Gardening: Difference between revisions

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{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
[[File:Cementerio, Tulcán, Ecuador, 2015-07-21, DD 60.JPG|thumb|A gardener maintaining [[topiary]] in [[Tulcán]], Ecuador]]
[[File:Cementerio, Tulcán, Ecuador, 2015-07-21, DD 60.JPG|thumb|A gardener maintaining [[topiary]] in [[Tulcán]], Ecuador]]
'''Gardening''' is the process of growing plants for their [[Vegetable|vegetables]], [[fruit]]s, [[flower]]s, [[herb]]s, and appearances within a designated space.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-10 |title=Gardening {{!}} Definition, Types, Tools, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/gardening |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Gardens fulfill a wide assortment of purposes including but not limited to production of [[Aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing areas, [[Medication|medicines]], [[cosmetics]], [[Dye|dyes]], [[Food|foods]], wildlife [[Habitat|habitats]], and saleable goods(see [[Market garden|market gardening]]). In addition, gardening may be practiced for its [[Therapy|therapeutic]], [[health]], [[Education|educational]], [[Culture|cultural]], [[Philosophy|philosophical]], environmental, and [[Religion|religious]] benefits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lovell |first1=Rebecca |last2=Husk |first2=Kerryn |last3=Bethel |first3=Alison |last4=Garside |first4=Ruth |date=2014-10-07 |title=What are the health and well-being impacts of community gardening for adults and children: a mixed method systematic review protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=20 |doi=10.1186/2047-2382-3-20 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2014EnvEv...3...20L |issn=2047-2382|hdl=10871/19910 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
'''Gardening''' is the process of growing plants for their [[Vegetable|vegetables]], [[Fruit|fruits]], [[Flower|flowers]], [[Herb|herbs]], and appearances within a designated space.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-10 |title=Gardening {{!}} Definition, Types, Tools, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/gardening |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Gardens fulfill a wide assortment of purposes, notably the production of [[Aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing areas, [[Medication|medicines]], [[cosmetics]], [[Dye|dyes]], [[Food|foods]], [[Poison|poisons]], wildlife [[Habitat|habitats]], and saleable goods (see [[Market garden|market gardening]]). People often partake in gardening for its [[Therapy|therapeutic]], [[health]], [[Education|educational]], [[Culture|cultural]], [[Philosophy|philosophical]], [[Environmental protection|environmental]], and [[Religion|religious]] benefits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lovell |first1=Rebecca |last2=Husk |first2=Kerryn |last3=Bethel |first3=Alison |last4=Garside |first4=Ruth |date=2014-10-07 |title=What are the health and well-being impacts of community gardening for adults and children: a mixed method systematic review protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=20 |bibcode=2014EnvEv...3...20L |doi=10.1186/2047-2382-3-20 |issn=2047-2382 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/19910}}</ref>
[[File:Hayes-Valley-Farm_by_Zoey-Kroll_fava-hillside.jpg|thumb|Berms of fava beans have been planted at Hayes Valley Farm, a community-built farm on the former Central freeway ramps of San Francisco]]
Gardening varies in scale from the 800 hectare [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] gardens<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-28 |title=The Gardens |url=https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/gardens |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Palace of Versailles |language=en}}</ref> down to [[Container garden|container gardens]] grown inside. Gardens take many forms, some only contain one type of plant while others involve a complex assortment of plants with no particular order.


Gardening can be difficult to differentiate from [[Agriculture|farming]]. They are most easily differentiated based on their primary objectives. Farming prioritizes saleable goods and may include [[livestock]] production whereas gardening often prioritizes aesthetics and [[leisure]]. As it pertains to food production, gardening generally happens on a much smaller scale with the intent of personal or [[Community gardening|community consumption]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Mark |date=2021-12-03 |title=The Difference Between Farming & Gardening |url=https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/marionco/2021/12/03/the-difference-between-farming-gardening/ |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=UF/IFAS Extension Marion County |language=en}}</ref> It is important to note that there are cultures which do not differentiate between farming and gardening.<ref>{{Cite web |title=gitigaan (ni) {{!}} {{!}} the Ojibwe People's Dictionary |url=https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/main-entry/gitigaan-ni |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=ojibwe.lib.umn.edu}}</ref> This is primarily because [[subsistence agriculture]] has been the main method of farming throughout its 12,000 year history and is virtually indistinguishable from gardening. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Origins of agriculture - Neolithic Revolution, Domestication, Irrigation {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture/Earliest-beginnings |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Subsistence farming {{!}} Definition, Characteristics, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/subsistence-farming |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
Gardening varies in scale. There are immense palace gardens such as the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]], or the 800 hectare [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] gardens,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-28 |title=The Gardens |url=https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/gardens |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Palace of Versailles |language=en}}</ref> large fruit [[orchard]]s, vast [[Forest gardening|forest gardens]], small [[back garden|backyard garden]]s, and [[container garden]]s grown inside or outside. Gardening may be very specialized, with only one type of plant grown, or involve a variety of plants in mixed plantings.

