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UNICEF claims that the country's education system was once the most developed on the [[African continent|continent]], although it continues to suffer from a contemporary decline in public funding linked to [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]] and [[Economy of Zimbabwe|economic mismanagement]].<ref name=":4">UNICEF Zimbabwe (June 2011). "[http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/EEPCT_Global_041511.pdf Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition 2010 Report Evaluation]"(PDF). ''UNICEF''. Retrieved 15 November 2015</ref> A decrease in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] by 40 percent from 2000 to 2008 marked a period of economic downturn in the first decade of the 21st century.<ref name=":4">UNICEF Zimbabwe (June 2011). "Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition 2010 Report Evaluation"(PDF). ''UNICEF''.</ref> Social expenditures on health and education also decreased by more than half.<ref name=":4">UNICEF Zimbabwe (June 2011). "Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition 2010 Report Evaluation"(PDF). ''UNICEF''.</ref> [[File:En-Zimbabwe cancels education year for 4.5 million after political and economic troubles.ogg|thumb|Zimbabwe cancels education year for 4.5 million after political and economic troubles in 2008.]]
UNICEF claims that the country's education system was once the most developed on the [[African continent|continent]], although it continues to suffer from a contemporary decline in public funding linked to [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]] and [[Economy of Zimbabwe|economic mismanagement]].<ref name=":4">UNICEF Zimbabwe (June 2011). "[http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/EEPCT_Global_041511.pdf Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition 2010 Report Evaluation]"(PDF). ''UNICEF''. Retrieved 15 November 2015</ref> A decrease in [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] by 40 percent from 2000 to 2008 marked a period of economic downturn in the first decade of the 21st century.<ref name=":4">UNICEF Zimbabwe (June 2011). "Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition 2010 Report Evaluation"(PDF). ''UNICEF''.</ref> Social expenditures on health and education also decreased by more than half.<ref name=":4">UNICEF Zimbabwe (June 2011). "Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition 2010 Report Evaluation"(PDF). ''UNICEF''.</ref> [[File:En-Zimbabwe cancels education year for 4.5 million after political and economic troubles.ogg|thumb|Zimbabwe cancels education year for 4.5 million after political and economic troubles in 2008.]]


By the end of 2008, most schools and hospitals were shut down due to thousands of teachers leaving the profession, an economic crisis, an increase in [[HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|HIV and AIDS,]] and an [[Zimbabwean cholera outbreak|outbreak of cholera]] in 2008 leading to a national epidemic.<ref>{{Cite report |author=World Bank |authorlink= |coauthors= |date= 2011 |title= Challenges in financing education, health, and social protection expenditures in Zimbabwe |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2011/02/16630493/zimbabwe-public-expenditure-notes-vol-3-4-challenges-financing-education-health-social-protection-expenditures-zimbabwe |publisher= World Bank|page= |docket= |accessdate= 21 October 2015|quote= }} </ref> [[UNICEF]] asserted that 94 percent of rural schools, serving the majority of the population were closed in 2009 and 66 of 70 schools abandoned.<ref name=":9">UNICEF. ''Zimbabwe education crisis worsens''. UNICEF 2009 (http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/media_47915.html)</ref> During this period of time [[UNICEF]] also claimed that attendance rates plummeted from over 80 percent to 20 percent.<ref name=":9">UNICEF. ''Zimbabwe education crisis worsens''. UNICEF 2009 (http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/media_47915.html)</ref> The economy regained momentum after 2009 once an [[2008–09 Zimbabwean political negotiations|inclusionary government]] was formed called the [[Zimbabwe Government of National Unity of 2009|Government of National Unity]] to resolve national challenges.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Zimbabwe: Picking Up the Pieces|last = Besada|first = Hany|publisher = PALGRAVE MACMILLAN|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-230-11019-9|location = New York|pages = 29}}</ref> The Government of National Unity suspended the [[Zimbabwean dollar|Zimbabwe currency]] to full [[dollarization]], reducing hyperinflation and increased social expenditures.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2011/5/cj31n2-9.pdf|title = Dollarization: The Case of Zimbabwe|last = Noko|first = Joseph|date = 2011|journal = Cato Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 20 November 2015|publisher = Cato Institute|volume = 3|issue = 2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = How Zimbabwe and the Dollar Beat Inflation|url = http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704050204576218690273479676|newspaper = Wall Street Journal|access-date = 2015-11-20|issn = 0099-9660|date = 29 March 2011}}</ref>
By the end of 2008, most schools and hospitals were shut down due to thousands of teachers leaving the profession, an economic crisis, an increase in [[HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe|HIV and AIDS,]] and an [[Zimbabwean cholera outbreak|outbreak of cholera]] in 2008 leading to a national epidemic.<ref>{{Cite report |author = World Bank|authorlink = |coauthors = |date = 2011|title = Challenges in financing education, health, and social protection expenditures in Zimbabwe|url = http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2011/02/16630493/zimbabwe-public-expenditure-notes-vol-3-4-challenges-financing-education-health-social-protection-expenditures-zimbabwe|publisher = World Bank|page = 1-78|docket = |accessdate = 21 October 2015|quote = }} </ref> [[UNICEF]] asserted that 94 percent of rural schools, serving the majority of the population were closed in 2009 and 66 of 70 schools abandoned.<ref name=":9">UNICEF (2009). ''[http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/media_47915.html) Zimbabwe education crisis worsens]''. UNICEF. Retrieved 1 October 2015.</ref> During this period of time [[UNICEF]] also claimed that attendance rates plummeted from over 80 percent to 20 percent.<ref name=":9">UNICEF. ''Zimbabwe education crisis worsens''. UNICEF 2009 (http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/media_47915.html)</ref> The economy regained momentum after 2009 once an [[2008–09 Zimbabwean political negotiations|inclusionary government]] was formed called the [[Zimbabwe Government of National Unity of 2009|Government of National Unity]] to resolve national challenges.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Zimbabwe: Picking Up the Pieces|last = Besada|first = Hany|publisher = Palgrave MacMillan|year = 2011|isbn = 978-0-230-11019-9|location = New York|pages = 29|access-date = 20 November 2015|url = http://www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/view/10.1057/9780230116436}}</ref> The Government of National Unity suspended the [[Zimbabwean dollar|Zimbabwe currency]] to full [[dollarization]], reducing hyperinflation and increased social expenditures.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2011/5/cj31n2-9.pdf|title = Dollarization: The Case of Zimbabwe|last = Noko|first = Joseph|date = 2011|journal = Cato Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 20 November 2015|publisher = Cato Institute|volume = 3|issue = 2|page = 339-343}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title = How Zimbabwe and the Dollar Beat Inflation|url = http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704050204576218690273479676|newspaper = Wall Street Journal|access-date = 20 November 2015|issn = 0099-9660|date = 29 March 2011}}</ref>


Zimbabwe's focus on expanding education opportunities for the past 25 years has lead to national accomplishments including having the highest [[Literacy|literacy rate]] in Africa at 91 percent from ages 15 to 24.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url = http://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/EPDC%20NEP_Zimbabwe.pdf|title = Education Policy and Data Center|date = 2014|accessdate = 21 October 2015|website = National Education Profile: Zimbabwe|publisher = FHI360|last = |first = }}</ref> As of 2014, 3,120,000 pupils were enrolled in primary and secondary education and 76 percent of these students were enrolled in primary education.<ref name=":14" />
Zimbabwe's focus on expanding education opportunities for the past 25 years has lead to national accomplishments including having the highest [[Literacy|literacy rate]] in Africa at 91 percent from ages 15 to 24.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url = http://www.epdc.org/sites/default/files/documents/EPDC%20NEP_Zimbabwe.pdf|title = Education Policy and Data Center|date = 2014|accessdate = 21 October 2015|website = National Education Profile: Zimbabwe|publisher = FHI360|last = |first = }}</ref> As of 2014, 3,120,000 pupils were enrolled in primary and secondary education and 76 percent of these students were enrolled in primary education.<ref name=":14" />
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=== Non-discriminatory policies ===
=== Non-discriminatory policies ===
After nearly a century of British colonial rule, the [[Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front|Zimbabwe African National Union]] took over Zimbabwe and formed an independent country in 1980. The newly formed government created free and compulsory primary and secondary education, valuing education as a fundamental right.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-34-0-000-13-Web/JSS-34-2-000-13-Abst-PDF/JSS-34-2-135-13-1401-Pretorius-S-C/JSS-34-2-135-13-1401-Pretorius-S-C-Tx[5].pmd.pdf|title = The Legal Framework Governing Parental Involvement with Education in Zimbabwe|last = The Legal Framework Governing Parental Involvement
After nearly a century of British colonial rule, the [[Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front|Zimbabwe African National Union]] took over Zimbabwe and formed an independent country in 1980. The newly formed government created free and compulsory primary and secondary education, valuing education as a fundamental right.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-34-0-000-13-Web/JSS-34-2-000-13-Abst-PDF/JSS-34-2-135-13-1401-Pretorius-S-C/JSS-34-2-135-13-1401-Pretorius-S-C-Tx[5].pmd.pdf|title = The Legal Framework Governing Parental Involvement with Education in Zimbabwe|last = The Legal Framework Governing Parental Involvement
with Education in Zimbabwe|first = S.G.|date = 2013|journal = The Social Science Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 1 November 2015|last2 = Ngwenya|first2 = V.C.}}</ref> This fundamental right was clearly articulated in the Education Act of 1987.<ref name=":29">{{Cite web|url = http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/ZIM_01-803.pdf|title = A Study on Children and Adolescents with Disabilities in Zimbabwe|date = |accessdate = 20 November 2015|website = UNICEF|publisher = UNICEF|last = |first = }}</ref> The act also abolished all methods of discrimination from the Education Act of 1979.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Education in Zimbabwe: Issues of Quality and Quantity|last = Colclough|first = C.|publisher = Swedish International Development Authority|year = 1990|isbn = |location = Sweden|pages = 151-152|last2 = Ltifstedt|url = http://www.sida.se/contentassets/0f4632bccb7f4b6eb459c132715c4c58/education-in-zimbabwe---issues-of-quantity-and-quality_3621.pdf|last3 = Manduvi-Moyo|first3 = J|last4 = Maravanyika,|first2 = J.I|first4 = O.E.|first5 = W.S.|last5 = Ngwata|access-date = 20 November 2015}}</ref>
with Education in Zimbabwe|first = S.G.|date = 2013|journal = The Social Science Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 1 November 2015|last2 = Ngwenya|first2 = V.C.|volume = 34|issue = 2|page = 135-144}}</ref> This fundamental right was clearly articulated in the Education Act of 1987.<ref name=":29">{{Cite web|url = http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/ZIM_01-803.pdf|title = A Study on Children and Adolescents with Disabilities in Zimbabwe|date = |accessdate = 20 November 2015|website = UNICEF|publisher = UNICEF|last = |first = }}</ref> The act also abolished all methods of discrimination from the Education Act of 1979.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Education in Zimbabwe: Issues of Quality and Quantity|last = Colclough|first = C.|publisher = Swedish International Development Authority|year = 1990|isbn = |location = Sweden|pages = 151-152|last2 = Ltifstedt|url = http://www.sida.se/contentassets/0f4632bccb7f4b6eb459c132715c4c58/education-in-zimbabwe---issues-of-quantity-and-quality_3621.pdf|last3 = Manduvi-Moyo|first3 = J|last4 = Maravanyika,|first2 = J.I|first4 = O.E.|first5 = W.S.|last5 = Ngwata|access-date = 20 November 2015}}</ref>


