Becker et Victor Martin. (1972). Bulletin de l'Ifan, Tome 34, Série B, n° 4, (1972). pp 727–729
  85. ^ Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal, Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Edinburgh University Press (1968). p. X
  86. ^ Seneweb, "Casamance : Le roi Niokhobaye Fatou Diène Diouf et le roi Sibiloumbaye Diédhiou cultivent la paix." By Absa Diongue (15 May 2023)[13] (retrieved: 27 March 2024)
  87. ^ a b Xibaaru, "Situation politique les chefs coutumiers banissent la violence." (24 February 2023) [14] (retrieved 12 April 2024)
  88. ^ Leral.net, "Guédel Mbodj et Thierno Ndaw intronisés: Un Saloum, deux Buur." (23 May 2017) [15] (retrieved 12 April 2017)
  89. ^ Klein, pp 134, 203–4
  90. ^ Sarr, pp 21–30
  91. ^ a b Klein, Martin A. Islam and Imperialism in Senegal, Sine-Saloum, 1847–1914, Edinburgh University Press (1968). p 12

References

[edit]
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