== Prehistory ==
{{Main|Indigenous horticulture}}
Plant domestication is seen as the birth of agriculture, however, it is arguably proceeded by a very long history of gardening wild plants. While the 12,000 year old date is the commonly accepted timeline describing plant domestication, there is now evidence from the [[Ohalo II]] hunter-gatherer site showing earlier signs of disturbing the soil and cultivation of pre-domesticated crop species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Snir |first=Ainit |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Groman-Yaroslavski |first3=Iris |last4=Melamed |first4=Yoel |last5=Sternberg |first5=Marcelo |last6=Bar-Yosef |first6=Ofer |last7=Weiss |first7=Ehud |date=2015-07-22 |title=The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming |url=https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0131422 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=PMC4511808 |pmid=26200895}}</ref> This evidence pushes early stage plant domestication to 23,000 years ago which aligns with research done by Allaby(2022) showing slight selection pressure of desirable traits in Southwest Asian [[Cereal|cereals]] (einkorn, emmer, barley).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Allaby |first=Robin G. |last2=Stevens |first2=Chris J. |last3=Kistler |first3=Logan |last4=Fuller |first4=Dorian Q. |date=2022-03-01 |title=Emerging evidence of plant domestication as a landscape-level process |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534721003050 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=268–279 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2021.11.002 |issn=0169-5347}}</ref> Despite not qualifying as [[History of plant breeding|plant domestication]], there are many archaeological studies pushing the potential date of [[Hominini|hominin]] selective [[ecosystem]] disturbance back up to 125,000 years ago. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roebroeks |first=Wil |last2=MacDonald |first2=Katharine |last3=Scherjon |first3=Fulco |last4=Bakels |first4=Corrie |last5=Kindler |first5=Lutz |last6=Nikulina |first6=Anastasia |last7=Pop |first7=Eduard |last8=Gaudzinski-Windheuser |first8=Sabine |date=2021-12-17 |title=Landscape modification by Last Interglacial Neanderthals |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abj5567 |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=7 |issue=51 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abj5567 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=PMC8673775 |pmid=34910514}}</ref> Much of these early recorded ecosystem disturbances were made through [[Control of fire by early humans|hominin use of fire]] which dates back to 1.5 Mya (although at this time fire was not likely being wielded as a landscape changing tool by hominids). <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Roebroeks |first=Wil |last2=Villa |first2=Paola |date=2011-03-29 |title=On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.1018116108 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=108 |issue=13 |pages=5209–5214 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1018116108 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=PMC3069174 |pmid=21402905}}</ref> This anthropogenic ecosystem disturbance may be the origins of gardening.

Every hunter-gatherer society has developed a niche of some sort allowing them to thrive or even just survive amongst their environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rowley-Conwy |first=Peter |last2=Layton |first2=Robert |date=2011-03-27 |title=Foraging and farming as niche construction: stable and unstable adaptations |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3048996/ |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=849–862 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0307 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3048996 |pmid=21320899}}</ref> Many of these prehistoric hunter-gatherers had constructed a [[Niche construction|niche]] allowing for easier access to, or a higher amount of edible plant species.<ref>{{Citation |last=Odling-Smee |first=F. John |title=Niche Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution (MPB-37) |date=2013-02-15 |work=Niche Construction |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400847266/html |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=Princeton University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781400847266/html |isbn=978-1-4008-4726-6 |last2=Lala |first2=Kevin N. |last3=Feldman |first3=Marcus}}</ref> This shift from [[Hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] to increasingly modifying the environment in a way which produces an abundance of edible plant species marks the beginning of gardening.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Bruce D. |date=2011-03-27 |title=General patterns of niche construction and the management of ‘wild’ plant and animal resources by small-scale pre-industrial societies |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2010.0253 |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=836–848 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0253 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=PMC3048989 |pmid=21320898}}</ref> One of the most documented hominin niches is the use of off-site fire.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rolland |first=Nicolas |date=2004 |title=Was the Emergence of Home Bases and Domestic Fire a Punctuated Event? A Review of the Middle Pleistocene Record in Eurasia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42928622 |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=248–280 |issn=0066-8435}}</ref> When done intentionally this is often called [[forest gardening]] or [[Fire-stick farming|fire stick farming]] in Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bliege Bird |first=R. |last2=Bird |first2=D. W. |last3=Codding |first3=B. F. |last4=Parker |first4=C. H. |last5=Jones |first5=J. H. |date=2008-09-30 |title=The “fire stick farming” hypothesis: Australian Aboriginal foraging strategies, biodiversity, and anthropogenic fire mosaics |url=https://pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.0804757105 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=105 |issue=39 |pages=14796–14801 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0804757105 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=PMC2567447 |pmid=18809925}}</ref> The modern study of [[fire ecology]] describes the many benefits off-site fires may have granted these early humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mellars |first=Paul |date=1976-12 |title=Fire Ecology, Animal Populations and Man: a Study of some Ecological Relationships in Prehistory |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society/article/abs/fire-ecology-animal-populations-and-man-a-study-of-some-ecological-relationships-in-prehistory/067187FF74E33E228E229E46D9A72C78 |journal=Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society |language=en |volume=42 |pages=15–45 |doi=10.1017/S0079497X00010689 |issn=2050-2729}}</ref> Some of these [[Agroecology|agroecological]] practices have been well documented and studied during [[Colonization|colonial]] contact, however they are vastly under represented in research done on early hominin fire use. <ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Scherjon |first=Fulco |last2=Bakels |first2=Corrie |last3=MacDonald |first3=Katharine |last4=Roebroeks |first4=Wil |date=2015-06 |title=Burning the Land: An Ethnographic Study of Off-Site Fire Use by Current and Historically Documented Foragers and Implications for the Interpretation of Past Fire Practices in the Landscape |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/681561 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=299–326 |doi=10.1086/681561 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref> Based on current research it is evident that these niches developed separately in different societies across different times and locations. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carey |first=John |date=2023-04-11 |title=Unearthing the origins of agriculture |url=https://pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2304407120 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=15 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2304407120 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=PMC10104519 |pmid=37018195}}</ref> Many of the Indigenous gardening methods were and still are often overlooked by colonizers due to the lack of resemblance to [[Western world|western]] gardens with well defined borders and non-naturalized plant species.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-05-01 |title=The idea of nature in America |url=https://www.amacad.org/publication/idea-nature-america |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en}}</ref>

