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The largest prehistoric organisms include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is mostly conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic^[1] and biomechanical constraints.^[2]

Vertebrates

Mammals (Mammalia)

Monotremes (Monotremata)

The largest-known monotreme (egg-laying mammal) ever was the extinct long-beaked echidna species known as Zaglossus hacketti, known from a couple of bones found in Western Australia. It was the size of a sheep, weighing probably up to 30 kg (66 lb).^[3]

Metatherians (Metatheria)

The largest-known marsupial, and the largest metatherian, is the extinct Diprotodon, about 3 m (9.8 ft) long, standing 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall and weighing up to 2,786 kg (6,142 lb).^[4] Fellow vombatiform Palorchestes azael was similar in length being around 2.5 m (8.2 ft), with body mass estimates indicating it could exceed 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).^[5]
The largest-known carnivorous marsupial was Thylacoleo carnifex. Measurements taken from a number of specimens show they averaged 101 to 164 kg (223 to 362 lb) in weight.^[6]
The largest-known kangaroo was Procoptodon, which could grow up to 2 m (6.6 ft) and weigh 230 kg (510 lb).^[7] Some species from the genus Sthenurus were similar in size as well.^{[citation needed]}
The largest non-marsupial metahtherian was Thylacosmilus, weigh between 80 to 120 kilograms (180 to 260 lb). Borhyaena and Proborhyaena were also comparable.^{[citation needed]}

Terrestrial even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)

The largest-known land-dwelling artiodactyl was Hippopotamus gorgops with a length of 4.3 m (14 ft) and a height of 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in).^{[citation needed]} Bison latifrons reached a shoulder height of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in), and had horns that spanned over 2 m (6 ft 7 in).^{[citation needed]} Pelorovis also reached 2 t (2.0 long tons; 2.2 short tons) in weight.^{[citation needed]} Aside from local populations and subspecies of extant species, such as the gaur population in Sri Lanka, European bison in British Isles, Caucasian wisent and Carpathian wisent, the largest, modern extinct bovid is aurochs (Bos primigenius) with an average height at the shoulders of 155–180 cm (61–71 in) in bulls and 135–155 cm (53–61 in) in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching 155–160 cm (61–63 in).^[8] The kouprey, reaching 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) is also considered to be possibly extinct.^{[citation needed]}
The largest-known camel that ever lived was the Syrian camel.^{[citation needed]} It was 3 m (9.8 ft) at the shoulder and 4.0 m (13 ft) tall.^{[citation needed]} Titanotylopus from North America possibly reached 2,485.6 kg (5,480 lb) and a shoulder height of over 3.4 m (11 ft).^[9]^[10]
The largest known ruminant, aside from the extant giraffe, is Sivatherium, with a body weight of 1,250 kg (2,760 lb).^{[citation needed]}
Daeodon and similar in size and morphology Paraentelodon^[11] were the largest-known entelodonts that ever lived, at 3.7 m (12 ft) long and 1.77 m (5.8 ft) high at the shoulder.^[12]
The largest-known wild suid to ever exist was Kubanochoerus gigas, having measured up to 550 kg (1,210 lb) and stood more than 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) tall at the shoulder.^[13]
The extinct Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) and the stag-moose (Cervalces scotti) were of similar size to the Alaskan moose. However, the Irish elk could have antlers spanning up to 4.3 m (14 ft) across, about twice the maximum span for a moose's antlers.^[14] Cervalces latifrons was twice as heavy as the Irish elk but its antlers were smaller.^[15]

Cetaceans (Cetacea)

Certain rorquals from the Pliocene possibly rivaled the size of modern blue whales.^[16]
The largest prehistoric sperm whale, or toothed whale was Livyatan melvillei weighing in at about 57 tonnes (63 short tons).^[17]^[18]
The largest of the archeocete whales was Basilosaurus at 17–20 m (56–66 ft) in length.^{[citation needed]}

Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)

The largest-known perissodactyl, and the second largest land mammal (see Palaeoloxodon namadicus) of all time was the hornless rhino Paraceratherium. The largest individual known was estimated at 4.8 m (15.7 ft) tall at the shoulders, 7.4 m (24.3 ft) in length from nose to rump, and 17 t (18.7 short tons) in weight.^[19]^[20]
Some prehistoric horned rhinos also grew to large sizes. The giant woolly rhino Elasmotherium reached 6 m (20 ft) long and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) high.^{[citation needed]}
The largest prehistoric horse was Equus giganteus of North America. It was estimated to grow to more than 1,250 kg (1.38 short tons) and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at the shoulders.^[21]
The giant tapir Tapirus augustus was the largest tapir ever, at about 1,100 lbs (500 kg), 2.1 metres (6.9 ft) long and 0.9 metres (3.0 ft) tall at the shoulders to 3.5 metres (11 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

Carnivores (Carnivora)