The Education Act of 1996 and the Disabled Persons Act of 1996 furthered non-discriminatory policy by requiring "that all students, regardless of race, religion, gender, creed, and disability, have access to basic or primary education (up to Grade 7)."<ref name=":24" /> These non discrimination provisions expanded the right to education in Zimbabwe for all students, including students with disabilities.<ref name=":29" />
The Education Act of 1996 and the Disabled Persons Act of 1996 furthered non-discriminatory policy by requiring "that all students, regardless of race, religion, gender, creed, and disability, have access to basic or primary education (up to Grade 7)."<ref name=":24" /> These non discrimination provisions expanded the right to education in Zimbabwe for all students, including students with disabilities.<ref name=":29" />
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=== Education ministries ===
=== Education ministries ===
In 2013, the government created the [[Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture (Zimbabwe)|Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture]] to foster social cohesion, economic empowerment and educational development in primary and secondary schools.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Ministry of Sport Arts and Culture - About MoSAC|url = http://www.mosac.gov.zw/index.php/features|website = www.mosac.gov.zw|accessdate = 2 November 2015}}</ref> The Minister of the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture was [[Andrew Langa]] until [[President Mugabe]] fired Langa in September 2015.<ref name=":31">{{Cite web|title = Sports minister Andrew Langa fired|url = http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-24886-BREAKING+Minister+Andrew+Langa+fired/news.aspx|website = New Zimbabwe|accessdate = 2 November 2015|date = 17 September 2015}}</ref> Langa was replaced by Makhosini Hlongwan and the ministry has changed to become the [[Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture (Zimbabwe)|Ministry of Sports and Recreation]].<ref name=":31">{{Cite web|title = Sports minister Andrew Langa fired|url = http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-24886-BREAKING+Minister+Andrew+Langa+fired/news.aspx|website = www.newzimbabwe.com|accessdate = 2015-11-02|date = 17 September 2015}}</ref>
In 2013, the government created the [[Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture (Zimbabwe)|Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture]] to foster social cohesion, economic empowerment and educational development in primary and secondary schools.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Ministry of Sport Arts and Culture - About MoSAC|url = http://www.mosac.gov.zw/index.php/features|website = MOSAC Government|accessdate = 2 November 2015}}</ref> The Minister of the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture was [[Andrew Langa]] until [[President Mugabe]] fired Langa in September 2015.<ref name=":31">{{Cite web|title = Sports minister Andrew Langa fired|url = http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-24886-BREAKING+Minister+Andrew+Langa+fired/news.aspx|website = New Zimbabwe|accessdate = 2 November 2015|date = 17 September 2015}}</ref> Langa was replaced by Makhosini Hlongwan and the ministry has changed to become the [[Ministry of Education, Sport and Culture (Zimbabwe)|Ministry of Sports and Recreation]].<ref name=":31">{{Cite web|title = Sports minister Andrew Langa fired|url = http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-24886-BREAKING+Minister+Andrew+Langa+fired/news.aspx|website = www.newzimbabwe.com|accessdate = 2015-11-02|date = 17 September 2015}}</ref>


Currently, government primary and secondary schools are run by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) and non-government schools are run by local authorities including churches and non-profit organizations.<ref name=":18">Chikoko, Vitallis. "The Role Of Parent Governors In School Governance In Zimbabwe: Perceptions Of School Heads, Teachers And Parent Governors." ''International Review Of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft'' 54.2 (2008): 243-263. ''Academic Search Complete''. Web. 2 Nov. 2015.</ref> The Minister of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education is [[Lazarus Dokora]]. The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development  (MoHTES&TD) oversees public and private universities and technical and teacher education. The minster of the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development is [[Jonathan Moyo]].<ref name=":18" />
Currently, government primary and secondary schools are run by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) and non-government schools are run by local authorities including churches and non-profit organizations.<ref name=":18">Chikoko, Vitallis. "The Role Of Parent Governors In School Governance In Zimbabwe: Perceptions Of School Heads, Teachers And Parent Governors." ''International Review Of Education / Internationale Zeitschrift Für Erziehungswissenschaft'' 54.2 (2008): 243-263. ''Academic Search Complete''. Retrieved November 2015. </ref> The Minister of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education is [[Lazarus Dokora]]. The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development  (MoHTES&TD) oversees public and private universities and technical and teacher education. The minster of the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development is [[Jonathan Moyo]].<ref name=":18" />


== Education stages ==
== Education stages ==
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=== Early education ===
=== Early education ===
Preschools are directed by the Early Childhood Development (ECD) system under the Ministry of Primary and Second Education. [[Early childhood education]] is offered for children from the ages of three to five through the ECD.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|url = http://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/123456789/5368/Tichagwa,%20K.%20%20ZJER%20%20vol.24,%20no.1.pdf?sequence=1|title = An Evaluation of the Mushrooming of new 'Independent Colleges' in Zimbabwe
Preschools are directed by the Early Childhood Development (ECD) system under the Ministry of Primary and Second Education. [[Early childhood education]] is offered for children from the ages of three to five through the ECD.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|url = http://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/123456789/5368/Tichagwa,%20K.%20%20ZJER%20%20vol.24,%20no.1.pdf?sequence=1|title = An Evaluation of the Mushrooming of new 'Independent Colleges' in Zimbabwe with Special Emphasis on the Education of the Urban Child, 2000-2009|last = Tichagwa|first = K|date = March 2012|journal = Zimbabwe Journal of Education Research|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 1 October 2015|issue = 1|volume = 24|page = 36-46}}</ref> According to [[United Nations]] and the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality, Zimbabwe is prioritizing and expanding Early Childhood Development to be offered at primary schools.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title = Education Fact Sheet: SACMEQ|url = http://www.sacmeq.org/?q=sacmeq-members/zimbabwe/education-fact-sheet|website = The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality|accessdate = 20 November 2015|publisher = The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title = Millennium Development Goals Progress Report|last = United Nations Zimbabwe|first = |publisher = |year = 2012|isbn = |location = |pages = 25–28|url = http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Zimbabwe/Zimbabwe%20MDG%20Report%202012.pdf|access-date = 10 October 2015}}</ref> These programs are currently available in mostly urban areas and can be owned by the government, organizations or individuals.<ref name=":11" /> In fact, 98 percent of primary schools have ECD centers for ages four to five and 60 percent of primary schools have ECD centers for ages three to four with trained teachers.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title = Millennium Development Goals Progress Report|last = United Nations Zimbabwe|first = |publisher = |year = 2012|isbn = |location = |pages = 25–28|url = http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Zimbabwe/Zimbabwe%20MDG%20Report%202012.pdf}}</ref>
with Special Emphasis on the Education of the Urban Child, 2000-2009|last = Tichagwa|first = K|date = March 2012|journal = Zimbabwe Journal of Education Research|doi = |pmid = |access-date = |issue = 1}}</ref> According to [[United Nations]] and the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality, Zimbabwe is prioritizing and expanding Early Childhood Development to be offered at primary schools.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web|title = Education Fact Sheet: SACMEQ|url = http://www.sacmeq.org/?q=sacmeq-members/zimbabwe/education-fact-sheet|website = The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality|accessdate = 20 November 2015|publisher = The Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality}}</ref><ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title = Millennium Development Goals Progress Report|last = United Nations Zimbabwe|first = |publisher = |year = 2012|isbn = |location = |pages = 25–28|url = http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Zimbabwe/Zimbabwe%20MDG%20Report%202012.pdf|access-date = 10 October 2015}}</ref> These programs are currently available in mostly urban areas and can be owned by the government, organizations or individuals.<ref name=":11" /> In fact, 98 percent of primary schools have ECD centers for ages four to five and 60 percent of primary schools have ECD centers for ages three to four with trained teachers.<ref name=":23">{{Cite book|title = Millennium Development Goals Progress Report|last = United Nations Zimbabwe|first = |publisher = |year = 2012|isbn = |location = |pages = 25–28|url = http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Zimbabwe/Zimbabwe%20MDG%20Report%202012.pdf}}</ref>