=== The Americas ===
There are long traditions of gardening within [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous societies]] spanning from the northernmost parts of [[Canada]] down to the southernmost tip of [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sapiens |date=2022-04-20 |title=The Yaghan Rise Again |url=https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/the-yaghan-rise-again/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=SAPIENS |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norton |first=C. H. |last2=Cuerrier |first2=A. |last3=Hermanutz |first3=L. |date=2021 |title=People and Plants in Nunatsiavut (Labrador, Canada): Examining Plants as a Foundational Aspect of Culture in the Subarctic |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8888477/ |journal=Economic Botany |volume=75 |issue=3-4 |pages=287–301 |doi=10.1007/s12231-021-09530-7 |issn=0013-0001 |pmc=8888477 |pmid=35273405}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dmjj |title=Wild Harvest: Plants in the Hominin and Pre-Agrarian Human Worlds |date=2016 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78570-123-8}}</ref> The [[Arctic]] and [[Subarctic]] societies relied primarily on [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] due to the harsh climate although they have been known to collectively use at least 311 different plants as foods or medicines. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norton |first=Christian H. |date=2019-03-13 |title=Inuit Ethnobotany in the North American Subarctic and Arctic: Celebrating a Rich History and Expanding Research into New Areas Using Biocultural Diversity |url=https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/22249}}</ref> The substantial knowledge and use of these plants along with the communal harvesting sites and emphasis on [[Reciprocity (evolution)|reciprocity]] between humans and plants indicates a basic level of gardening.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weber |first=John T. |date=2022-02 |title=Traditional uses and beneficial effects of various species of berry-producing plants in eastern Canada |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjb-2021-0086 |journal=Botany |language=en |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.1139/cjb-2021-0086 |issn=1916-2790}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Migicovsky |first=Zoë |last2=Amyotte |first2=Beatrice |last3=Ulrich |first3=Jens |last4=Smith |first4=Tyler W. |last5=Turner |first5=Nancy J. |last6=Pico |first6=Joana |last7=Ciotir |first7=Claudia |last8=Sharifi |first8=Mehdi |last9=Meldrum |first9=Gennifer |last10=Stormes |first10=Ben |last11=Moreau |first11=Tara |date=2022-11 |title=Berries as a case study for crop wild relative conservation, use, and public engagement in Canada |url=https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10291 |journal=PLANTS, PEOPLE, PLANET |language=en |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=558–578 |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10291 |issn=2572-2611}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boulanger-Lapointe |first=Noémie |last2=Gérin-Lajoie |first2=José |last3=Siegwart Collier |first3=Laura |last4=Desrosiers |first4=Sarah |last5=Spiech |first5=Carmen |last6=Henry |first6=Gregory H. R. |last7=Hermanutz |first7=Luise |last8=Lévesque |first8=Esther |last9=Cuerrier |first9=Alain |date=2019-02-01 |title=Berry Plants and Berry Picking in Inuit Nunangat: Traditions in a Changing Socio-Ecological Landscape |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-018-0044-5 |journal=Human Ecology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=81–93 |doi=10.1007/s10745-018-0044-5 |issn=1572-9915}}</ref> Similarly, the [[Fuegians|Fuegian]] Indigenous groups in South America had developed seemingly comparable niches due to a similar tundra ecosystem. While there are very few studies on the Fuegians, [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] mentioned wild edible plants such as [[Fungus|fungi]], [[kelp]], and wild [[celery]] growing next to the various Fuegian shelters.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_36/April_1890/Darwin_on_the_Fuegians_and_Patagonians |title=Popular Science Monthly Volume 36 April 1890}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A short Account of Tierra del Fuego and its Inhabitants, by Thomas Bridges |url=https://patlibros.org/tdf/doc.php |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=patlibros.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Botanik online: PUBLIC DOMAIN - Charles Darwin - The Voyage of the Beagle - Chapter 10 |url=https://www1.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d36_beag/chapter10.htm |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www1.biologie.uni-hamburg.de}}</ref> Horticulture plays a relatively small role in these northern and southern tundra inhabitants compared with Indigenous societies in [[grassland]] and [[forest]] ecosystems. From the [[Boreal forest of Canada|boreal forests]] of Canada to the temperate forests and grasslands of Chile and Argentina different communities have developed their unique food production niches. These include the use of fire for ecosystem maintenance and resetting [[Ecological succession|successional]] sequences, the sowing of wild annuals, the sowing of domesticated annuals (e.g. [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|three sisters]], [[New World crops]]), creating berry patches and orchards, manipulation of plants to encourage desired traits(e.g. increased nut, fruit, or root production), and landscape modification to encourage plant and animal growth (e.g. complex [[irrigation]] or [[Terrace (earthworks)|terraces]]).<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zeder |first=Melinda A. |url=https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=EaVTxjrbIFQC&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&ots=vA9fYWl5vG&sig=fqPfPq2EdBnBIs_YTXizUhfEDOQ&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms |date=2006-06-20 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24638-6 |language=en}}</ref> These modified landscapes as recorded by early American [[Philosophy|philosophers]] such as [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]], and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emmerson]] were described as exhibiting pristine beauty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Walden, or, Life in the woods, |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/17029241/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson {{!}} Essay |url=https://emersoncentral.com/texts/nature-addresses-lectures/nature2/chapter1-nature/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Ralph Waldo Emerson |language=en-US}}</ref> Indigenous gardens such as forest gardens therefore do not only serve as a producer of foods, medicines, or materials, but also pleasant aesthetics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wagner |first=John |date=2008-01-01 |title=Landscape Aesthetics, Water, and Settler Colonialism in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jea/vol12/iss1/2 |journal=Journal of Ecological Anthropology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=22–38 |doi=10.5038/2162-4593.12.1.2 |issn=1528-6509}}</ref>