The largest terrestrial known carnivoran and the largest-known bear, as well as the largest-known mammalian land-predator of all time, was Arctotherium angustidens, the South American short-faced bear. A humerus of A. angustidens from Buenos Aires indicates that the males of the species could have weighed 1,588–1,749 kg (3,501–3,856 lb) and stood at least 3.4 m (11 ft) tall on their hind-limbs.^[22]^[23]
The largest viverrid known to have existed is Viverra leakeyi, which was around the size of a wolf or small leopard at 41 kg (90 lb).^[24]
The heaviest known felids are the Ngangdong tiger (Panthera tigris soloensis), which are estimated to have weighed up to weighing up to 480 kg (1,060 lb),^[25] the American lion (Panthera atrox), weighing up to 363 kg (800 lb)^[26]^[27] and saber-toothed cats Amphimachairodus kabir and Smilodon populator, with the males possibly reaching 350–490 kg (770–1,080 lb) and 220–400 kg (490–880 lb) respectively.^[28]^[29]
The largest known wolf species is the dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) in length and weighed between 50 and 110 kg (110 and 243 lb).^[28]^[30] The largest canid of all time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood 0.94 m (37 in) tall at the shoulder. The largest bear-dog was a species of Pseudocyon weighing around 773 kg (1,704 lb), representing a very large individual.^[31]
The largest-known mustelid to ever exist was likely the giant otter, Enhydriodon. It exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, and would have weighed in at around 200 kg (440 lb), much larger than any other known mustelid, living or extinct.^[32]^[33] There were other giant otters, like Siamogale, at around 50 kg (110 lb)^[34] and Megalenhydris, which was larger than a modern-day giant river otter.^[35] Another large-bodied mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from Africa, about the size of a leopard and filling a similar ecological niche before big cats came to the continent.^{[citation needed]} Megalictis was thought to be around the size of a black bear according to old estimates. Newer estimates, however, significantly downgrade its size, although, at a maximum weight more than twice that of a wolverine, it is larger than most (if not all) living mustelids.^{[citation needed]}
The largest known fossil hyena is Pachycrocuta, estimated at 190 kg (420 lb).^[28] The closely related percrocutid feliform, Dinocrocuta, was even bigger, 300 kg (660 lb).^[36]

Armadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata)

The largest cingulate known is Doedicurus, at 3.8 m (12 ft) long and reaching a mass of approximately 1,910 to 2,370 kg (2.11 to 2.61 short tons).^{[citation needed]} Glyptodon easily topped 3.3 m (11 ft) and 2 t (2.2 short tons).^{[citation needed]}

Hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Erinaceomorpha and Soricomorpha)

The largest-known animal of the Erinaceomorpha and Soricomorpha groups was Deinogalerix,^[37] measuring up to 60 cm (24 in) in total length, with a skull up to 20 cm (7.9 in) long.

Rabbits, hares, and pikas (Lagomorpha)

The largest-known prehistoric lagomorph is Minorcan giant lagomorph (Nuralagus rex) at 23 kg (51 lb).^{[citation needed]}

One of the largest land mammals of all time was *Paraceratherium*

Anteaters and sloths (Pilosa)

The largest-known pilosan ever was Megatherium, a ground sloth with an estimated average weight of 3.8 t (4.2 short tons)^[38] and a height of 6 m (20 ft)^[38] which is close to the size of the African bush elephant. Several other sloths grew to large sizes as well, such as Eremotherium, but none as large as Megatherium.

Primates (Primates)

The largest-known primate of all time was Gigantopithecus blackii, standing 3 m (9.8 ft) tall and weighing 540 kg (1,200 lb).^[39]^[40]
The largest-known Old World monkey is the prehistoric baboon, with a male specimen of Dinopithecus projected to weigh an average of 46 kg (101 lb) and up to 57 kg (125 lb).^[41] It exceeds the maximum weight record of the chacma baboon, the largest extant baboon. One source projects a specimen of Theropithecus oswaldi to have weighed 72 kg (158 lb).^[42]
The largest-known New World monkey was Protopithecus, weighing up to 23 kg (50 lb).^{[citation needed]}
Some prehistoric prosimians grew to huge sizes as well. Archaeoindris was a 1.5-metre-long (4.9 ft) lemur that lived in Madagascar and weighed 200 kg (440 lb), as large as a silverback gorilla.^{[citation needed]} Megaladapis is another large extinct lemur at 1.3 to 1.5 m (4 ft 3 in to 4 ft 11 in) in length.^{[citation needed]}

Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)

The largest-known land mammal ever was a proboscidean called Palaeoloxodon namadicus which weighed about 22 t (24.3 short tons) and measured about 5.2 m (17.1 ft) tall at the shoulder.^[19] The largest individuals of the steppe mammoth of Eurasia (Mammuthus trogontherii) estimated to reach 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at the shoulders and 14.3 t (15.8 short tons) in weight.^[19]^[43]
Some other enormous proboscideans include the southern mammoth (Mammuthus meridionalis), the Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi),^{[citation needed]} and Deinotherium.