=== Primary education ===
=== Primary education ===
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[[File:School training (5570798960).jpg|thumb|Primary school classroom and lecture in Zimbabwe.]]
[[File:School training (5570798960).jpg|thumb|Primary school classroom and lecture in Zimbabwe.]]
Zimbabwe's education system mandates seven years of primary school, encompassing Grades 1 to 7.<ref name="usapglobal.org">"Education in Zimbabwe | UsapGlobal". ''www.usapglobal.org''. Retrieved 2015-10-10.</ref> Urban primary schools teach in English.<ref name=":8" /> Rural primary schools teach students in their local native language, typically in [[Shona language|Shona]] or [[Ndebele]], then transition to [[English]] by Grade 3.<ref name=":8" /> Student to teacher ratios are typically from 30 to 50 students per teacher and vary based on the [[Economy of Zimbabwe|country's economic state]] and yearly budget for education.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":33">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Education spending, percent of GDP - data, chart {{!}} TheGlobalEconomy.com|url = http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Zimbabwe/Education_spending/|website = TheGlobalEconomy.com|accessdate = 2015-10-21}}</ref> The curriculum in primary schools encompasses language, art, contents and math.<ref name=":11" /> Based on the Education Secretary's Policy Circular No. 12 in 1987, "the minimum expected educational outcome for all students is [[Functional illiteracy|functional literacy]] and [[numeracy]] by the end of primary school."<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00094056.2007.10522947|title = Inclusive Education in Zimbabwe: Policy, Curriculum, Practice, Family, and Teacher Education Issues|last = Mutepfa|first = Magen|date = 2007|journal = Childhood Education|doi = 10.1080/00094056.2007.10522947|pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|last2 = Mpofu|first2 = Elias|edition = |year = |first3 = Tsitsi|last1 = |last3 = Chataika}}</ref>
Zimbabwe's education system mandates seven years of [[primary school]], encompassing Grades 1 to 7.<ref name="usapglobal.org">[http://www.usapglobal.org/zimbabwe/education.htm "Education in Zimbabwe | UsapGloba]l". ''USAP Global.'' Retrieved 10 October 2015.</ref> Urban primary schools teach in English.<ref name=":8" /> Rural primary schools teach students in their local native language, typically in [[Shona language|Shona]] or [[Ndebele]], then transition to [[English]] by Grade 3.<ref name=":8" /> Student to teacher ratios are typically from 30 to 50 students per teacher and vary based on the [[Economy of Zimbabwe|country's economic state]] and yearly budget for education.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":33">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Education spending, percent of GDP|url = http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Zimbabwe/Education_spending/|website = The Global Economy|accessdate = 21 October 2015}}</ref> The curriculum in primary schools encompasses language, art, contents and math.<ref name=":11" /> Based on the Education Secretary's Policy Circular No. 12 in 1987, "the minimum expected educational outcome for all students is [[Functional illiteracy|functional literacy]] and [[numeracy]] by the end of primary school."<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00094056.2007.10522947|title = Inclusive Education in Zimbabwe: Policy, Curriculum, Practice, Family, and Teacher Education Issues|last = Mutepfa|first = Magen|date = 2007|journal = Childhood Education|doi = 10.1080/00094056.2007.10522947|pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|last2 = Mpofu|first2 = Elias|edition = |year = |first3 = Tsitsi|last1 = |last3 = Chataika|volume = 83|issue = 6|page = 342-346}}</ref>


At the end of Grade 7, students take a national examination in Mathematics, English, Shona or Ndebele and the General Paper covering [[Social Sciences]], [[Environmental science|Environmental Science]] and [[Religious education|Religious Education]].<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Health & Education|url = http://www.zimembassy.se/health.html|website = Embassy of Zimbabwe|accessdate = 21 October 2015|publisher = Embassy of Zimbabwe|date = 2007}}</ref> Zimbabwe's government system requires education for all, but this examination can determine the type of secondary education students can attend based on the secondary school's criteria.<ref name=":10" /> Private or missionary schools typically have performance requirements, but many rural public schools allow "mass admission" regardless of performance on the examination.<ref name=":10" />
At the end of Grade 7, students take a national examination in Mathematics, English, Shona or Ndebele and the General Paper covering [[Social Sciences]], [[Environmental science|Environmental Science]] and [[Religious education|Religious Education]].<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Health & Education|url = http://www.zimembassy.se/health.html|website = Embassy of Zimbabwe|accessdate = 21 October 2015|publisher = Embassy of Zimbabwe|date = 2007}}</ref> Zimbabwe's government system requires education for all, but this examination can determine the type of secondary education students can attend based on the secondary school's criteria.<ref name=":10" /> Private or missionary schools typically have performance requirements, but many rural public schools allow "mass admission" regardless of performance on the examination.<ref name=":10" />
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{{See also|List of schools in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Chisungu school open day (5566871861).jpg|thumb|School children outside of Chisungu secondary school. ]]
{{See also|List of schools in Zimbabwe}} [[File:Chisungu school open day (5566871861).jpg|thumb|School children outside of Chisungu secondary school. ]]


Secondary education is not funded by the government and students can attend private boarding school, government boarding school or day school all with an enrollment fee.<ref name=":10" /> Secondary education is made of two cycles, the General Certificate of Education, or Ordinary Level, for four years and the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level cycle, or Advanced Level, for two years.<ref name=":10" /> This system was adopted from the [[Education in the United Kingdom|British system of education]].<ref name=":33">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Education spending, percent of GDP - data, chart {{!}} TheGlobalEconomy.com|url = http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Zimbabwe/Education_spending/|website = TheGlobalEconomy.com|accessdate = 2015-10-21}}</ref>
[[Secondary education]] is not funded by the government and students can attend private boarding school, government boarding school or day school all with an enrollment fee.<ref name=":10" /> Secondary education is made of two cycles, the General Certificate of Education, or Ordinary Level, for four years and the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level cycle, or Advanced Level, for two years.<ref name=":10" /> This system was adopted from the [[Education in the United Kingdom|British system of education]].<ref name=":33">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Education spending, percent of GDP - data, chart {{!}} TheGlobalEconomy.com|url = http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Zimbabwe/Education_spending/|website = TheGlobalEconomy.com|accessdate = 2015-10-21}}</ref>


Students take classes in mathematics, English, science, Shona or Ndebele, geography, and history. The Ordinary Level Certificate Examination is taken after four years in Grade 11 and expects students to pass a minimum of five subjects including science, english, mathematics, history and a practical subject like woodwork or agriculture.<ref name=":12" /> This examination is ranked on a letter scale and can determine student achievement, selection for "A-Level" schools and employment status.<ref name=":10" />
Students take classes in mathematics, English, science, Shona or Ndebele, geography, and history. The Ordinary Level Certificate Examination is taken after four years in Grade 11 and expects students to pass a minimum of five subjects including science, english, mathematics, history and a practical subject like woodwork or agriculture.<ref name=":12" /> This examination is ranked on a letter scale and can determine student achievement, selection for "A-Level" schools and employment status.<ref name=":10" />


Students have the option to enroll in A-Level secondary education or can attend teacher’s training, technical, agricultural, polytechnic, and nursing colleges. If a student chooses to enroll in A-Level education, they must take the Advanced Level Certificate Examination after a total of six years of secondary education administered by [[Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council]].<ref name=":10" /> The "A-Level" examination is required for entry to [[List of universities in Zimbabwe|universities]] in Zimbabwe.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Education spending, percent of GDP - data, chart {{!}} TheGlobalEconomy.com|url = http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Zimbabwe/Education_spending/|website = TheGlobalEconomy.com|accessdate = 2015-10-21}}</ref>
Students have the option to enroll in A-Level secondary education or can attend teacher training, technical, agricultural, polytechnic, and nursing colleges. If a student chooses to enroll in A-Level education, they must take the Advanced Level Certificate Examination after a total of six years of secondary education administered by [[Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council]].<ref name=":10" /> The "A-Level" examination is required for entry to [[List of universities in Zimbabwe|universities]] in Zimbabwe.<ref name=":33">{{Cite web|title = Zimbabwe Education spending, percent of GDP - data, chart {{!}} TheGlobalEconomy.com|url = http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Zimbabwe/Education_spending/|website = TheGlobalEconomy.com|accessdate = 2015-10-21}}</ref>


=== Tertiary education ===
=== Tertiary education ===
{{See also|List of universities in Zimbabwe}}[[File:Main_Building_at_Cornway_College.jpg|thumb|245x245px|The Main Building at Cornway College in Zimbabwe.]]The [[Tertiary education|tertiary sector]] of education is operated by the [[Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education (Zimbabwe)|Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education]] which includes universities, technical, polytechnic and teacher training colleges and various vocational training centers.<ref name=":10" /> Tertiary education was first introduced to Zimbabwe in 1957 by the [[University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]], now known as the [[University of Zimbabwe]]. The nation's independence in 1980 increased the University of Zimbabwe's enrollment from 2,240 to 9,017 by 1990.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Quality assurance in higher education in Zimbabwe|last = Chiyevo Garwe|first = Evelyn|date = 2013|journal = Research in Higher Education Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 2 November 2015}}</ref> The [[National Council for Higher Education, Zimbabwe|National Council for Higher Education]] was established in 1990 as a measure for quality insurance of higher education in Zimbabwe. Increasing access to education in recent decades has increased the number of higher level institutions in the country. For example, eight more universities were established between 1999 and 2005. The Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE) was formed in 2006 as another measure to guarantee quality and accreditation for university education.<ref name=":20" /> As of 2012, there were fifteen registered universities (nine public and five private), fifteen teachers' colleges, eight polytechnics and two industrial training colleges.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.rice.edu/docview/1535263267?accountid=7064|title = Quality assurance in higher education in Zimbabwe|last = Garwe|first = Evelyn Chiyevo|date = 2014|journal = Research in Higher Education|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|pages = 1–10}}</ref>
{{See also|List of universities in Zimbabwe}}[[File:Main_Building_at_Cornway_College.jpg|thumb|245x245px|The Main Building at Cornway College in Zimbabwe.]]The [[Tertiary education|tertiary sector]] of education is operated by the [[Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education (Zimbabwe)|Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education]] which includes universities, technical, polytechnic and teacher training colleges and various vocational training centers.<ref name=":10" /> Tertiary education was first introduced to Zimbabwe in 1957 by the [[University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland]], now known as the [[University of Zimbabwe]]. The nation's independence in 1980 increased the University of Zimbabwe's enrollment from 2,240 to 9,017 by 1990.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/131745.pdf|title = Quality assurance in higher education in Zimbabwe|last = Chiyevo Garwe|first = Evelyn|date = 2013|journal = Research in Higher Education Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 2 November 2015|page = 1-10}}</ref> The [[National Council for Higher Education, Zimbabwe|National Council for Higher Education]] was established in 1990 as a measure for quality insurance of higher education in Zimbabwe. Increasing access to education in recent decades has increased the number of higher level institutions in the country. For example, eight more universities were established between 1999 and 2005. The Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE) was formed in 2006 as another measure to guarantee quality and accreditation for university education.<ref name=":20" /> As of 2012, there were fifteen registered universities (nine public and five private), fifteen teachers' colleges, eight polytechnics and two industrial training colleges.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.rice.edu/docview/1535263267?accountid=7064|title = Quality assurance in higher education in Zimbabwe|last = Garwe|first = Evelyn Chiyevo|date = April 2014|journal = Research in Higher Education|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|pages = 1–10|issue = |volume = 23}}</ref>