==History==
==History==

Revision as of 01:08, 11 March 2024

A gardener maintaining topiary in Tulcán, Ecuador

Gardening is the process of growing plants for their vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbs, and appearances within a designated space.[1] Gardens fulfill a wide assortment of purposes, notably the production of aesthetically pleasing areas, medicines, cosmetics, dyes, foods, poisons, wildlife habitats, and saleable goods (see market gardening). People often partake in gardening for its therapeutic, health, educational, cultural, philosophical, environmental, and religious benefits.[2]

Berms of fava beans have been planted at Hayes Valley Farm, a community-built farm on the former Central freeway ramps of San Francisco

Gardening varies in scale from the 800 hectare Versailles gardens[3] down to container gardens grown inside. Gardens take many forms, some only contain one type of plant while others involve a complex assortment of plants with no particular order.

Gardening can be difficult to differentiate from farming. They are most easily differentiated based on their primary objectives. Farming prioritizes saleable goods and may include livestock production whereas gardening often prioritizes aesthetics and leisure. As it pertains to food production, gardening generally happens on a much smaller scale with the intent of personal or community consumption.[4] It is important to note that there are cultures which do not differentiate between farming and gardening.[5] This is primarily because subsistence agriculture has been the main method of farming throughout its 12,000 year history and is virtually indistinguishable from gardening. [6][7]

Prehistory

Plant domestication is seen as the birth of agriculture, however, it is arguably proceeded by a very long history of gardening wild plants. While the 12,000 year old date is the commonly accepted timeline describing plant domestication, there is now evidence from the Ohalo II hunter-gatherer site showing earlier signs of disturbing the soil and cultivation of pre-domesticated crop species.[8] This evidence pushes early stage plant domestication to 23,000 years ago which aligns with research done by Allaby(2022) showing slight selection pressure of desirable traits in Southwest Asian cereals (einkorn, emmer, barley).[9] Despite not qualifying as plant domestication, there are many archaeological studies pushing the potential date of hominin selective ecosystem disturbance back up to 125,000 years ago. [10] Much of these early recorded ecosystem disturbances were made through hominin use of fire which dates back to 1.5 Mya (although at this time fire was not likely being wielded as a landscape changing tool by hominids). [11] This anthropogenic ecosystem disturbance may be the origins of gardening.