Rodents (Rodentia)

Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest-known rodent of all time, approximately 3 m (9.8 ft) long and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall and weighing an estimated 1 t (1.1 short tons).^[44]
Before the discovery of Josephoartigasia monesi, another giant rodent was known, Phoberomys insolita, but it was known from only a few fragments, so its real size is unknown.^{[citation needed]} A slightly smaller relative, Phoberomys pattersoni, was found, which was 3 m (9.8 ft) long and weighed 320 kg (700 lb).^{[citation needed]}
The largest beaver was the giant beaver of North America. It grew over 2.4 m (8 ft) in length and weighed roughly 60 to 100 kg (130 to 220 lb), also making it one of the largest rodents to ever exist.^{[citation needed]}

Astrapotherians (Astrapotheria)

Some of the largest-known astrapotherians weighed about 3–4 t (3.3–4.4 short tons), including the genus Granastrapotherium^[45] and some species of Parastrapotherium (P. martiale).^[46] The skeleton remains suggests that the species Hilarcotherium miyou was even larger, with a weight of 6.456 t (7.117 short tons).^[47]

Arsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae)

The largest-known arsinoithere was Arsinoitherium. When alive, it would have been 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulders, and 3 m (9.8 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

Condylarths (Condylarthra)

The largest-known condylarth is Phenacodus. It was 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) long and weighted up to 56 kg (123 lb).^{[citation needed]}

Dinoceratans (Dinocerata)

The largest-known dinoceratan was Uintatherium.^{[citation needed]} It was about the size of a rhinoceros.^{[clarification needed]} Despite its large size, it had a brain only about as large as an orange.^{[citation needed]}

Desmostylians (Desmostylia)

The largest-known desmostylian was a species of Desmostylus, with skull length of 81.8 cm (32.2 in) and comparable in size to the Steller's sea cow.^[48]

Paleoparadoxia is also known as one of the largest desmostylians, with body length of 3.03 m (9.9 ft).^[49]

Litopterns (Litopterna)

The largest-known litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around 3 m (9.8 ft).^[50]

Notoungulates (Notoungulata)

The largest notoungulate known of complete remains is Toxodon. It was about 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) in body length, and about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) high at the shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros. Although is not complete, the preserved fossils suggests that Mixotoxodon were the most massive member of the group, with a weight about 3.8 t (4.2 short tons).^[51]

Oxyaenids (Oxyaenidae)

The largest-known oxyaenid was Sarkastodon weighing in at 800 kg (1,800 lb).^[52]

Hyaenodontids (Hyaenodontidae)

The largest hyaenodontid was Simbakubwa at 1,500 kg (3,300 lbs).^{[citation needed]}

Mesonychids (Mesonychia)

The largest mesonychid was Mongolonyx robustus. This predator would have been 1.3–1.4 m (4 ft 3 in – 4 ft 7 in) tall at the shoulders and 2.7–2.8 m (8 ft 10 in – 9 ft 2 in) long.^{[citation needed]}

Non-placental eutherians

The largest-known cimolestid is Coryphodon, 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high at the shoulder and 2.25 m (7 ft 5 in) long.^{[citation needed]}

Multituberculates (Multituberculata)

The largest multituberculates Taeniolabis taoensis is the largest non-therian mammal known, at a weight possibly exceeding 100 kg.^[53]

Non-mammal synapsids (Synapsida)

Pelycosaurs

The herbivorous Cotylorhynchus hancocki was the largest of the pelycosaurs and the largest amniote to have lived at the time, with an estimated length and weight of at least 6 m (20 ft) and 500 kg (1,100 lb).^[54]^[55] The biggest carnivorous pelycosaur was Dimetrodon angelensis, which could reach 4.6 m (15 ft) and 250 kg (550 lb). The largest members of the genus Dimetrodon was also the world's first fully terrestrial apex predators.^[56]

Therapsids

The plant-eating dicynodont Lisowicia bojani is the largest-known of all non-mammal synapsids, at 4.5 m (15 ft) and 9,000 kg (20,000 lb).^[57]^[58]^[59] Among the largest carnivorous synapsids was the therapsid Anteosaurus, which was 5–6 m (16–20 ft) long, and weighed 500–600 kg (1,100–1,300 lb).^[60]^[61]

Reptiles (Reptilia)

Crocodiles and relatives (Crocodylomorpha)

The largest-known crocodylomorph is likely Sarcosuchus imperator at 12 m (39 ft) long and weighing 8 t (8.8 short tons).^[62]
Some close contenders in size are Deinosuchus estimated at around 12 m (39 ft),^[63] and Purussaurus estimated at 11–13 m (36–43 ft) in length.^[64] Another large crocodilian is Rhamphosuchus, estimated at 8–11 m (26–36 ft) in length.^[65]
The largest terrestrial sebecid crocodylomorph is Barinasuchus, from the Miocene of South America, which reached 9 m (30 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}
The largest-known rauisuchian is Fasolasuchus tenax, which measured an estimated 8–10 metres.^{[citation needed]} It is both the largest rauisuchian known to science, and the largest non-dinosaurian terrestrial predator ever discovered.^{[citation needed]}

Lizards and snakes (Squamata)

Giant mosasaurs are the largest-known animals within the Squamata. The largest-known mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at 17.6 m (58 ft) in length.^[66] Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at 10–14 m (33–46 ft) in length.^[67]^[68] Another large mosasaur is Hainosaurus bernardi (could be synonymous to Tylosaurus). It was once estimated at 17 and 15 m (56 and 49 ft) in length,^[69]^[70] but later estimates put it at around 12.2 m (40 ft).^[71]
The largest-known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at 12.8 m (42 ft) in length and 1,135 kg (2,502 lb) in weight.^[72] Another known very large fossil snake is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at around 9.3–10.7 m (31–35 ft) in length.^[73]^[74] A close rival in size to Gigantophis is a fossil snake, Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around 9 m (30 ft) in length.^[72]^[75]^[76] Later studies speculate that it reached a maximum length of 12.3 m (40 ft).^[77]
The largest-known land lizard is probably Megalania at 7 m (23 ft) in length.^[78] However, maximum size of this animal is subject to debate.^[79]