== Recent factors affecting education in Zimbabwe ==
== Recent factors affecting education in Zimbabwe ==


=== Access to a quality education ===
=== Access to a quality education ===
Despite the initiative during independence to rapidly expand education opportunities, the demand for education was still greater than the supply. Education quality was hindered by teacher shortages, infrastructural pressure and [[Economic crisis of 2008|economic crisis]] in the past decade.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web|title = Millennium Development Goal 2|url = http://www.zw.undp.org/content/zimbabwe/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg2/|website = UNDP in Zimbabwe|accessdate = 2015-11-20|date = |publisher = UNDP}}</ref> UNICEF claims that only a third of schools are considered to be in "good condition."<ref name=":30" /> Schools also face capacity challenges, including double session schooling, or "hot seating," and overcrowded classrooms.<ref name=":2" /> "Hot seating" means that half of students attend school in the morning and the second half attends school in the afternoon.<ref name=":2" /> These methods enable more pupils to attend school, but quality declines because students are given less attention and time to learn.<ref name=":2" />[[File:Gateway_Art.jpg|thumb|A student works on a school project at Gateway High School in Zimbabwe.]]Quality of education is also impacted by the lack of trained teachers in secondary schools. A majority of teaching colleges in Zimbabwe are for primary school, leaving less opportunity to meet the demand of trained secondary school teachers.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/2295630seq=19#page_scan_tab_contents|title = A Decade of Educational Expansion in Zimbabwe: Causes, Consequences, and Policy Contradictions|last = Nhundu|first = Tichatonga J.|date = 1992|journal = The Journal of Negro Education|doi = 10.2307/2295630|pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015}}</ref> Access to education is rural areas is concerning, considering the shortage of teachers due to unfavorable [[working conditions]] and low compensation.<ref name=":7">Stanley Kwenda. ''Zimbabwe’s School System Crumbles''. IPS 2008 (http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=44756). Retrieved 13 September 2011</ref> Many teachers in rural areas lack training due to the high demand for labor and less concern for quality.<ref name=":7">Stanley Kwenda. ''Zimbabwe’s School System Crumbles''. IPS 2008 (http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=44756). Retrieved 13 September 2011</ref> Not only are teachers under compensated, but teaching materials are also are allocated less than one percent of the federal budget for education.<ref name=":26" />
Despite the initiative during independence to rapidly expand education opportunities, the demand for education was still greater than the supply. Education quality was hindered by teacher shortages, infrastructural pressure and [[Economic crisis of 2008|economic crisis]] in the past decade.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web|title = Millennium Development Goal 2|url = http://www.zw.undp.org/content/zimbabwe/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg2/|website = UNDP in Zimbabwe|accessdate = 2015-11-20|date = |publisher = UNDP}}</ref> UNICEF claims that only a third of schools are considered to be in "good condition."<ref name=":30" /> Schools also face capacity challenges, including double session schooling, or "hot seating," and overcrowded classrooms.<ref name=":2" /> "Hot seating" means that half of students attend school in the morning and the second half attends school in the afternoon.<ref name=":2" /> These methods enable more pupils to attend school, but quality declines because students are given less attention and time to learn.<ref name=":2" />[[File:Gateway_Art.jpg|thumb|A student works on a school project at Gateway High School in Zimbabwe.]]Quality of education is also impacted by the lack of trained teachers in secondary schools. A majority of teaching colleges in Zimbabwe are for primary school, leaving less opportunity to meet the demand of trained secondary school teachers.<ref name=":26">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/2295630seq=19#page_scan_tab_contents|title = A Decade of Educational Expansion in Zimbabwe: Causes, Consequences, and Policy Contradictions|last = Nhundu|first = Tichatonga J.|date = 1992|journal = The Journal of Negro Education|doi = 10.2307/2295630|pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|page = 78-98|volume = 6|issue = 1|publisher = ERIC}}</ref> Access to education is rural areas is concerning, considering the shortage of teachers due to unfavorable [[working conditions]] and low compensation.<ref name=":7">Stanley Kwenda (18 November 2008). ''[http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=44756 Zimbabwe’s School System Crumbles]''. Inter Press Service. Retrieved 13 September 2011.</ref> Many teachers in rural areas lack training due to the high demand for labor and less concern for quality.<ref name=":7">Stanley Kwenda. ''Zimbabwe’s School System Crumbles''. IPS 2008 (http://ipsnews.net/africa/nota.asp?idnews=44756). Retrieved 13 September 2011</ref> Not only are teachers under compensated, but teaching materials are also are allocated less than one percent of the federal budget for education.<ref name=":26" />


=== Funding ===
=== Funding ===
Zimbabwe's education reform in 1980 aspired to provide free and universal education to all children through the Zimbabwe Education Act; however, tuition fees and education costs have accumulated over time.<ref>"For Zimbabweans, Universal Education May be an Unattainable Goal | Inter Press Service". ''www.ipsnews.net''. Retrieved 2015-10-19.</ref> Many families pay for [[Tuition payments|tuition]], even if it is a small fee at public government schools.<ref name=":11" /> Families that do not pay for tuition due to education subsidies are still required to pay additional fees including building fees, transportation costs, exam fees, uniforms and stationary for their children.<ref name=":3" /> Education is not completely free in Zimbabwe due to historical government expenditures on infrastructure for education and recent years of global economic crisis.<ref name=":3" /> Programs like the Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM) have been developed to prevent [[Orphan|orphans]] and vulnerable children from dropping out of primary school due to the expenses. BEAM pays for tuition and other basic fees, but only is able to serve less than half of the target population.<ref name=":23" /> As of 2014, only 10 percent of pupils ages 15 to 24 have not completed primary education as of 2014 which can be attributed to the [[Opportunity cost|cost of education]].<ref name=":14" />
Zimbabwe's education reform in 1980 aspired to provide free and universal education to all children through the Zimbabwe Education Act; however, tuition fees and education costs have accumulated over time.<ref>Moyo, Jeffrey (24 December 2014). "[http://www.ipsnews.net/2014/12/for-zimbabweans-universal-education-may-be-an-unattainable-goal/ For Zimbabweans, Universal Education May be an Unattainable Goal] | Inter Press Service." Inter Press Service News. Retrieved 19 October 2015.</ref> Many families pay for [[Tuition payments|tuition]], even if it is a small fee at public government schools.<ref name=":11" /> Families that do not pay for tuition due to education subsidies are still required to pay additional fees including building fees, transportation costs, exam fees, uniforms and stationary for their children.<ref name=":3" /> Education is not completely free in Zimbabwe due to historical government expenditures on infrastructure for education and recent years of global economic crisis.<ref name=":3" /> Programs like the Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM) have been developed to prevent [[Orphan|orphans]] and vulnerable children from dropping out of primary school due to the expenses. BEAM pays for tuition and other basic fees, but only is able to serve less than half of the target population.<ref name=":23" /> As of 2014, only 10 percent of pupils ages 15 to 24 have not completed primary education as of 2014 which can be attributed to the [[Opportunity cost|cost of education]].<ref name=":14" />


=== Students with disabilities ===
=== Students with disabilities ===
It is estimated that over 300,000 school-aged children in Zimbabwe have a [[disability]].<ref name=":24" /> In Zimbabwe, there is a push for inclusionary schools in order to provide quality education for students with [[Physical disability|physical]] and [[mental disabilities]].<ref name=":24" /> Inclusionary schools involve "identification and minimization or elimination of barriers to students’ participation in traditional settings (i.e., schools, homes, communities, and workplaces) and the maximization of resources to support learning and participation."<ref name=":24" /> [[Non-discriminatory|Nondiscriminatory laws]], including the Education Act of 1996 and the Disabled Persons Act of 1996, have not created inclusive education for schools in Zimbabwe and do not protect students experiencing disability from [[Discrimination in education|discrimination]] in high school.<ref name=":29" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-34-0-000-13-Web/JSS-34-3-000-13-Abst-PDF/JSS-34-3-223-13-1413-Chireshe-R/JSS-34-3-223-13-1413-Chireshe-R-Tx[4].pmd.pdf|title = The State of Inclusive Education in Zimbabwe: Bachelor of Education (Special Needs Education) Students’ Perceptions|last = Chireshe|first = Regis|date = 2013|journal = Journal of Social Sciences|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|pages = 223–228}}</ref>
It is estimated that over 300,000 school-aged children in Zimbabwe have a [[disability]].<ref name=":24" /> In Zimbabwe, there is a push for inclusionary schools in order to provide quality education for students with [[Physical disability|physical]] and [[mental disabilities]].<ref name=":24" /> Inclusionary schools involve "identification and minimization or elimination of barriers to students’ participation in traditional settings (i.e., schools, homes, communities, and workplaces) and the maximization of resources to support learning and participation."<ref name=":24" /> [[Non-discriminatory|Nondiscriminatory laws]], including the Education Act of 1996 and the Disabled Persons Act of 1996, have not created inclusive education for schools in Zimbabwe and do not protect students experiencing disability from [[Discrimination in education|discrimination]] in high school.<ref name=":29" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite journal|url = http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-34-0-000-13-Web/JSS-34-3-000-13-Abst-PDF/JSS-34-3-223-13-1413-Chireshe-R/JSS-34-3-223-13-1413-Chireshe-R-Tx[4].pmd.pdf|title = The State of Inclusive Education in Zimbabwe: Bachelor of Education (Special Needs Education) Students’ Perceptions|last = Chireshe|first = Regis|date = 2013|journal = Journal of Social Sciences|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|pages = 223–228|volume = 34|issue = 3}}</ref>


Most schools perform "unplanned or [[De facto|de facto inclusion"]] by keeping students with disabilities in classrooms with all other students and teaching them the same curriculum without documentation of their specific disability.<ref name=":24" /> Teachers and schools are not equipped to [[Special education|educate]] and account for students with disabilities; therefore, most drop out by third grade.<ref name=":24" /> Schools are finding alternative ways of performing inclusionary education on an individual basis, but there is still a lack of standardization and quality, especially for rural schools.<ref name=":24" /> Researcher Regis Chireshe claims inclusionary education needs legislative and policy support, more quality inclusionary education training for teachers and inclusionary education campaigns to improve the [[Stigma|attitude]] in communities about people experiencing disabilities.<ref name=":25" /> The government has recently expanded the Schools Psychological Services and Special Needs Education Division to better serve students experiencing disabilities in education.<ref name=":32" />
Most schools perform "unplanned or [[De facto|de facto inclusion"]] by keeping students with disabilities in classrooms with all other students and teaching them the same curriculum without documentation of their specific disability.<ref name=":24" /> Teachers and schools are not equipped to [[Special education|educate]] and account for students with disabilities; therefore, most drop out by third grade.<ref name=":24" /> Schools are finding alternative ways of performing inclusionary education on an individual basis, but there is still a lack of standardization and quality, especially for rural schools.<ref name=":24" /> Researcher Regis Chireshe claims inclusionary education needs legislative and policy support, more quality inclusionary education training for teachers and inclusionary education campaigns to improve the [[Stigma|attitude]] in communities about people experiencing disabilities.<ref name=":25" /> The government has recently expanded the Schools Psychological Services and Special Needs Education Division to better serve students experiencing disabilities in education.<ref name=":32" />
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[[File:School children in Zimbabwe digging a shallow pit for an Arborloo toilet (a variation of a pit latrine).jpg|thumb|School children in Zimbabwe digging a shallow pit for an Arborloo toilet (a variation of a pit latrine).]]
[[File:School children in Zimbabwe digging a shallow pit for an Arborloo toilet (a variation of a pit latrine).jpg|thumb|School children in Zimbabwe digging a shallow pit for an Arborloo toilet (a variation of a pit latrine).]]