Every hunter-gatherer society has developed a niche of some sort allowing them to thrive or even just survive amongst their environments.[12] Many of these prehistoric hunter-gatherers had constructed a niche allowing for easier access to, or a higher amount of edible plant species.[13] This shift from hunting and gathering to increasingly modifying the environment in a way which produces an abundance of edible plant species marks the beginning of gardening.[14] One of the most documented hominin niches is the use of off-site fire.[15] When done intentionally this is often called forest gardening or fire stick farming in Australia.[16] The modern study of fire ecology describes the many benefits off-site fires may have granted these early humans.[17] Some of these agroecological practices have been well documented and studied during colonial contact, however they are vastly under represented in research done on early hominin fire use. [18] Based on current research it is evident that these niches developed separately in different societies across different times and locations. [19] Many of the Indigenous gardening methods were and still are often overlooked by colonizers due to the lack of resemblance to western gardens with well defined borders and non-naturalized plant species.[20]

The Americas

There are long traditions of gardening within Indigenous societies spanning from the northernmost parts of Canada down to the southernmost tip of Chile and Argentina.[21][18][22][23] The Arctic and Subarctic societies relied primarily on hunting and fishing due to the harsh climate although they have been known to collectively use at least 311 different plants as foods or medicines. [24] The substantial knowledge and use of these plants along with the communal harvesting sites and emphasis on reciprocity between humans and plants indicates a basic level of gardening.[25][26][27] Similarly, the Fuegian Indigenous groups in South America had developed seemingly comparable niches due to a similar tundra ecosystem. While there are very few studies on the Fuegians, Darwin mentioned wild edible plants such as fungi, kelp, and wild celery growing next to the various Fuegian shelters.[28][29][30] Horticulture plays a relatively small role in these northern and southern tundra inhabitants compared with Indigenous societies in grassland and forest ecosystems. From the boreal forests of Canada to the temperate forests and grasslands of Chile and Argentina different communities have developed their unique food production niches. These include the use of fire for ecosystem maintenance and resetting successional sequences, the sowing of wild annuals, the sowing of domesticated annuals (e.g. three sisters, New World crops), creating berry patches and orchards, manipulation of plants to encourage desired traits(e.g. increased nut, fruit, or root production), and landscape modification to encourage plant and animal growth (e.g. complex irrigation or terraces).[14][31] These modified landscapes as recorded by early American philosophers such as Thoreau, and Emmerson were described as exhibiting pristine beauty.[32][33] Indigenous gardens such as forest gardens therefore do not only serve as a producer of foods, medicines, or materials, but also pleasant aesthetics.[34]

History

Robert Hart's forest garden in Shropshire, England

Ancient times

Forest gardening, a forest-based food production system, is the world's oldest form of gardening.[35]

After the emergence of the first civilizations, wealthy individuals began to create gardens for aesthetic purposes. Ancient Egyptian tomb paintings from the New Kingdom (around 1500 BC) provide some of the earliest physical evidence of ornamental horticulture and landscape design; they depict lotus ponds surrounded by symmetrical rows of acacias and palms. A notable example of ancient ornamental gardens were the Hanging Gardens of Babylon—one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World —while ancient Rome had dozens of gardens.

Wealthy ancient Egyptians used gardens for providing shade. Egyptians associated trees and gardens with gods, believing that their deities were pleased by gardens. Gardens in ancient Egypt were often surrounded by walls with trees planted in rows. Among the most popular species planted were date palms, sycamores, fig trees, nut trees, and willows. These gardens were a sign of higher socioeconomic status. In addition, wealthy ancient Egyptians grew vineyards, as wine was a sign of the higher social classes. Roses, poppies, daisies and irises could all also be found in the gardens of the Egyptians.

Assyria was renowned for its beautiful gardens. These tended to be wide and large, some of them used for hunting game—rather like a game reserve today—and others as leisure gardens. Cypresses and palms were some of the most frequently planted types of trees.

Gardens were also available in Kush. In Musawwarat es-Sufra, the Great Enclosure dated to the 3rd century BC included splendid gardens.[36]

Ancient Roman gardens were laid out with hedges and vines and contained a wide variety of flowers—acanthus, cornflowers, crocus, cyclamen, hyacinth, iris, ivy, lavender, lilies, myrtle, narcissus, poppy, rosemary and violets[37]—as well as statues and sculptures. Flower beds were popular in the courtyards of rich Romans.

The Middle Ages

A gardener at work, 1607

The Middle Ages represent a period of decline in gardens for aesthetic purposes. After the fall of Rome, gardening was done for the purpose of growing medicinal herbs and/or decorating church altars. Monasteries carried on a tradition of garden design and intense horticultural techniques during the medieval period in Europe. Generally, monastic garden types consisted of kitchen gardens, infirmary gardens, cemetery orchards, cloister garths and vineyards. Individual monasteries might also have had a "green court", a plot of grass and trees where horses could graze, as well as a cellarer's garden or private gardens for obedientiaries, monks who held specific posts within the monastery.

Islamic gardens were built after the model of Persian gardens and they were usually enclosed by walls and divided in four by watercourses. Commonly, the centre of the garden would have a reflecting pool or pavilion. Specific to the Islamic gardens are the mosaics and glazed tiles used to decorate the rills and fountains that were built in these gardens.