Plesiosaurs

Plesiosauroids (Plesiosauroidea)

The longest known plesiosauroid was Styxosaurus at 12 m (39 ft) long.^{[citation needed]} Other elasmosaurs, such as Albertonectes and Thalassomedon, rivaled the aforementioned Styxosaurus in size.^{[citation needed]}

Pliosauroids (Pliosauroidea)

There is much controversy over the largest-known of the Pliosauroidea. Fossil remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as "Predator X" have been discovered and excavated from Norway in 2008. This pliosaur has been estimated at 15 m (49 ft) in length and 45 t (50 short tons) in weight.^[80]^[81] However, in 2002, a team of paleontologists in Mexico discovered the remains of a pliosaur nicknamed as "Monster of Aramberri", which is also estimated at 15 m (49 ft) in length.^[82] This species is, however, claimed to be a juvenile and has been attacked by a larger pliosaur.^[83] Some media sources claimed that Monster of Aramberri was a Liopleurodon but its species is unconfirmed thus far.^[82] Another very large pliosaur was Pliosaurus macromerus, known from a single 2.8-metre-long (9.2 ft) incomplete mandible. It may have reached 18 m (59 ft), assuming the skull was about 17% of the total body length.^[84]

Ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria)

The largest-known ichthyosaur was Shastasaurus sikanniensis at 21 m (69 ft) in length.^[85] In April 2018, paleontologists announced the discovery of a previously unknown ichthyosaur that may have reached lengths of 26 m (85 ft) making it one of the largest animals known, rivaling some blue whales in size. Another, larger ichthyosaur was found in 1850 in Aust, Gloucestershire, being noted in the same paper. Its remains seemed to surpass the measurements of the other ichthyosaur, but the researchers commented that the remains were too fragmentary for a size estimate to be made.^[86]

Turtles and tortoises (Testudines)

The largest-known turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at 4 m (13 ft) long, 4.9 m (16 ft) wide and 2,200 kg (4,900 lb). The second largest turtle of all time was the fresh-water turtle, Stupendemys, with an estimated total carapace length of more than 3.3 m (11 ft) and weight of up to 1,814–2,268 kg (3,999–5,000 lb).^[87] Afterwards, the next largest turtle, and second-largest sea-turtle was Protostega at 3 m (9.8 ft).^[88]^[89] Carbonemys cofrinii had a shell that measured about 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in) and was estimated to weigh 916 kg (2,019 lb).^[90]^[91]^[92]
Two tortoises share the title of largest-known ever tortoise: Meiolania at 2.4 m (8 ft) long and well over 0.91 t (1 short ton), and Megalochelys at 2.4 to 2.7 m (8 to 9 ft)^{[citation needed]}and weighing over 450 kg (0.5 short tons).

Cotylosaurs (Captorhinidae)

The heavy built Moradisaurus grandis, with a length of 2 m (6 ft 7 in),^[93] is the largest known captorhinid.^[94]

Pareiasaurs (Pareiasauridae)

The largest-known pareiasaur is Scutosaurus, up to 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, with bony armor, and a number of spikes decorating its skull.^{[citation needed]}

Phytosaurs (Phytosauria)

Some of the largest-known phytosaurs include Redondasaurus with a length of 6.4 meters and Smilosuchus with a size of 6.8 meters.^{[citation needed]}

Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)

The largest-known pterosaur was Quetzalcoatlus northropi, at 127 kg (280 lb) and with a wingspan of 12 m (39 ft). Another close contender is Hatzegopteryx, also with a wingspan of 12 m (39 ft). This estimate is based on a skull 3 m (9.8 ft) long.^[95]
Yet another possible contender for the title is Arambourgiania which also had a 12-metre (39 ft) wingspan.^{[citation needed]}

Non-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)

Sauropods (Sauropoda)

A mega-sauropod, Maraapunisaurus fragillimus, is a contender for the largest-known dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at 58 m (190 ft) in length and 122,400 kg (269,800 lb) in weight.^[96] Unfortunately, the fossil remains of this dinosaur have been lost.^[96] More recently, it was estimated at 30.3–32 m (99–105 ft) in length.^[97]
Barosaurus lentus may have been the largest sauropod and largest dinosaur yet discovered. Originally thought to reach only 27 m (89 ft), a massive cervical vertebra has been recently attributed to this species, suggesting maximum length of 50 m (160 ft) and masses of up to 100 t (110 short tons).^[98]
Other huge sauropods include Argentinosaurus, Alamosaurus, and Puertasaurus with estimated lengths of 30–33 m (98–108 ft) and weights of 50–80 t (55–88 short tons).^[99] Patagotitan was estimated at 37 m (121 ft) in length and 69 t (76 short tons) in mass,^[100] and was similar in size to Argentinosaurus and Puertasaurus.^[101] Giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not weight.^[96]
Supersaurus may have been the longest dinosaur yet discovered as a study of 3 specimens suggested length of 39 m (128 ft) to 42 m (138 ft) or more.^[102]

Many large sauropods are still unnamed and may rival the current record holders.