Although education is accepted as a fundamental right by the [[Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2000|constitution]], [[Female education|gender disparities]] in education still exist. Gender differences are less predominant in primary education as it is in secondary education.<ref name=":4" /> The [[United Nations]] Zimbabwe claims that in 2009 85 percent of females compared to 80 percent of males completed primary school.<ref name=":23" /> As of 2010, 48.8 percent of females achieved secondary education or higher while 62 percent of males achieved secondary education or higher.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|title = Trend in the use of modern contraception in sub-Saharan Africa: does women's education matter?|url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010782414000377|journal = Contraception|pages = 154–161|volume = 90|issue = 2|doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2014.02.001|first = Jacques B.O.|last = Emina|first2 = Tobias|last2 = Chirwa|first3 = Ngianga-Bakwin|last3 = Kandala}}</ref>
Although education is accepted as a fundamental right by the [[Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2000|constitution]], [[Female education|gender disparities]] in education still exist. Gender differences are less predominant in primary education as it is in secondary education.<ref name=":4" /> The [[United Nations]] Zimbabwe claims that in 2009 85 percent of females compared to 80 percent of males completed primary school.<ref name=":23" /> As of 2010, 48.8 percent of females achieved secondary education or higher while 62 percent of males achieved secondary education or higher.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal|title = Trend in the use of modern contraception in sub-Saharan Africa: does women's education matter?|url = http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010782414000377|journal = Contraception|pages = 154–161|volume = 90|issue = 2|doi = 10.1016/j.contraception.2014.02.001|first = Jacques B.O.|last = Emina|first2 = Tobias|last2 = Chirwa|first3 = Ngianga-Bakwin|last3 = Kandala|publisher = Elsevier|date = August 2014|access-date = 29 September 2015}}</ref>


Females are increasingly more likely to drop out than their male peers in secondary school due to [[Teen marriages|early marriages]], cost of continuing education and [[gender-based violence]] in secondary schools.<ref name=":4" /> Females are considered a source of income through [[Child marriage|marriage]] so families are more likely to educate their sons to increase their earning potential. A lack of education for females correlates with developmental risks including [[Teenage pregnancy|adolescent pregnancy]], [[HIV/AIDS|HIV and AIDs]], poor health and [[poverty]].<ref name=":21" /> In times of economic hardship, resources for education are allocated to males more than females due to labor roles, [[social values]] and gender expectations.<ref name=":19" /> However, reports from the [[UN Children's Fund]] claim that Zimbabwe's [[gender gap]] in education is smaller than many other [[African Countries|African countries]].<ref name=":21" />
Females are increasingly more likely to drop out than their male peers in secondary school due to [[Teen marriages|early marriages]], cost of continuing education and [[gender-based violence]] in secondary schools.<ref name=":4" /> Females are considered a source of income through [[Child marriage|marriage]] so families are more likely to educate their sons to increase their earning potential. A lack of education for females correlates with developmental risks including [[Teenage pregnancy|adolescent pregnancy]], [[HIV/AIDS|HIV and AIDs]], poor health and [[poverty]].<ref name=":21" /> In times of economic hardship, resources for education are allocated to males more than females due to labor roles, [[social values]] and gender expectations.<ref name=":19" /> However, reports from the [[UN Children's Fund]] claim that Zimbabwe's [[gender gap]] in education is smaller than many other [[African Countries|African countries]].<ref name=":21" />
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[[File:AUSAID SOUTH AFRICA (10672693806).jpg|thumb|Mercy Mehlomakulu, a teacher who has come from Zimbabwe in search of work and who has recently prequalified in South Africa with assistance from AusAid, teaches some of her pupils in St Albert's school which is part of the Methodist Mission, Johannesburg, South Africa on the 4th June, 2009. |272x272px]]
[[File:AUSAID SOUTH AFRICA (10672693806).jpg|thumb|Mercy Mehlomakulu, a teacher who has come from Zimbabwe in search of work and who has recently prequalified in South Africa with assistance from AusAid, teaches some of her pupils in St Albert's school which is part of the Methodist Mission, Johannesburg, South Africa on the 4th June, 2009. |272x272px]]
Marked by a time period of [[hyperinflation]], teachers were one of the lowest paid professions in the 2000s, receiving the equivalence of $10 [[United States dollar|US dollars]] for every three months of teaching. Their salaries in 2009 were as low as one US dollar for every month of teaching.<ref name=":5" /><ref>"Is Zimbabwe's education sector on the road to recovery?".''IRINnews'' (in en-GB). Retrieved 19 October 2015</ref> Thousands of teachers protested, left public education and [[Migration|migrated]] to other countries in response to the [[Economic crisis of 2008|economic crisis]].<sup>[14]</sup> During a year-long strike from 2008 to 2009, teachers demanded higher salaries paid in [[international currency]]. This strike led to nearly 94 percent of all rural schools closing and school attendance rates fell from 80 percent to 20 percent.<ref name=":22">"Zimbabwe education crisis worsens". ''UNICEF''. September 2009. Retrieved 19 October 2015</ref>
Marked by a time period of [[hyperinflation]], teachers were one of the lowest paid professions in the 2000s, receiving the equivalence of $10 [[United States dollar|US dollars]] for every three months of teaching. Their salaries in 2009 were as low as one US dollar for every month of teaching.<ref name=":5" /><ref>IRIN (24 January 2013). "[http://www.irinnews.org/report/97324/is-zimbabwe-s-education-sector-on-the-road-to-recovery Is Zimbabwe's education sector on the road to recovery]?".''IRIN News''. Retrieved 19 October 2015</ref> Thousands of teachers protested, left public education and [[Migration|migrated]] to other countries in response to the [[Economic crisis of 2008|economic crisis]].<sup>[14]</sup> During a year-long strike from 2008 to 2009, teachers demanded higher salaries paid in [[international currency]]. This strike led to nearly 94 percent of all rural schools closing and school attendance rates fell from 80 percent to 20 percent.<ref name=":22">[http://www.unicef.org/media/media_47915.html "Zimbabwe education crisis worsens"]. ''UNICEF''. September 2009. Retrieved 19 October 2015.</ref>


Many teachers joined the informal economy, or [[Black market|black sector]], during the economic crisis by participating in cross-border trading with [[Botswana]] and [[South Africa]] because [[Civil service|civil servants]] were not required to have [[Visa|visas]] at the time.<ref name=":5" /> Teachers would use their off time during the year to hoard goods from other country and resell them in Zimbabwe to earn a livable living that their teaching salaries did not satisfy.<ref name=":5" />
Many teachers joined the informal economy, or [[Black market|black sector]], during the economic crisis by participating in cross-border trading with [[Botswana]] and [[South Africa]] because [[Civil service|civil servants]] were not required to have [[Visa|visas]] at the time.<ref name=":5" /> Teachers would use their off time during the year to hoard goods from other country and resell them in Zimbabwe to earn a livable living that their teaching salaries did not satisfy.<ref name=":5" />
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In 2009, the national economy stabilized because of the actions taken by the newly established [[Zimbabwe Government of National Unity of 2009|Government of National Unity]] (GNU). The GNU enacted the [[dollarization]] of the national economy which curved the effects of [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]] and the [[informal economy]].<ref name=":6">Chagonda, Tapiwa. "Teachers’ and bank workers’ responses to Zimbabwe's crisis: uneven effects, different strategies".''www.academia.edu''. Centre for Sociological Research at University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Retrieved 2015-10-19.</ref> The GNU also allocated every civil servant, including teachers, the equivalence of $100 US dollars.<ref name=":5" /> Teachers were encouraged to reenter the profession and move back to Zimbabwe, but thousands never returned and found higher paying positions elsewhere.<sup>[14]</sup>
In 2009, the national economy stabilized because of the actions taken by the newly established [[Zimbabwe Government of National Unity of 2009|Government of National Unity]] (GNU). The GNU enacted the [[dollarization]] of the national economy which curved the effects of [[Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe|hyperinflation]] and the [[informal economy]].<ref name=":6">Chagonda, Tapiwa. "Teachers’ and bank workers’ responses to Zimbabwe's crisis: uneven effects, different strategies".''www.academia.edu''. Centre for Sociological Research at University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Retrieved 2015-10-19.</ref> The GNU also allocated every civil servant, including teachers, the equivalence of $100 US dollars.<ref name=":5" /> Teachers were encouraged to reenter the profession and move back to Zimbabwe, but thousands never returned and found higher paying positions elsewhere.<sup>[14]</sup>


