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Oceanic dispersal

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"Rafting event" redirects here. For using rafts as a sport or pleasure event, see Rafting.

Oceanic dispersal is a type of biological dispersal that occurs when organisms transfer from one land mass to another by way of a sea crossing. Often this occurs via large rafts of floating vegetation such as are sometimes seen floating down major rivers in the tropics and washing out to sea, occasionally with animals trapped on them.[1] Dispersal via such a raft is sometimes referred to as a "rafting event."

Colonization of land masses by plants can also occur via long-distance oceanic dispersal of floating seeds.[2]

History

Rafting has played an important role in the colonization by mammals of isolated land masses, such as Madagascar, which has been isolated for ~120 million years (Ma), and South America, which was isolated for much of the Cenozoic. Both land masses, for example, appear to have received their primates by this mechanism. According to genetic evidence, the common ancestor of the lemurs of Madagascar appears to have crossed the Mozambique Channel by rafting between 50 and 60 Ma ago.[3][4][5] Likewise, the New World monkeys are thought to have originated in Africa and rafted to South America by the Oligocene, when the continents were much closer than they are today.[4] Madagascar also appears to have received its tenrecs (25–42 Ma ago), nesomyid rodents (20–24 Ma ago) and euplerid carnivorans (19–26 Ma ago) by this route[5] and South America its caviomorph rodents (over 30 Ma ago).[6][7] Simian primates (ancestral to monkeys) and hystricognath rodents (ancestral to caviomorphs) are believed to have previously dispersed from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago.[8]

Among reptiles, several iguanid species in the South Pacific have been hypothesized to be descended from iguanas that rafted 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from Central or South America[9] (an alternative theory involves dispersal of a putative now-extinct iguana lineage from Australia or Asia[10]). Similarly, a number of clades of American geckos seem to have rafted over from Africa during both the Paleogene and Neogene.[11] Skinks of the related genera Mabuya and Trachylepis also apparently both floated across the Atlantic from Africa to South America and Fernando de Noronha, respectively, during the last 9 Ma.[12] Skinks from the same group have also rafted from Africa to Cape Verde, Madagascar, the Seychelles, the Comoros and Socotra.[12] (Among lizards, skinks and geckos seem especially capable of surviving long transoceanic journeys.[12]) Surprisingly, even burrowing amphisbaenians[13] and blind snakes[14] appear to have rafted from Africa to South America.

An example of a bird that is thought to have reached its present location by rafting is the weak-flying South American hoatzin, whose ancestors apparently floated over from Africa.[15]

Colonization of groups of islands can occur by an iterative rafting process sometimes called island hopping. Such a process appears to have played a role, for example, in the colonization of the Caribbean by mammals of South American origin (including caviomorphs and monkeys).[16]

However, oceanic dispersal of terrestrial species may not always take the form of rafting; in some cases, swimming or simply floating may suffice. Tortoises of the genus Chelonoidis arrived in South America from Africa in the Oligocene;[17] they were probably aided by their ability to float with their heads up, and to survive up to six months without food or fresh water.[17] South American tortoises then went on to colonize the West Indies and Galápagos Islands. The dispersal of anthracotheres from Asia to Africa about 40 Ma ago,[8] and the much more recent dispersal of hippos (descendants of anthracotheres) from Africa to Madagascar may have occurred by floating or swimming.[5]

Observation

The first documented example of colonization of a land mass by rafting occurred in the aftermath of Hurricane Luis and Hurricane Marilyn in the Caribbean in 1995. A raft of uprooted trees carrying fifteen or more green iguanas was observed by fishermen landing on the east side of Anguilla – an island where the iguanas had never been recorded before.[18] The green iguanas had apparently been caught on the trees and rafted two hundred miles across the ocean from Guadeloupe, where they are indigenous.[19][20] Examination of the weather patterns and ocean currents indicated that the iguanas had probably spent three weeks at sea before arriving on Anguilla.[20] This colony began breeding on the new island within two years of its arrival.[20]