The "Archbishop", a large brachiosaur that was discovered in 1930. The animal was reported to get a scientific paper published by the end of 2016.^[103]
Brachiosaurus nougaredi is yet another large brachiosaur from Early Cretaceous North Africa. The remains have been lost, but the sacrum drawing remains. They suggest a sacrum of almost 5 ft (2 m) long, making it the largest dinosaur sacrum discovered so far.^{[citation needed]}
In 2010, the femur of a large sauropod was discovered in France. The femur suggests an animal that grew to immense sizes.^[104]

Non-avian theropods (Theropoda)

The largest theropod as well as the largest terrestrial (or possibly semi-aquatic)^[105] predator yet known is Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, with the largest specimen known estimated at 12.6–18 m (41–59 ft) in length and around 7–20.9 t (8–23 short tons) in weight.^[106]^[107] New estimates published in 2014 and 2018, based on a more complete specimen, supported the earlier research, finding that Spinosaurus could reach lengths of 15 to 16 meters (49 to 52 ft).^[108]^[109]^[110] The latest estimates suggest a weight of 6.4 to 7.5 metric tons (7.1 to 8.3 short tons).^[109]^[110]
Other large theropods were Giganotosaurus carolinii, and Tyrannosaurus rex, whose largest specimens known estimated at 13.2 m (43 ft)^[111] and 12.3 m (40 ft)^[112] in length, respectively. Some other notable giant theropods (e.g. Carcharodontosaurus, Acrocanthosaurus, and Mapusaurus) may also have rivaled them in size.

Armoured dinosaurs (Thyreophora)

The largest-known thyreophoran was Ankylosaurus at 9 m (30 ft) in length and 6 t (6.6 short tons) in weight.^[113]^[114] Stegosaurus was also 9 m (30 ft) long but around 5 t (5.5 short tons) tonnes in weight.^{[citation needed]}

Pachycephalosaurs (Pachycephalosauria)

The largest pachycephalosaur was the nominate Pachycephalosaurus, with a body length of about 4.5 metres (14.8 ft) long and a weight of about 450 kilograms (990 lb).^[115]

Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia)

The largest ceratopsian known is Triceratops horridus, along with the closely related Eotriceratops xerinsularis both with estimated lengths of 9 m (30 ft). Ojoceratops and several other ceratopsians rival them in size.^[116]

Ornithopods (Ornithopoda)

The very largest-known ornithopods, like Shantungosaurus were as heavy as medium-sized sauropods at up to 23 t (25 short tons),^[117]^[118] and 18.7 m (61 ft) in length.^[117]

Birds (Aves)

The largest-known birds of all time might have been the elephant birds of Madagascar. Of almost the same size was the Australian Dromornis stirtoni. Both were about 3 m (9.8 ft) tall.^{[citation needed]} The elephant birds were up to 400 kg (880 lb) and Dromornis stirtoni was up to 500 kg (1,100 lb) in weight.^{[citation needed]} The tallest bird ever was the giant moa at 3.6 m (12 ft) tall.^{[citation needed]}

The widest-known wingspan of any flight-capable bird was Pelagornis sandersi with a wingspan of 7.3 m (24 ft), and a body weight of 21.7 kg (48 lb). The heaviest flight-capable bird was the giant teratorn, Argentavis magnificens which had a somewhat-smaller wingspan at around 4.5 meters but was far heavier, with accepted maximums around 70–72 kg.^[119]

Waterfowl (Anseriformes)

The largest-known waterfowl of all time belonged to the Dromornithidae (e.g. Dromornis stirtoni).^[120]

Shorebirds (Charadriifromers)

Miomancalla howardi was the largest charadriiform of all time, weighing approximately 1.5 ft (0.46 m)(?) more than the Great Auk with a height of approximately 1 m (3.3 ft).^[121]

Storks and allies (Ciconiiformes)

The largest-known of Ciconiiformes was Leptoptilos robustus, standing 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall and weighing an estimated 16 kg (35 lb).^[122]^[123]

Hesperornithines (Hesperornithes)

The largest-known of the hesperornithines was Canadaga arctica at 1.5 m (5 ft) long.

Gastornid (Gastornithiformes)

Individuals of Gastornis averaged 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in) in height, with large individuals up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall.^{[citation needed]}

Teratorns (Teratornithidae)

The largest-known teratorn and the heaviest flying bird ever was Argentavis.^{[citation needed]} The immense bird had a wingspan estimated up to 6.4 m (21 ft) and a weight up to 68 kg (150 lb).^{[citation needed]} It could grow as tall as an adult human when standing.^{[citation needed]}

Phorusrhacids (Phorusrhacidae)

The largest-known-ever Cariamiforme and largest phorusrhacid or "terror bird" (highly predatory, flightless birds of South America) was Brontornis, which was about 175 cm (69 in) tall at the shoulder, could raise its head 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) above the ground and could have weighed as much as 400 kg (880 lb).^[124] The immense phorusrhacid Kelenken stood 3–3.2 m (9.8–10.5 ft) tall with a skull 710 mm (28 in) long (460 mm [18 in] of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird. The largest North American phorusrhacid is Titanis, which is about 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) tall, as tall as a forest elephant.