Thousands of teachers are unmotivated due to low salaries, limited resources, pressure, political harassment and the shortage of teachers.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web|title = Millennium Development Goal 2|url = http://www.zw.undp.org/content/zimbabwe/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg2/|website = UNDP in Zimbabwe|accessdate = 2015-11-20|date = |publisher = UNDP}}</ref> Researchers Regis Chireshe and Almon Shumba claim that teachers believe their [[Teacher education|teacher training]] did not prepare them for the classroom and working with [[special education]]. The researchers also believe that teachers will continue to threaten or actually [[Strike action|strike]] in the future unless their needs are better addressed by the government.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-28-0-000-11-Web/JSS-28-2-000-2011-Abst-Pdf/JSS-28-2-113-11-1184-Chireshe-R/JSS-28-2-113-11-1184-Chireshe-R-Tt.pdf|title = Teaching as a Profession in Zimbabwe: Are Teachers Facing a Motivation Crisis?|last = Regis Chireshe|first = Regis|date = 2011|journal = Journal of Social Science|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 17 November 2015|last2 = Shumba|first2 = Almon|issue = 2|volume = 28}}</ref>
Thousands of teachers are unmotivated due to low salaries, limited resources, pressure, political harassment and the shortage of teachers.<ref name=":30">{{Cite web|title = Millennium Development Goal 2|url = http://www.zw.undp.org/content/zimbabwe/en/home/mdgoverview/overview/mdg2/|website = UNDP in Zimbabwe|accessdate = 2015-11-20|date = |publisher = UNDP}}</ref> Researchers Regis Chireshe and Almon Shumba claim that teachers believe their [[Teacher education|teacher training]] did not prepare them for the classroom and working with [[special education]]. The researchers also believe that teachers will continue to threaten or actually [[Strike action|strike]] in the future unless their needs are better addressed by the government.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/JSS/JSS-28-0-000-11-Web/JSS-28-2-000-2011-Abst-Pdf/JSS-28-2-113-11-1184-Chireshe-R/JSS-28-2-113-11-1184-Chireshe-R-Tt.pdf|title = Teaching as a Profession in Zimbabwe: Are Teachers Facing a Motivation Crisis?|last = Chireshe|first = Regis|date = 2011|journal = Journal of Social Sciences|doi = |pmid = |access-date = 20 November 2015|page = 113-118|issue = 2|volume = 28}}</ref>


=== Textbooks ===
=== Textbooks ===
In 2009, the Educational Transition Fund (ETF) was launched to improve the quality of education through distribution resources and education materials.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|title = "The Future We Want" A Report by the Government of Zimbabwe|last = Zimbabwe Government|first = |publisher = United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
In 2009, the Educational Transition Fund (ETF) was launched to improve the quality of education through distribution resources and education materials.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|title = "The Future We Want" A Report by the Government of Zimbabwe|last = Zimbabwe Government|first = |publisher = United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development
2012|year = 2012|isbn = |location = Rio|pages = 21-27|url = https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1025Zimbabwe_Final_Rio+20_Report.pdf}}</ref> This became a platform to partner with [[UNICEF]] and for donors to financially support the education sector of Zimbabwe. Accumulation and distribution of textbooks has been the focus of ETF in recent years. In 2008, The National Education Advisory Board states that 20 percent of students did not have [[Textbook|textbooks]] for core subjects and the pupil to textbook ratio was 10:1.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|title = "The Future We Want" A Report by the Government of Zimbabwe|last = Zimbabwe Government|first = |publisher = |year = 2012|isbn = |location = |pages = |url = https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1025Zimbabwe_Final_Rio+20_Report.pdf}}</ref> Thousands of textbooks have been donated in the past few years along with additional learning materials. [[UNICEF]] currently reports that the pupil to textbook ratio is now 1:1 because of the aid from ETF.<ref name=":17" />
2012|year = 2012|isbn = |location = Rio|pages = 21-27|url = https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1025Zimbabwe_Final_Rio+20_Report.pdf|access-date = 15 November 2015}}</ref> This became a platform to partner with [[UNICEF]] and for donors to financially support the education sector of Zimbabwe. Accumulation and distribution of textbooks has been the focus of ETF in recent years. In 2008, The National Education Advisory Board states that 20 percent of students did not have [[Textbook|textbooks]] for core subjects and the pupil to textbook ratio was 10:1.<ref name=":17">{{Cite book|title = "The Future We Want" A Report by the Government of Zimbabwe|last = Zimbabwe Government|first = |publisher = |year = 2012|isbn = |location = |pages = |url = https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/1025Zimbabwe_Final_Rio+20_Report.pdf}}</ref> Thousands of textbooks have been donated in the past few years along with additional learning materials. [[UNICEF]] currently reports that the pupil to textbook ratio is now 1:1 because of the aid from ETF.<ref name=":17" />


==See also==
==See also==

Revision as of 00:21, 21 November 2015

Education in The Republic of Zimbabwe
Flag of Zimbabwe
Educational oversight
Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education
Ministry of Tertiary and Higher Education
Lazarus Dokora
Jonathan Moyo
National education budget (2013)
Budget$750 million (public, all levels)[1]
General details
Primary languagesShona, Ndebele English
System typeState, private
Established
Initiated
17 October 1979
4 May 1980
Literacy (2011)
Total83.6%[2]
Male87.8%[2]
Female80.1%[2]
Enrollment (2015)
Total3,120,000
Primary93.9% [3]
Secondary47.2% [3]
Post secondary5.8% [3]
Zimbabwe is located in the southern region of Africa.

Education in Zimbabwe is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education for primary and secondary education and the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development for higher education. Both are regulated by the Cabinet of Zimbabwe.[4] The education system in Zimbabwe encompasses 13 years of primary and secondary school running from January to December.[5] The school year is a total of 40 weeks with three terms and a month break in-between each term.[5]

In 1980, education was declared a basic human right by Robert Mugabe, the leader of the ZANU party, which changed the constitution to recognize primary and secondary public education as free and compulsory.[6] One of Zimbabwe's Millennium Development Goals was to achieve universal education for all students; however, the goal was not achieved as of 2015 due to HIV/AIDS, economic crisis and family inability to afford costs associated with education.[7] The country is currently workings towards the Sustainable Development Goal of providing universal and free education to all students by 2030.[8]

History

Colonial government to 1980

The British South Africa Company arrived in the 1890s to southern Rhodesia, the area now known as Zimbabwe, Malawi and Zambia.[9] The Company created Christian missionary schools to serve local communities. The Company administration of Rhodesia provided an education for the indigenous population that focused on agricultural production and industrial development including carpentry and building.[10] N.J. Atkinson claim that in order to control the local population, the Company limited education and censored knowledge in schools.[9] Furthermore, Eurocentric education system was a structural institution that reinforced the superiority of white settlers even though they were the minority of the population.[9] Missionary schools perpetuated social and economic repression of the indigenous population by reducing their chances of earning well-paying jobs or positions of power.[4] Limited access to a quality education kept Africans in positions of labor and subordinate to white colonists in order to advance British political and economic gains.[4] Rugare Mapako claims education to Africans offered limited academic and foundational skills in order to promote labor exploitation and indentured servitude.[11]

Europeans were also disproportionately funded more for education than the majority African population because the Rhodesian government controlled access to quality schools based on race and socioeconomic status.[12] Segregation of schools based on funding was most extreme in the 1970s because demographically Europeans represented one percent of Zimbabwe's population, but were allocated 99 percent of government spending on education.[13] Funding secondary school was also disproportionally offered to Europeans rather than Africans.[13] In the 1970s, only 43.5 percent of African children attended school and only 3.9 percent of these children enrolled in secondary school.[14]

Training of Royal Air Force Aircrew in Rhodesia, 1943. This is an example of the focus on white education during colonial rule until 1980.

In 1979, a new Zimbabwe-Rhodesia government called for an education reform by creating a three-tier school system.[15] The Education Act of 1979 regulated access to each type of school through a zoning system based on residence.[12] Before the act, Zimbabwe's education system was divided between African and European schools.[12] After the shift in policy and leadership, the education system split into government schools, community schools and private schools. Government schools were also split into three divisions called Group A, B and C. White students historically attended Group A schools that offered highly trained teachers and resources.[12] These schools were located in white suburbs that denied housing opportunities for blacks, reinforcing segregation based on nationality and race.[12] Group B schools required a low-fee payment and C schools do not require a fee beyond educational materials. Both were only available for black students.[12] Group B and C schools had less resources, funding and qualified faculty compared to Group A schools.[12]

National education reform in 1980

The Rhodesian Bush War from 1964 to 1879, a 15-year guerrilla war, catalyzed the shift in power from British colonial rule to de jure sovereignty in 1980.[16] The ZANU party, Zimbabwe African National Union, won the national election in 1980 and took over the historic white minority government in Rhodesia.[16][17] The ZANU party democratized education by promising free and compulsory primary and secondary education to all children in Zimbabwe because the national constitution recognizes education as a basic human right.[18] All primary school tuition fees were abolished after independence.[18] Dr. Dzingai Mutumbuka was elected the Minister of Education to support Zimbabwe through education reform and to keep students in school. The government allocated 17.3 percent of the total national budget towards education which was considered an "education miracle." [18] The climate of the education system changed because of Dr. Mutumbuka's focus on fostering self-sufficient students that are productive, motivated and dedicated citizens.[19] Ultimately, Zimbabwe's education system reform was to ensure equal access to education by providing primary and secondary education to all children.[19]

1980s and 1990s

Since independence, the government has focused on providing equal and free education for all with rapid expansion of education resources to keep up with the demand.[18] Within one year, the education system nearly doubled the number of students it served from 885,801 students to 1,310,315 student in primary and secondary education.[18] Exponential increases in the number of students attending school heightened the need for more infrastructure and teachers.[20]

Teachers were in high demand following Zimbabwe's independency. In the mid 1980s, thousands of refugee children from Mozambique migrated to Zimbabwe, increasing the number of children attending public schools and need for teachers.[21] The Minister of Education brought in teachers from Australia, Britain and Canada for a short period of time to fill the teaching gaps.[21] Schools expanded their human resources to serve as many children as possible with limited infrastructure by practicing "hot-seating," also known as double session schooling. "Hot-seating" is the practice of offering class in the morning to half of the students and in the afternoon to the other half.[22][21] "Hot-seating" was still not enough to meet the demands of the school system; therefore, the Ministry of Education expanded teacher education colleges rapidly by providing "on-the-spot" teacher training.[22][21] In 1986, 8,000 additional teachers were trained to meet the demands of the national school system.[18]

Communities also rapidly built more infrastructure for education. For example, from 1979 to 1984, the number of primary schools in operation increased by 73.3 percent and the number of secondary schools increased by 537.8 percent.[18] Despite the challenges following the magnitude of students to educate, Zimbabwe claimed to achieve universal primary education by the end of the 1980s.[21] By the 1990s, primary schooling was nearly universal and over half the population had completed secondary education.[20]

2000s to present

UNICEF claims that the country's education system was once the most developed on the continent, although it continues to suffer from a contemporary decline in public funding linked to hyperinflation and economic mismanagement.[23] A decrease in GDP by 40 percent from 2000 to 2008 marked a period of economic downturn in the first decade of the 21st century.[23] Social expenditures on health and education also decreased by more than half.[23]

Zimbabwe cancels education year for 4.5 million after political and economic troubles in 2008.