By the late 13th century, rich Europeans began to grow gardens for leisure and for medicinal herbs and vegetables.[37] They surrounded the gardens by walls to protect them from animals and to provide seclusion.[38] During the next two centuries, Europeans started planting lawns and raising flowerbeds and trellises of roses. Fruit trees were common in these gardens and also in some, there were turf seats. At the same time, the gardens in the monasteries were a place to grow flowers and medicinal herbs but they were also a space where the monks could enjoy nature and relax.

The gardens in the 16th and 17th century were symmetric, proportioned and balanced with a more classical appearance. Most of these gardens were built around a central axis and they were divided into different parts by hedges. Commonly, gardens had flowerbeds laid out in squares and separated by gravel paths.

Gardens in Renaissance were adorned with sculptures, topiary and fountains. In the 17th century, knot gardens became popular along with the hedge mazes. By this time, Europeans started planting new flowers such as tulips, marigolds and sunflowers.

Cottage gardens

A cottage garden in Brittany

Cottage gardens, which emerged in Elizabethan times, appear to have originated as a local source for herbs and fruits.[39] One theory is that they arose out of the Black Death of the 1340s, when the death of so many laborers made land available for small cottages with personal gardens.[40] According to the late 19th-century legend of origin,[41] these gardens were originally created by the workers that lived in the cottages of the villages, to provide them with food and herbs, with flowers planted among them for decoration. Farm workers were provided with cottages that had architectural quality set in a small garden—about 1 acre (0.40 hectares)—where they could grow food and keep pigs and chickens.[42]

Authentic gardens of the yeoman cottager would have included a beehive and livestock, and frequently a pig and sty, along with a well. The peasant cottager of medieval times was more interested in meat than flowers, with herbs grown for medicinal use rather than for their beauty. By Elizabethan times there was more prosperity, and thus more room to grow flowers. Even the early cottage garden flowers typically had their practical use—violets were spread on the floor (for their pleasant scent and keeping out vermin); calendulas and primroses were both attractive and used in cooking. Others, such as sweet William and hollyhocks, were grown entirely for their beauty.[43]

18th century

Sheffield Park Garden, a landscape garden originally laid out in the 18th century by Capability Brown

In the 18th century, gardens were laid out more naturally, without any walls. This style of smooth undulating grass, which would run straight to the house, clumps, belts and scattering of trees and his serpentine lakes formed by invisibly damming small rivers, were a new style within the English landscape, a "gardenless" form of landscape gardening, which swept away almost all the remnants of previous formally patterned styles. The English landscape garden usually included a lake, lawns set against groves of trees, and often contained shrubberies, grottoes, pavilions, bridges and follies such as mock temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. This new style emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical garden à la française of the 17th century as the principal gardening style of Europe.[44] The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. They were often inspired by paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorraine and Nicolas Poussin, and some were Influenced by the classic Chinese gardens of the East,[45] which had recently been described by European travelers.[45] The work of Lancelot 'Capability' Brown was particularly influential. Also, in 1804 the Horticultural Society was formed.

Gardens of the 19th century contained plants such as the monkey puzzle or Chile pine. This is also the time when the so-called "gardenesque" style of gardens evolved. These gardens displayed a wide variety of flowers in a rather small space. Rock gardens increased in popularity in the 19th century.

In ancient India, patterns from sacred geometry and mandalas were used to design gardens. Distinct mandala patterns denoted specific deities, planets, or even constellations. Such a garden was also referred to as a 'Mandala Vaatika'. The word 'Vaatika' can mean garden, plantation or parterre.

Types

Conservatory of Flowers in Golden Gate Park, San Francisco
Hanging baskets in Thornbury, South Gloucestershire
An organic garden on a school campus

Residential gardening takes place near the home, in a space referred to as the garden. Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located on a roof, in an atrium, on a balcony, in a window box, on a patio or vivarium.

Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as parks, public or semi-public gardens (botanical gardens or zoological gardens), amusement parks, along transportation corridors, and around tourist attractions and garden hotels. In these situations, a staff of gardeners or groundskeepers maintains the gardens.