Accipitriforms (Accipitriformes)

The largest-known bird of prey ever was the enormous Haast's eagle (Hieraaetus moorei), with a wingspan of 2.6 to 3 m (8 ft 6 in to 9 ft 10 in), relatively short for their size. Total length was probably up to 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) in female and they weighed about 10 to 15 kg (22 to 33 lb). The largest extinct Titanohierax was a giant hawk about 8 kilograms that lived in the Antilles, where it was among the top predators.

Pigeons and Doves (Columbiformes)

The largest pigeon relative known was the dodo (Raphus cucullatus), possibly exceeding 1 m (3.3 ft) in height and weighing as much as 28 kg (62 lb), although recent estimates have indicated that an average wild dodo weighed much less at approximately 10.2 kg (22 lb).^[125]^[126]

Gamebirds (Galliformes)

The largest-known of the Galliformes was likely the giant malleefowl, which could reach 7 kg in weight.^[127]

Songbirds (Passeriformes)

The largest-known songbird is the extinct giant grosbeak (Chloridops regiskongi) at 280 mm (11 in) long.^{[citation needed]}

Cormorants and allies (Pelecaniformes)

The largest-known cormorant was the spectacled cormorant of the North Pacific (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus), which became extinct around 1850 and averaged around 6.4 kg (14 lb) and 1.15 m (3 ft 9 in).^[128]

Grebes (Podicipediformes)

The largest known grebe, the Atitlán grebe (Podylimbus gigas), reached a length of about 46–50 centimetres (18–20 in).^[129]

Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)

The largest-known of the Odontopterygiformes—a group which has been variously allied with Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes—and the largest flying birds of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Pelagornis, Cyphornis, Dasornis, Gigantornis and Osteodontornis.^{[citation needed]} They had a wingspan of 5.5–6 m (18–20 ft) and stood about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tall.^{[citation needed]} Exact size estimates and judging which one was largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete remains.^{[citation needed]}

Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes)

The largest-known woodpecker is the possibly extinct imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about 560 mm (22 in).^{[citation needed]}

Parrots (Psittaciformes)

The largest-known parrot is the extinct Heracles inexpectatus with a length of about 1 meter (3.3 feet).^[130]

Penguins (Sphenisciformes)

The largest-known penguin of all time was Palaeeudyptes klekowskii of Antarctica, its body length (tip of the bill to tip of the tail) is estimated about 2.02 m (6 ft 8 in) and body weight is estimated about 116.21 kg (256.2 lb).^[131] Another large penguin is Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi of New Zealand and Antarctica. Its body length is estimated 1.99 m (6 ft 6 in) and was 97.8 kg (216 lb) in weight. There is also an estimate that one remain of Anthropornis can reach that body length of 2.05 m (6 ft 9 in) and 108 kg (238 lb) in weight.^[132] Similar in size were the New Zealand giant penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) with a height of 1.4 to 1.6 m (4 ft 7 in to 5 ft 3 in) and weighing possibly around 80 to 100 kg (180 to 220 lb) and over, and Icadyptes salasi at 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall.

Owls (Strigiformes)

The largest-known owl of all time was the Cuban Ornimegalonyx at 1,100 mm (43.3 in) tall probably exceeding 9 kg (20 lb).^[133]

Ratites (Struthioniformes)

The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant birds (Vorombe/Aepyornis) of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in height and 500 kg (1,100 lb) in weight.^[134] The tallest known bird was the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), part of the moa family of New Zealand that went extinct about 500 years ago. It stood up to 3.7 m (12 ft) tall,^[135] and weighed approximately half as much as a large elephant bird due to its comparatively slender frame.^[134]

Amphibians (Amphibia)

The largest-known amphibian of all time was the 9.1 m (30 ft) long temnospondyli Prionosuchus.^{[citation needed]} Another huge temnospondyli was Koolasuchus at 4.9 m (16 ft) long, but only 0.30 m (1 ft) high.^{[citation needed]}

Frogs (Anura)

The largest-known frog ever was an as yet unnamed species that was about 58–59-centimetre-long (22.8–23.2 in).^[136]

Diadectomorpha

The largest-known diacectid, Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, 1.5 to 3 m (4 ft 11 in to 9 ft 10 in) long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.^{[citation needed]}

Anthracosauria

The largest-known anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, a predator. It could reach up to 3.7 m (12 ft) in length. Eogyrinus commonly reached 4.6 m (15 ft); however, it was more lightly built.^[137]

Temnospondyli

The largest-known temnospondyl amphibian is Prionosuchus, which grew to lengths of 9 m (30 ft).^[138]

Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)

The largest-known lobe-finned fish was the 6–7 m (20–23 ft) long Rhizodus.^{[citation needed]} It was also the largest freshwater fish ever known.^{[citation needed]}

Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)

The largest-known ray-finned fish and largest bony fish of all time was the pachycormid, Leedsichthys problematicus, at around 16.5 m (54 ft) long.^[139] Claims of larger individuals persist.^{[citation needed]}