By the end of 2008, most schools and hospitals were shut down due to thousands of teachers leaving the profession, an economic crisis, an increase in HIV and AIDS, and an outbreak of cholera in 2008 leading to a national epidemic.[24] UNICEF asserted that 94 percent of rural schools, serving the majority of the population were closed in 2009 and 66 of 70 schools abandoned.[25] During this period of time UNICEF also claimed that attendance rates plummeted from over 80 percent to 20 percent.[25] The economy regained momentum after 2009 once an inclusionary government was formed called the Government of National Unity to resolve national challenges.[26] The Government of National Unity suspended the Zimbabwe currency to full dollarization, reducing hyperinflation and increased social expenditures.[27][28]

Zimbabwe's focus on expanding education opportunities for the past 25 years has lead to national accomplishments including having the highest literacy rate in Africa at 91 percent from ages 15 to 24.[29] As of 2014, 3,120,000 pupils were enrolled in primary and secondary education and 76 percent of these students were enrolled in primary education.[29]

Governance after independence

Non-discriminatory policies

After nearly a century of British colonial rule, the Zimbabwe African National Union took over Zimbabwe and formed an independent country in 1980. The newly formed government created free and compulsory primary and secondary education, valuing education as a fundamental right.[30] This fundamental right was clearly articulated in the Education Act of 1987.[31] The act also abolished all methods of discrimination from the Education Act of 1979.[32]

The Education Act of 1996 and the Disabled Persons Act of 1996 furthered non-discriminatory policy by requiring "that all students, regardless of race, religion, gender, creed, and disability, have access to basic or primary education (up to Grade 7)."[33] These non discrimination provisions expanded the right to education in Zimbabwe for all students, including students with disabilities.[31]

Decentralization of authority

The Education Act of 2006 established School Development Committees. These committees are overseen and established by School Parents Assembly for parents and guardians of school-going children to participate in the development of Zimbabwe's schools.[30] According to the government's Statutory Instrument 87 of 1992, the purpose of School Development Committees is to:

  • provide and assist in the operation and development of public schools
  • advance the moral, cultural, physical and intellectual welfare of pupils at the school
  • promote the welfare of the school for the benefit of its present and future pupils and their parents and teachers[30]

School Development Committees have many functions to control the quality of the school system. Their powers include the recruitment and firing of teachers, the preservation of facilities and the act of borrowing money and applying for grants.[30] These committees also decentralized the education system by enabling parents to elect five other parents to lead a school. The decentralization of schools combats the highly centralized structure of the government in hopes to assist the operation and development of education.[22]

Education ministries

In 2013, the government created the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture to foster social cohesion, economic empowerment and educational development in primary and secondary schools.[34] The Minister of the Ministry of Education, Sport, Arts and Culture was Andrew Langa until President Mugabe fired Langa in September 2015.[35] Langa was replaced by Makhosini Hlongwan and the ministry has changed to become the Ministry of Sports and Recreation.[35]

Currently, government primary and secondary schools are run by the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education (MoPSE) and non-government schools are run by local authorities including churches and non-profit organizations.[36] The Minister of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education is Lazarus Dokora. The Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development  (MoHTES&TD) oversees public and private universities and technical and teacher education. The minster of the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development is Jonathan Moyo.[36]

Education stages

A list of early, primary, secondary and tertiary schools and providers can be found at Zimbabwe's online school directory. [1]

Early education

Preschools are directed by the Early Childhood Development (ECD) system under the Ministry of Primary and Second Education. Early childhood education is offered for children from the ages of three to five through the ECD.[37] According to United Nations and the Southern and Eastern Africa Consortium for Monitoring Educational Quality, Zimbabwe is prioritizing and expanding Early Childhood Development to be offered at primary schools.[38][39] These programs are currently available in mostly urban areas and can be owned by the government, organizations or individuals.[37] In fact, 98 percent of primary schools have ECD centers for ages four to five and 60 percent of primary schools have ECD centers for ages three to four with trained teachers.[39]

Primary education

Primary school classroom and lecture in Zimbabwe.

Zimbabwe's education system mandates seven years of primary school, encompassing Grades 1 to 7.[40] Urban primary schools teach in English.[5] Rural primary schools teach students in their local native language, typically in Shona or Ndebele, then transition to English by Grade 3.[5] Student to teacher ratios are typically from 30 to 50 students per teacher and vary based on the country's economic state and yearly budget for education.[4][41] The curriculum in primary schools encompasses language, art, contents and math.[37] Based on the Education Secretary's Policy Circular No. 12 in 1987, "the minimum expected educational outcome for all students is functional literacy and numeracy by the end of primary school."[33]

At the end of Grade 7, students take a national examination in Mathematics, English, Shona or Ndebele and the General Paper covering Social Sciences, Environmental Science and Religious Education.[4][42] Zimbabwe's government system requires education for all, but this examination can determine the type of secondary education students can attend based on the secondary school's criteria.[4] Private or missionary schools typically have performance requirements, but many rural public schools allow "mass admission" regardless of performance on the examination.[4]

Secondary education

School children outside of Chisungu secondary school.

Secondary education is not funded by the government and students can attend private boarding school, government boarding school or day school all with an enrollment fee.[4] Secondary education is made of two cycles, the General Certificate of Education, or Ordinary Level, for four years and the General Certificate of Education Advanced Level cycle, or Advanced Level, for two years.[4] This system was adopted from the British system of education.[41]

Students take classes in mathematics, English, science, Shona or Ndebele, geography, and history. The Ordinary Level Certificate Examination is taken after four years in Grade 11 and expects students to pass a minimum of five subjects including science, english, mathematics, history and a practical subject like woodwork or agriculture.[42] This examination is ranked on a letter scale and can determine student achievement, selection for "A-Level" schools and employment status.[4]

Students have the option to enroll in A-Level secondary education or can attend teacher training, technical, agricultural, polytechnic, and nursing colleges. If a student chooses to enroll in A-Level education, they must take the Advanced Level Certificate Examination after a total of six years of secondary education administered by Zimbabwe Schools Examination Council.[4] The "A-Level" examination is required for entry to universities in Zimbabwe.[41]

Tertiary education

File:Main Building at Cornway College.jpg
The Main Building at Cornway College in Zimbabwe.

The tertiary sector of education is operated by the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education which includes universities, technical, polytechnic and teacher training colleges and various vocational training centers.[4] Tertiary education was first introduced to Zimbabwe in 1957 by the University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, now known as the University of Zimbabwe. The nation's independence in 1980 increased the University of Zimbabwe's enrollment from 2,240 to 9,017 by 1990.[43] The National Council for Higher Education was established in 1990 as a measure for quality insurance of higher education in Zimbabwe. Increasing access to education in recent decades has increased the number of higher level institutions in the country. For example, eight more universities were established between 1999 and 2005. The Zimbabwe Council for Higher Education (ZIMCHE) was formed in 2006 as another measure to guarantee quality and accreditation for university education.[43] As of 2012, there were fifteen registered universities (nine public and five private), fifteen teachers' colleges, eight polytechnics and two industrial training colleges.[44]

Recent factors affecting education in Zimbabwe

Access to a quality education

Despite the initiative during independence to rapidly expand education opportunities, the demand for education was still greater than the supply. Education quality was hindered by teacher shortages, infrastructural pressure and economic crisis in the past decade.[7] UNICEF claims that only a third of schools are considered to be in "good condition."[7] Schools also face capacity challenges, including double session schooling, or "hot seating," and overcrowded classrooms.[21] "Hot seating" means that half of students attend school in the morning and the second half attends school in the afternoon.[21] These methods enable more pupils to attend school, but quality declines because students are given less attention and time to learn.[21]

A student works on a school project at Gateway High School in Zimbabwe.

Quality of education is also impacted by the lack of trained teachers in secondary schools. A majority of teaching colleges in Zimbabwe are for primary school, leaving less opportunity to meet the demand of trained secondary school teachers.[45] Access to education is rural areas is concerning, considering the shortage of teachers due to unfavorable working conditions and low compensation.[46] Many teachers in rural areas lack training due to the high demand for labor and less concern for quality.[46] Not only are teachers under compensated, but teaching materials are also are allocated less than one percent of the federal budget for education.[45]

Funding

Zimbabwe's education reform in 1980 aspired to provide free and universal education to all children through the Zimbabwe Education Act; however, tuition fees and education costs have accumulated over time.[47] Many families pay for tuition, even if it is a small fee at public government schools.[37] Families that do not pay for tuition due to education subsidies are still required to pay additional fees including building fees, transportation costs, exam fees, uniforms and stationary for their children.[11] Education is not completely free in Zimbabwe due to historical government expenditures on infrastructure for education and recent years of global economic crisis.[11] Programs like the Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM) have been developed to prevent orphans and vulnerable children from dropping out of primary school due to the expenses. BEAM pays for tuition and other basic fees, but only is able to serve less than half of the target population.[39] As of 2014, only 10 percent of pupils ages 15 to 24 have not completed primary education as of 2014 which can be attributed to the cost of education.[29]

Students with disabilities

It is estimated that over 300,000 school-aged children in Zimbabwe have a disability.[33] In Zimbabwe, there is a push for inclusionary schools in order to provide quality education for students with physical and mental disabilities.[33] Inclusionary schools involve "identification and minimization or elimination of barriers to students’ participation in traditional settings (i.e., schools, homes, communities, and workplaces) and the maximization of resources to support learning and participation."[33] Nondiscriminatory laws, including the Education Act of 1996 and the Disabled Persons Act of 1996, have not created inclusive education for schools in Zimbabwe and do not protect students experiencing disability from discrimination in high school.[31][48]

Most schools perform "unplanned or de facto inclusion" by keeping students with disabilities in classrooms with all other students and teaching them the same curriculum without documentation of their specific disability.[33] Teachers and schools are not equipped to educate and account for students with disabilities; therefore, most drop out by third grade.[33] Schools are finding alternative ways of performing inclusionary education on an individual basis, but there is still a lack of standardization and quality, especially for rural schools.[33] Researcher Regis Chireshe claims inclusionary education needs legislative and policy support, more quality inclusionary education training for teachers and inclusionary education campaigns to improve the attitude in communities about people experiencing disabilities.[48] The government has recently expanded the Schools Psychological Services and Special Needs Education Division to better serve students experiencing disabilities in education.[38]

Gender differences

School children in Zimbabwe digging a shallow pit for an Arborloo toilet (a variation of a pit latrine).