  • Indoor gardening is concerned with the growing of houseplants within a residence or building, in a conservatory, or in a greenhouse. Indoor gardens are sometimes incorporated as part of air conditioning or heating systems. Indoor gardening extends the growing season in the fall and spring and can be used for winter gardening.
  • Native plant gardening is concerned with the use of native plants with or without the intent of creating wildlife habitat. The goal is to create a garden in harmony with, and adapted to a given area. This type of gardening typically reduces water usage, maintenance, and fertilization costs, while increasing native faunal interest.
  • Water gardening is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. Bog gardens are also considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s). In aquascaping, a garden is created within an aquarium tank.
  • Container gardening is concerned with growing plants in any type of container either indoors or outdoors. Common containers are pots, hanging baskets, and planters. Container gardening is usually used in atriums and on balconies, patios, and roof tops.
  • Hügelkultur is concerned with growing plants on piles of rotting wood, as a form of raised bed gardening and composting in situ.[46] An English loanword from German, it means "mound garden." Toby Hemenway, noted permaculture author and teacher, considers wood buried in trenches to also be a form of hugelkultur referred to as a dead wood swale.[47] Hugelkultur is practiced by Sepp Holzer as a method of forest gardening and agroforestry, and by Geoff Lawton as a method of dryland farming and desert greening.[48] When used as a method of disposing of large volumes of waste wood and woody debris, hugelkultur accomplishes carbon sequestration.[46] It is also a form of xeriscaping.
  • Community gardening is a social activity in which an area of land is gardened by a group of people, providing access to fresh produce, herbs, flowers and plants as well as access to satisfying labor, neighborhood improvement, sense of community and connection to the environment.[49][50] Community gardens are typically owned in trust by local governments or nonprofits.[51]
  • Garden sharing partners landowners with gardeners in need of land. These shared gardens, typically front or back yards, are usually used to produce food that is divided between the two parties.
  • Organic gardening uses natural, sustainable methods, fertilizers and pesticides to grow non-genetically modified crops.
  • Biodynamic gardening or biodynamic agriculture is similar to organic gardening, but includes various esoteric concepts drawn from the ideas of Rudolf Steiner, such as astrological sowing and planting calendar and particular field and compost preparations.
  • Commercial gardening is a more intensive type of gardening that involves the production of vegetables, nontropical fruits, and flowers from local farmers. Commercial gardening began because farmers would sell locally to stop food from spoiling faster because of the transportation of goods from a far distance. Mediterranean agriculture is also a common practice that commercial gardeners use. Mediterranean agriculture is the practice of cultivating animals such as sheep to help weed and provide manure for vine crops, grains, or citrus. Gardeners can easily train these animals to not eat the actual plant.[52]

Social aspects

People can express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not. The lawn vs. garden issue is played out in urban planning as the debate over the "land ethic" that is to determine urban land use and whether hyper hygienist bylaws (e.g. weed control) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed to exist in its natural wild state. In a famous Canadian Charter of Rights case, "Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto", 1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as part of the right of free expression.

Community gardening comprises a wide variety of approaches to sharing land and gardens.

Garden at the Schultenhof in Mettingen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

People often surround their house and garden with a hedge. Common hedge plants are privet, hawthorn, beech, yew, leyland cypress, hemlock, arborvitae, barberry, box, holly, oleander, forsythia and lavender. The idea of open gardens without hedges may be distasteful to those who enjoy privacy. The Slow Food movement has sought in some countries to add an edible school yard and garden classrooms to schools, e.g. in Fergus, Ontario, where these were added to a public school to augment the kitchen classroom. Garden sharing, where urban landowners allow gardeners to grow on their property in exchange for a share of the harvest, is associated with the desire to control the quality of one's food, and reconnect with soil and community.[53]

In US and British usage, the production of ornamental plantings around buildings is called landscaping, landscape maintenance or grounds keeping, while international usage uses the term gardening for these same activities.

Also gaining popularity is the concept of "Green Gardening" which involves growing plants using organic fertilizers and pesticides so that the gardening process – or the flowers and fruits produced thereby – doesn't adversely affect the environment or people's health in any manner.

Laws and restrictions

In some parts of the world, particularly the United States, gardening can be restricted by law or by rules and regulations imposed by a home-owner's association.[54] In the United States, such rules may prohibit homeowners from growing vegetable gardens, prohibit xeriscaping or meadow gardens, or require garden plants to be chosen from a pre-approved list, to preserve the aesthetics of the neighborhood.[55][56][57] Numerous challenges to these laws, ordinances and regulations have emerged in recent years, with some resulting in legislation protecting a homeowner's right to cultivate native plants or grow vegetables.[58][59] Laws protecting a homeowner's right to grow food plants have been termed "right to garden" laws.

Benefits

Gardening is considered by many people to be a relaxing activity. There are also many studies about the positive effects on mental and physical health in relation to gardening.[60] Specifically, gardening is thought to increase self-esteem and reduce stress.[61] As writer and former teacher Sarah Biddle notes, one's garden may become a "tiny oasis to relax and recharge [one's] batteries."[62] Involving in gardening activities aid in creativity, observational skills, learning, planning and physical movement.[63]

Others consider gardening to be a good hedge against supply chain disruptions with increased worries that the public cannot always trust that the grocery store shelves will be fully stocked.[64] In April 2022, about 31% of grocery products were out of stock which is an 11% increase from November 2021.[65]

Gardening can also support good numbers and a wide range of pollinators, but worryingly bees and other pollinators are in decline. Gardeners can make a difference to help reverse this trend.[66] The main thing that matters is that they get their share of nectar to fuel their busy lifestyles,[67] and this is where gardening can help them.

Comparison with farming

Berms of fava beans have been planted at Hayes Valley Farm, a community-built farm on the former Central freeway ramps of San Francisco

Gardening for beauty is likely[original research?] nearly as old as farming for food, however for most of history for the majority of people there was no real distinction since the need for food and other useful products trumped other concerns. Small-scale, subsistence agriculture (called hoe-farming) is largely indistinguishable from gardening. A patch of potatoes grown by a Peruvian peasant or an Irish smallholder for personal use could be described as either a garden or a farm. Gardening for average people evolved as a separate discipline, more concerned with aesthetics, recreation and leisure,[68] under the influence of the pleasure gardens of the wealthy.[69] Meanwhile, farming has evolved (in developed countries) in the direction of commercialization, economics of scale, and monocropping.