See also

References

  1. ^ Mittermeier, R.A.; et al. (2006). Lemurs of Madagascar (2nd ed.). Conservation International. pp. 24–26. ISBN 1-881173-88-7.
  2. ^ Won, H., and S. S. Renner. 2006. Dating dispersal and radiation in the gymnosperm Gnetum (Gnetales) – clock calibration when outgroup relationships are uncertain. Systematic Biology 55(4): 610-622. doi:10.1080/10635150600812619
  3. ^ Roos, Christian; Schmitz, Jürgen; Zischler, Hans (July 2004). "Primate jumping genes elucidate strepsirrhine phylogeny" (PDF). PNAS. 101 (29): 10650–10654. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10110650R. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403852101. PMC 489989. PMID 15249661.
  4. ^ a b Sellers, Bill (2000-10-20). "Primate Evolution" (PDF). University of Edinburgh. pp. 13–17. Retrieved 2008-10-23.
  5. ^ a b c Ali, J. R.; Huber, M. (2010-01-20). "Mammalian biodiversity on Madagascar controlled by ocean currents". Nature. 463 (4 Feb. 2010). Nature Publishing Group: 653–656. Bibcode:2010Natur.463..653A. doi:10.1038/nature08706. PMID 20090678. Retrieved 2010-01-20.
  6. ^ Flynn, J. J.; Wyss, A. R. (1998). "Recent advances in South American mammalian paleontology". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 13 (11): 449–454. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01457-8. PMID 21238387.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ Flynn, John J.; Wyss, André R.; Charrier, Reynaldo (2007). "South America's Missing Mammals". Scientific American (May): 68–75.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ a b Chaimanee, Y.; Chavasseau, O.; Beard, K. C.; Kyaw, A. A.; Soe, A. N.; Sein, C.; Lazzari, V.; Marivaux, L.; Marandat, B.; Swe, M.; Rugbumrung, M.; Lwin, T.; Valentin, X.; Zin-Maung-Maung-Thein; Jaeger, J. -J. (2012). "Late Middle Eocene primate from Myanmar and the initial anthropoid colonization of Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (26): 10293. doi:10.1073/pnas.1200644109. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
  9. ^ Gibbons, J. R. H. (Jul 31, 1981). "The Biogeography of Brachylophus (Iguanidae) including the Description of a New Species, B. vitiensis, from Fiji". Journal of Herpetology. 15 (3). Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles: 255–273. doi:10.2307/1563429. JSTOR 1563429. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  10. ^ Noonan, B.P.; Sites, J. W., Jr. (2009-11-24). "Tracing the origins of iguanid lizards and boine snakes of the Pacific". The American Naturalist. 175 (1). University of Chicago Press: 61–72. doi:10.1086/648607. PMID 19929634. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Gamble, T.; Bauer, A. M.; Colli, G. R.; Greenbaum, E.; Jackman, T. R.; Vitt, L. J.; Simons, A. M. (2010-12-03). "Coming to America: Multiple origins of New World geckos" (PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 24 (2): 231–244. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02184.x. PMC 3075428. PMID 21126276.
  12. ^ a b c Carranza, S.; Arnold, N. E. (2003-08-05). "Investigating the origin of transoceanic distributions: mtDNA shows Mabuya lizards (Reptilia, Scincidae) crossed the Atlantic twice". Systematics and Biodiversity. 1 (2). Cambridge University Press: 275–282. doi:10.1017/S1477200003001099. Retrieved 2008-04-04.
  13. ^ Vidal, N.; Azvolinsky, A.; Cruaud, C.; Hedges, S. B. (2007-12-11). "Origin of tropical American burrowing reptiles by transatlantic rafting". Biology Letters. 4 (1): 115–118. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0531. PMC 2412945. PMID 18077239.
  14. ^ Vidal, N.; Marin, J.; Morini, M.; Donnellan, S.; Branch, W. R.; Thomas, R.; Vences, M.; Wynn, A.; Cruaud, C.; Hedges, S. B. (2010-03-31). "Blindsnake evolutionary tree reveals long history on Gondwana". Biology Letters. 6 (4): 558–561. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2010.0220.
  15. ^ Mayr, G.; Alvarenga, H.; Mourer-Chauviré, C. C. (2011-10-01). "Out of Africa: Fossils shed light on the origin of the hoatzin, an iconic Neotropic bird". Naturwissenschaften. 98 (11): 961–966. doi:10.1007/s00114-011-0849-1. PMID 21964974.
  16. ^ Hedges, S. Blair (2006-08-23). "Paleogeography of the Antilles and Origin of West Indian Terrestrial Vertebrates1". Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. 93 (2): 231–244. doi:10.3417/0026-6493(2006)93[231:POTAAO]2.0.CO;2.
  17. ^ a b Le, M.; Raxworthy, C. J.; McCord, W. P.; Mertz, L. (2006-05-05). "A molecular phylogeny of tortoises (Testudines: Testudinidae) based on mitochondrial and nuclear genes". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 40 (2): 517–531. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.03.003. PMID 16678445.
  18. ^ Lawrence, E. (1998-10-15). "Iguanas ride the waves". Nature. doi:10.1038/news981015-3.
  19. ^ Censky, E. J.; Hodge, K.; Dudley, J. (1998-10-08). "Over-water dispersal of lizards due to hurricanes". Nature. 395 (6702): 556. doi:10.1038/26886.
  20. ^ a b c Yoon, C. K. (1998-10-08). "Hapless iguanas float away and voyage grips biologists". The New York Times.

Further reading

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