Ichthyodectiformes (Ichthyodectiformes)

The largest-known of ichthyodectiform fish was Xiphactinus, which measured 6.0 m (20 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)

Mackerel sharks (Lamniformes)

An extinct megatoothed shark, C. megalodon is by far the biggest mackerel shark and largest shark known.^[140] This giant shark reached a total length of more than 16 m (52 ft).^[141]^[142] C. megalodon may have approached a maximum of 20.3 m (67 ft) in total length and 103 t (114 short tons) in mass.^[143]

Eugenedont (Eugeneodontida)

The largest-known eugenedont is an as-yet unnamed species of Helicoprion discovered in Idaho. The specimens suggest an animal that possibly exceeded 12 m (39 ft) in length.^[144]

Another fairly large eugenedont is Parahelicoprion. The specimens suggest an animal that grew to the same size (12 m [39 ft]), but was much more slender and overall less heavy.^{[citation needed]}

Spiny sharks (Acanthodii)

The largest of the now-extinct Acanthodii was Ischnacanthus. Some species were of large size, up to 2 m in length.^[145]

Placoderms (Placodermi)

The largest-known placoderm was the 6 m (20 ft) long predatory Dunkleosteus.^{[citation needed]} It is estimated to have weighed around 3.6 t (4.0 short tons).^{[citation needed]} Its filter feeding relative, Titanichthys, may have rivaled it in size.^{[citation needed]}

Arthropods (Arthropoda)

Dinocaridida

Gilled lobopodians

Based on the findings of mouthparts, the Cambrian gilled lobopodian Omnidens amplus is estimated to have been 1.5 metres (4.9 ft).^[146] It is also known as the largest Cambrian animal known to exist.^[146]

Radiodont (Radiodonta)

The largest-known radiodont is Aegirocassis benmoulai, estimated to have been at least 2 m (6 ft 7 in) long.^[147]^[148]

Chelicerata

Eurypterids (Eurypterida)

Size comparison of the largest known eurypterids.

The largest-known eurypterid was Jaekelopterus rhenaniae at 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) in length, which is also the largest arthropod known to exist.^[149] A close contender was the Silurian Pterygotus grandidentatus at 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) in length.^[150]

Arachnids (Arachnida)

There are two contenders for largest-known arachnid: Pulmonoscorpius kirktonensis and Brontoscorpio anglicus. Each was estimated to have been 70 cm (28 in)^[151] and 90 cm (35 in),^[152] respectively.

Myriapoda

The largest-known myriapod by far was Arthropleura. Measuring over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) long and 45 cm (18 in) wide.^[153]

Trilobitomorpha

Trilobites (Trilobita)

Some of these extinct marine arthropods exceeded 60 cm (24 in) in length. A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from Manitoba attained a length over 70 cm (28 in), and an Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long. Fragments of trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated pygidium of Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was 90 cm (35 in) long.^[154]

Insects (Insecta)

Sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera)

The largest-known of this group was the giant ant Titanomyrma giganteum at 3 cm (1.2 in), with queens growing to 6 cm (2.4 in). It had a wingspan of 15 cm (5.9 in).^[155]

Protodonata

The largest-known in this group was probably Meganeura with a wingspan of 75 cm (30 in).^[156] Another enormous and possibly larger species was Meganeuropsis permiana.

Siphonaptera

The largest-known in this group was probably Pseudopulex magnus, growing to 0.90 in (22.8 mm) in length.^[157]

Palaeodictyoptera

The largest-known insect of this order was Mazothairos, with a wingspan of up to 560 mm (22 in).^{[citation needed]}

Molluscs (Mollusca)

Gastropods (Gastropoda)

Snails and slugs (Gastropoda)

The largest-known of this group were in the genus Campanile, with the extinct Campanile giganteum having shell lengths up to 90 cm (35 in).^[158]

Bivalves (Bivalvia)

The largest-known bivalve ever was Platyceramus platinus, a giant that usually had an axial length of 1 m (3 ft 3 in), but some individuals could reach an axial length of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).^{[citation needed]}

Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)

Ammonites (Ammonoidea)

The largest-known ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis.^{[citation needed]} A partial fossil specimen found in Germany had a shell diameter of 1.95 m (6 ft 5 in), but the living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about 2.55 m (8 ft 4 in) when it was alive.^{[citation needed]}

Belemnites (Belemnoidea)

The largest-known belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea with a guard of 46 cm (18 in) in length and an estimated total length 3 m (9.8 ft) long.^{[citation needed]}

Nautiloids (Nautiloidea)

The longest- and largest-known of this group was Endoceras giganteum with a shell length of 5.73 m (18.8 ft). There is a record of individual whose shell length had reached 9.14 m (30.0 ft), but it is doubtful.^[159]

Neocoleoidea

Both Tusoteuthis and Yezoteuthis are estimated to be similar in size to the modern-day giant squid.^[160]