In respect to its food-producing purpose, gardening is distinguished from farming chiefly by scale and intent. Farming occurs on a larger scale, and with the production of salable goods as a major motivation. Gardening happens on a smaller scale, primarily for pleasure and to produce goods for the gardener's own family or community. There is some overlap between the terms, particularly in that some moderate-sized vegetable growing concerns, often called market gardening, can fit in either category.[70]

The key distinction between gardening and farming is essentially one of scale; gardening can be a hobby or an income supplement, but farming is generally understood as a full-time or commercial activity, usually involving more land and quite different practices. One distinction is that gardening is labor-intensive and employs very little infrastructural capital, sometimes no more than a few tools, e.g. a spade, hoe, basket and watering can. By contrast, larger-scale farming often involves irrigation systems, chemical fertilizers and harvesters or at least ladders, e.g. to reach up into fruit trees. However, this distinction is becoming blurred with the increasing use of power tools in even small gardens.

Monty Don has speculated on an atavistic connection between present-day gardeners and pre-modern peasantry.[71]

The term precision agriculture is sometimes used[by whom?] to describe gardening using intermediate technology (more than tools, less than harvesters), especially of organic varieties. Gardening is effectively scaled up to feed entire villages of over 100 people from specialized plots. A variant is the community garden which offers plots to urban dwellers.

Ornaments and accessories

A classical urn at Palm House, the Belfast Botanic Gardens, Northern Ireland, as garden ornament

There is a wide range of garden ornaments and accessories available in the market for both the professional gardener and the amateur to exercise their creativity. These are used to add decoration or functionality, and may be made from a wide range of materials such as copper, stone, wood, bamboo, stainless steel, clay, stained glass, concrete, or iron. Examples include trellis, garden furniture, gnomes, statues, outdoor fireplaces, fountains, rain chains, urns, bird baths and feeders, wind chimes, and garden lighting such as candle lanterns and oil lamps. The use of these items can be part of the expression of a gardener's gardening personality.

As art

Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, which generally means garden maintenance. Garden design can include different themes such as perennial, butterfly, wildlife, Japanese, water, tropical, or shade gardens.

In Japan, Samurai and Zen monks were often required to build decorative gardens or practice related skills like flower arrangement known as ikebana. In 18th-century Europe, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at Versailles, France, or Stowe, England. Today, landscape architects and garden designers continue to produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces. In the US, professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers.[72]

Pests

Garden pests are generally plants, fungi, or animals (frequently insects) that engage in activity that the gardener considers undesirable. A pest may crowd out desirable plants, disturb soil, stunt the growth of young seedlings, steal or damage fruit, or otherwise kill plants, hamper their growth, damage their appearance, or reduce the quality of the edible or ornamental portions of the plant. Aphids, spider mites, slugs, snails, ants, birds, and even cats are commonly considered to be garden pests.

The flame flower (Tropaeolum speciosum), climbs over other plants to a sunlit position

Because gardeners may have different goals, organisms considered "garden pests" vary from gardener to gardener. Tropaeolum speciosum, for example, may be considered a desirable and ornamental garden plant, or it may be considered a pest if it seeds and starts to grow where it is not wanted. As another example, in lawns, moss can become dominant and be impossible to eradicate. In some lawns, lichens, especially very damp lawn lichens such as Peltigera lactucfolia and P. membranacea, can become difficult to control and are considered pests.

Pest control

There are many ways by which unwanted pests are removed from a garden. The techniques vary depending on the pest, the gardener's goals, and the gardener's philosophy. For example, snails may be dealt with through the use of a chemical pesticide, an organic pesticide, hand-picking, barriers, or simply growing snail-resistant plants.

Pest control is often done through the use of pesticides, which may be either organic or artificially synthesized. Pesticides may affect the ecology of a garden due to their effects on the populations of both target and non-target species. For example, unintended exposure to some neonicotinoid pesticides has been proposed as a factor in the recent decline in honey bee populations.[73] A mole vibrator can deter mole activity in a garden.[74]

Other means of control include the removal of infected plants, using fertilizers and biostimulants to improve the health and vigour of plants so they better resist attack, practising crop rotation to prevent pest build-up, using companion planting,[75] and practising good garden hygiene, such as disinfecting tools and clearing debris and weeds which may harbour pests.

CCI .22LR snake shot loaded with #12 shot

Garden guns

Garden guns are smooth-bore shotguns specifically made to fire .22 caliber snake shot, and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control. Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past 15 to 20 yards (14 to 18 m) and are relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to a standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a ricochet. They are also used for pest control at airports, warehouses, stockyards, etc.[76]

See also

References

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