Although education is accepted as a fundamental right by the constitution, gender disparities in education still exist. Gender differences are less predominant in primary education as it is in secondary education.[23] The United Nations Zimbabwe claims that in 2009 85 percent of females compared to 80 percent of males completed primary school.[39] As of 2010, 48.8 percent of females achieved secondary education or higher while 62 percent of males achieved secondary education or higher.[49]

Females are increasingly more likely to drop out than their male peers in secondary school due to early marriages, cost of continuing education and gender-based violence in secondary schools.[23] Females are considered a source of income through marriage so families are more likely to educate their sons to increase their earning potential. A lack of education for females correlates with developmental risks including adolescent pregnancy, HIV and AIDs, poor health and poverty.[49] In times of economic hardship, resources for education are allocated to males more than females due to labor roles, social values and gender expectations.[14] However, reports from the UN Children's Fund claim that Zimbabwe's gender gap in education is smaller than many other African countries.[49]

Textbooks are a method to analyzing gender relations and roles in Zimbabwe's curriculum based on the research of Gudhlanga et al.[50] Gudhlanga et al's research claims that gender stereotyping is prevalent in textbooks as males are used to describe scientific or technical fields, leadership positions and jobs rather than females.[50] The study also found that active and productive roles are more commonly held by males in textbooks while female roles in textbooks are passive and dependent. In addition, the study found that English language textbooks are written from male perspectives and leave out important female leaders and perspectives in history.[50]

Teachers

Thousands of Zimbabwean teachers have gone on strikes, joined teacher unions and left the profession in recent years over low salaries, poor working conditions, political victimization and violence.[46] Teacher unions including the Progressive Teacher's Union of Zimbabwe organize strikes to catalyze salary negotiations and better working conditions. In the first decade of the 21st century, 45,000 out of 100,000 teachers in the country left the profession.[9][13]

Mercy Mehlomakulu, a teacher who has come from Zimbabwe in search of work and who has recently prequalified in South Africa with assistance from AusAid, teaches some of her pupils in St Albert's school which is part of the Methodist Mission, Johannesburg, South Africa on the 4th June, 2009.

Marked by a time period of hyperinflation, teachers were one of the lowest paid professions in the 2000s, receiving the equivalence of $10 US dollars for every three months of teaching. Their salaries in 2009 were as low as one US dollar for every month of teaching.[9][51] Thousands of teachers protested, left public education and migrated to other countries in response to the economic crisis.[14] During a year-long strike from 2008 to 2009, teachers demanded higher salaries paid in international currency. This strike led to nearly 94 percent of all rural schools closing and school attendance rates fell from 80 percent to 20 percent.[52]

Many teachers joined the informal economy, or black sector, during the economic crisis by participating in cross-border trading with Botswana and South Africa because civil servants were not required to have visas at the time.[9] Teachers would use their off time during the year to hoard goods from other country and resell them in Zimbabwe to earn a livable living that their teaching salaries did not satisfy.[9]

In 2009, the national economy stabilized because of the actions taken by the newly established Government of National Unity (GNU). The GNU enacted the dollarization of the national economy which curved the effects of hyperinflation and the informal economy.[13] The GNU also allocated every civil servant, including teachers, the equivalence of $100 US dollars.[9] Teachers were encouraged to reenter the profession and move back to Zimbabwe, but thousands never returned and found higher paying positions elsewhere.[14]

Thousands of teachers are unmotivated due to low salaries, limited resources, pressure, political harassment and the shortage of teachers.[7] Researchers Regis Chireshe and Almon Shumba claim that teachers believe their teacher training did not prepare them for the classroom and working with special education. The researchers also believe that teachers will continue to threaten or actually strike in the future unless their needs are better addressed by the government.[53]

Textbooks

In 2009, the Educational Transition Fund (ETF) was launched to improve the quality of education through distribution resources and education materials.[54] This became a platform to partner with UNICEF and for donors to financially support the education sector of Zimbabwe. Accumulation and distribution of textbooks has been the focus of ETF in recent years. In 2008, The National Education Advisory Board states that 20 percent of students did not have textbooks for core subjects and the pupil to textbook ratio was 10:1.[54] Thousands of textbooks have been donated in the past few years along with additional learning materials. UNICEF currently reports that the pupil to textbook ratio is now 1:1 because of the aid from ETF.[54]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Is Zimbabwe's education sector on the road to recovery?". IRIN News. 24 January 2013. Retrieved 10 November 2015.
  2. ^ a b c UNESCO Institute for Statistics (May 2013). "Adult and Youth Literacy: National, regional and global trends, 1985-2015" (PDF). UNESCO UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  3. ^ a b c "The Global Competitiveness Report 2015–2016" (PDF). World Economic Forum. 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2015.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Kanyongo, Gibbs (2005). "Zimbabwe’s public education system reforms: Successes and challenges" International Education Journal. 6(1): 65-74. Retrieved October 9, 2015. Cite error: The named reference ":10" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  5. ^ a b c d "Zimbabwe Education System". Class Base. Retrieved 19 October 2015. Cite error: The named reference ":8" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  6. ^ SACMEQ. Education in Zimbabwe. SACMEQ 2010 (http://www.sacmeq.org/education-zimbabwe.htm). Retrieved 13 September 2011
  7. ^ a b c d "Millennium Development Goal 2". UNDP in Zimbabwe. UNDP. Retrieved 20 November 2015. Cite error: The named reference ":30" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  8. ^ "UNICEF Zimbabwe - Media centre - Sustainable development goals: all you need to know". UNICEF. UNICEF. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h Atkinson, N.D. (1972). Teaching Rhodesians: A History of Educational Policy in Rhodesia. London: Longman. pp 5-14. ISBN: 9780582641242 Retrieved 19 October 2015 Cite error: The named reference ":5" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  10. ^ Keepel-Jones, Arthur (1983). Rhodes and Rhodesia: The White Conquest of Zimbabwe, 1884–1902. Montreal, Quebec and Kingston, Ontario: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-0534-6. Retrieved 10 October 2015
  11. ^ a b c Mapako, Rugare; Mapako (February 2013). "The Concept of Free Primary School Education in Zimbabwe: Myth or Reality" (PDF). Education Research International. 1(1): 135-147. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g Edward Shizha and Michael T. Kariwo (2011). Education and Development in Zimbabwe. Boston: Sense Publishers. pp. 20–30. ISBN 978-94-6091-606-9. Retrieved 10 October 2015 Cite error: The named reference ":0" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  13. ^ a b c d Zindi, Fred (1996). "Towards the Elimination of Disparities in Educational Provision: A Look Into Zimbabwe and South Africa" (PDF). Journal of Social Development in Africa. 11(1): 43-51. Retrieved 9 October 2015. Cite error: The named reference ":6" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  14. ^ a b Gordon, Rosemary (1994). "Education Policy and Gender in Zimbabwe". Gender and Education. 6 (2). Routledge: 131-139. doi:10.1080/0954025940060203. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  15. ^ Kariwo, Michael; Shizha, Edward (2012). Education and Development in Zimbabwe: A Social, Political and Economic Analysis (PDF). Canada: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 1–24. ISBN 978-94-6091-604-5.
  16. ^ a b Kalley, Jacqueline Audrey (1999). Southern African Political History: A chronological of key political events from independence to mid-1997. pp 711-713. ISBN 9780313302473. Retrieved 20 November 2015 Cite error: The named reference ":13" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  17. ^ "South African History Outline". Zimbabwe Independence Day. South African History Outline. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  18. ^ a b c d e f g MacKenzie, C.G. (1988). "Zimbabwe's Education Miracle and the Problems It Created" (PDF).International Review of Education. 34(3): 337-353. DOI 10.1007/BF00598220. Retrieved October 9, 2015.
  19. ^ a b Matereke, Kudzai (September 2012). "‘Whipping into Line’: The dual crisis of education and citizenship in postcolonial Zimbabwe". Education Philosophy and Theory. 44(2): 84-99. DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-5812.2011.00799.x. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
  20. ^ a b Brooks World Poverty Institute (11 December 2009). Moving forward in Zimbabwe: Reducing poverty and promoting growth, Ch. 6: Education. Brooks World Poverty Institute 2009, p.73. Retrieved 13 September 2011 Cite error: The named reference ":28" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ a b c d e f g h Goronga, Pedzisai (2014). "Teachers' and Students Perceptions of Double Session Schooling on Ordinary Level Students' Performance in Geography." The International Asian Research Journal. 2(1): 18-27. Retrieved October 9, 2015.
  22. ^ a b c Chikoko, Vitallis (March 2007). "Negotiating Roles and Responsibilities in the Context of Decentralised School Governance: A Case Study of One Cluster of Schools in Zimbabwe" (PDF). International Studies in Educational Administration. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  23. ^ a b c d e UNICEF Zimbabwe (June 2011). "Education in Emergencies and Post-Crisis Transition 2010 Report Evaluation"(PDF). UNICEF. Retrieved 15 November 2015 Cite error: The named reference ":4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  24. ^ World Bank (2011). Challenges in financing education, health, and social protection expenditures in Zimbabwe (Report). World Bank. p. 1-78. Retrieved 21 October 2015. {{cite report}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  25. ^ a b UNICEF (2009). Zimbabwe education crisis worsens. UNICEF. Retrieved 1 October 2015. Cite error: The named reference ":9" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  26. ^ Besada, Hany (2011). Zimbabwe: Picking Up the Pieces. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-230-11019-9. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  27. ^ Noko, Joseph (2011). "Dollarization: The Case of Zimbabwe" (PDF). Cato Journal. 3 (2). Cato Institute: 339-343. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
  28. ^ "How Zimbabwe and the Dollar Beat Inflation". Wall Street Journal. 29 March 2011. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
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