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@@ Line 215: / Line 215: @@
 [[File:Longest theropods.svg|alt=|thumb|320x320px|Size comparison of selected giant [[Theropoda|theropod]] dinosaurs]]
-* The largest [[Theropoda|theropod]] as well as the largest terrestrial (or possibly semi-aquatic)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/meet-mighty-spinosaurus-first-swimming-dinosaur-180952679/|title=Meet the Mighty Spinosaurus, the First Dinosaur Adapted for Swimming|last=Thompson|first=Helen|work=Smithsonian|access-date=22 November 2017|language=en}}</ref> predator yet known is ''[[Spinosaurus|Spinosaurus aegyptiacus]]'', with the largest specimen known estimated at {{cvt|12.6|-|18|m}} in length and around {{cvt|7|-|20.9|tonne|ST|0}} in weight.<ref name=TH07>{{cite journal|last=Therrien |first=F. |author2=Henderson, D.M. |year=2007 |title=My theropod is bigger than yours...or not: estimating body size from skull length in theropods |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=108–115 |doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[108:MTIBTY]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0272-4634}}</ref><ref name=Spino>{{cite journal|last=dal Sasso |first=C. |author2=Maganuco, S. |author3=Buffetaut, E. |author4= Mendez, M.A. |year=2005 |title=New information on the skull of the enigmatic theropod ''Spinosaurus'', with remarks on its sizes and affinities |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=888–896|doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0888:NIOTSO]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
+* The largest [[Theropoda|theropod]] as well as the largest terrestrial (or possibly semi-aquatic)<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/meet-mighty-spinosaurus-first-swimming-dinosaur-180952679/|title=Meet the Mighty Spinosaurus, the First Dinosaur Adapted for Swimming|last=Thompson|first=Helen|work=Smithsonian|access-date=22 November 2017|language=en}}</ref> predator yet known is ''[[Spinosaurus|Spinosaurus aegyptiacus]]'', with the largest specimen known estimated at {{cvt|12.6|-|18|m}} in length and around {{cvt|7|-|20.9|tonne|ST|0}} in weight.<ref name=TH07>{{cite journal|last=Therrien |first=F. |author2=Henderson, D.M. |year=2007 |title=My theropod is bigger than yours...or not: estimating body size from skull length in theropods |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=108–115 |doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[108:MTIBTY]2.0.CO;2 |issn=0272-4634}}</ref><ref name=Spino>{{cite journal|last=dal Sasso |first=C. |author2=Maganuco, S. |author3=Buffetaut, E. |author4= Mendez, M.A. |year=2005 |title=New information on the skull of the enigmatic theropod ''Spinosaurus'', with remarks on its sizes and affinities |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=888–896|doi=10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0888:NIOTSO]2.0.CO;2}}</ref> New estimates published in 2014 and 2018, based on a more complete specimen, supported the earlier research, finding that ''Spinosaurus'' could reach lengths of {{convert|15|to|16|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Ibrahim_et_al_2014">{{cite journal|last1=Ibrahim|first1=Nizar|author-link=Nizar Ibrahim|last2=Sereno|first2=Paul C.|author-link2=Paul Sereno|last3=Dal Sasso|first3=Cristiano|last4=Maganuco|first4=Simone|last5=Fabri|first5=Matteo|last6=Martill|first6=David M.|last7=Zouhri|first7=Samir|last8=Myhrvold|first8=Nathan|last9=Lurino|first9=Dawid A.|date=2014|title=Semiaquatic adaptations in a giant predatory dinosaur|url=https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/semiaquatic-adaptations-in-a-giant-predatory-dinosaur(8f11a1ce-3265-4b3b-8c81-6f576856a87f).html|journal=Science|volume=345|issue=6204|pages=1613–6|bibcode=2014Sci...345.1613I|doi=10.1126/science.1258750|pmid=25213375|s2cid=34421257}} [http://www.sciencemag.org/content/suppl/2014/09/10/science.1258750.DC1/Ibrahim.SM.pdf Supplementary Information]</ref><ref name="Henderson2018" /><ref name="Larramendi">Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2016. ''Récords y curiosidades de los dinosaurios Terópodos y otros dinosauromorfos'', Larousse. Barcelona, Spain p. 259</ref> The latest estimates suggest a weight of {{convert|6.4|to|7.5|MT|short ton}}.<ref name="Henderson2018" /><ref name="Larramendi"/>
 * Other large theropods were ''[[Giganotosaurus carolinii]]'', and ''[[Tyrannosaurus rex]]'', whose largest specimens known estimated at {{cvt|13.2|m|0}}<ref>{{Cite journal| last1 = Calvo| first1 = Jorge O.| last2 = Coria| first2 = Rodolfo| title = New specimen of Giganotosaurus Carolinii| journal = GAIA| pages = 117–122| year = 1998| url = http://www.mnhn.ul.pt/geologia/gaia/7.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080216074438/http://www.mnhn.ul.pt/geologia/gaia/7.pdf| archive-date = 16 February 2008}}</ref> and {{cvt|12.3|m|0}}<ref name=henderson1999>{{Cite journal|author=Henderson DM|date= 1 January 1999|title=Estimating the masses and centers of mass of extinct animals by 3-D mathematical slicing |journal=Paleobiology |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=88–106 |url=http://paleobiol.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/content/abstract/25/1/88}}</ref> in length, respectively. Some other notable giant theropods (e.g. ''[[Carcharodontosaurus]]'','' [[Acrocanthosaurus]]'', and ''[[Mapusaurus]]'') may also have rivaled them in size.