Eggplant
| Eggplant | |
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| Species: | S. melongena
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| Binomial name | |
| Solanum melongena | |
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Solanum ovigerum Dunal | |
Eggplant (Solanum melongena), or aubergine, is a species of nightshade, grown for its edible fruit. Eggplant is the common name in North America, Australia and New Zealand, but British English uses the French word aubergine.[1] It is known in South Asia and South Africa as brinjal.[2]
The fruit is widely used in cooking. As a member of the genus Solanum, it is related to the tomato and the potato. It was originally domesticated from the wild nightshade species, the thorn or bitter apple, S. incanum,[3][4][5] probably with two independent domestications, one in South Asia and one in East Asia.[6]
Description
The eggplant is a delicate, tropical perennial often cultivated as a tender or half-hardy annual in temperate climates. The stem is often spiny. The flower is white to purple, with a five-lobed corolla and yellow stamens. The egg-shaped, glossy, purple fruit has white flesh with a meaty texture. The cut surface of the flesh rapidly turns brown when the fruit is cut open.
It grows 40 to 150 cm (1.3 to 4.9 ft) tall, with large, coarsely lobed leaves that are 10 to 20 cm (3.9 to 7.9 in) long and 5 to 10 cm (2.0 to 3.9 in) broad. Semiwild types can grow much larger, to 225 cm (7.38 ft) with large leaves over 30 cm (12 in) long and 15 cm (5.9 in) broad. On wild plants, the fruit is less than 3 cm (1.2 in) in diameter, but much larger in cultivated forms: 30 cm (12 in) or more in length.
Botanically classified as a berry, the fruit contains numerous small, soft seeds that, though edible, taste bitter because they contain nicotinoid alkaloids like the related tobacco.
History
The plant species originated in cultivation. It has been cultivated in southern and eastern Asia since prehistory. The first known written record of the plant is found in Qimin Yaoshu, an ancient Chinese agricultural treatise completed in 544.[7] The numerous Arabic and North African names for it, along with the lack of the ancient Greek and Roman names, indicate it was introduced throughout the Mediterranean area by the Arabs in the early Middle Ages. A book on agriculture by Ibn Al-Awwam in 12th-century Arabic Spain described how to grow aubergines.[8] Records exist from later medieval Catalan and Spanish.[9]
The aubergine is unrecorded in England until the 16th century. An English botany book in 1597 stated:
This plant groweth in Egypt almost everywhere... bringing forth fruit of the bigness of a great cucumber.... We have had the same in our London gardens, where it hath borne flowers, but the winter approaching before the time of ripening, it perished: nothwithstanding it came to bear fruit of the bigness of a goose egg one extraordinary temperate year... but never to the full ripeness.[10]
Because of the plant's relationship with various other nightshades, the fruit was at one time believed to be extremely poisonous. The flowers and leaves can be poisonous if consumed in large quantities due to the presence of solanine.[11]
The eggplant has a special place in folklore. In 13th-century Italian traditional folklore, the eggplant can cause insanity.[12] In 19th-century Egypt, insanity was said to be "more common and more violent" when the eggplant is in season in the summer.[13]
Etymology and regional names
The plant and fruit have a profusion of English names: eggplant (North America, Australia), aubergine (Britain, German, French), mad-apple, or guinea squash (American South).[14] The Arabic name, (al)-bāḏinjān, is the common source of all European names for eggplant, but through two distinct paths of transmission, with the melongene family coming through the eastern Mediterranean, and the aubergine family through the western Mediterranean.[15]
...probably there is no word of the kind which has undergone such extraordinary variety of modifications, whilst retaining the same meaning, as this...
— Hobson-Jobson (1886)[16]
First recorded in 1763, the word "eggplant" was originally applied to white cultivars (right image).[17][18] The Anglo-Indian name, brinjal or brinjaul, derives from Arabic through the Portuguese, bringella.[15]
The Latin name, Solanum melongena, was used by Tournefort as a genus name, then by Linnaeus as a species name.[19]
Cultivars
Different cultivars of the plant produce fruit of different size, shape, and color, though typically purple. The most widely cultivated varieties—cultivars—in Europe and North America today are elongated ovoid, 12–25 centimetres (4+1⁄2–10 in) long and 6–9 cm (2+1⁄2–3+1⁄2 in) broad with a dark purple skin.[citation needed]
A much wider range of shapes, sizes, and colors is grown in India and elsewhere in Asia. Larger cultivars weighing up to a kilogram (2.2 pounds) grow in the region between the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers, while smaller ones are found elsewhere. Colors vary from white to yellow or green, as well as reddish-purple and dark purple. Some cultivars have a color gradient—white at the stem, to bright pink, deep purple or even black. Green or purple cultivars with white striping also exist. Chinese cultivars are commonly shaped like a narrower, slightly pendulous cucumber. Also, Asian cultivars of Japanese breeding are grown.
- Oval or elongated oval-shaped and black-skinned cultivars include 'Harris Special Hibush', 'Burpee Hybrid', 'Bringal Bloom', 'Black Magic', 'Classic', 'Dusky', and 'Black Beauty'.
- Slim cultivars in purple-black skin include 'Little Fingers', 'Ichiban', 'Pingtung Long', and 'Tycoon'
- In green skin, 'Louisiana Long Green' and 'Thai (Long) Green'
- In white skin, 'Dourga'.
- Traditional, white-skinned, egg-shaped cultivars include 'Casper' and 'Easter Egg'.
- Bicolored cultivars with color gradient include 'Rosa Bianca', 'Violetta di Firenze', 'Bianca Sfumata di Rosa' (heirloom), and 'Prosperosa' (heirloom).
- Bicolored cultivars with striping include 'Listada de Gandia' and 'Udumalapet'.
- In some parts of India, miniature cultivars, most commonly called vengan, are popular.
Varieties
- S. m. var. esculentum – common aubergine, including white varieties, with many cultivars[20]
- S. m. var. depressum – dwarf aubergine
- S. m. var. serpentium – snake aubergine
Genetically engineered aubergine
Bt brinjal is a transgenic aubergine that contains a gene from the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis.[21] This variety was designed to give the plant resistance to lepidopteran insects such as the brinjal fruit and shoot borer (Leucinodes orbonalis) and fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera).[21][22]
On 9 February 2010, the Environment Ministry of India imposed a moratorium on the cultivation of Bt brinjal after protests against regulatory approval of cultivated Bt brinjal in 2009, stating the moratorium would last "for as long as it is needed to establish public trust and confidence".[21] This decision was deemed controversial, as it deviated from previous practices with other genetically modified crops in India.[23] Bt brinjal was approved for commercial cultivation in Bangaladesh in 2013.[24]
Cooking and preparing
The raw fruit can have a somewhat bitter taste, or even an astringent quality, but becomes tender when cooked and develops a rich, complex flavor. The fruit is capable of absorbing large amounts of cooking fats and sauces, making for very rich dishes, but salting reduces the amount of oil absorbed. Many recipes advise salting, rinsing, and draining the sliced fruit (a process known as "degorging") to soften it and to reduce the amount of fat absorbed during cooking, but mainly to remove the bitterness of the earlier cultivars. Some modern cultivars—including large purple ones commonly imported into western Europe—do not need this treatment.
Eggplant is used in the cuisines of many countries. Due to its texture and bulk, it is sometimes used as a meat substitute in vegan and vegetarian cuisines.[25] The fruit flesh is smooth, as in the related tomato. The numerous seeds are soft and edible along with the rest of the fruit. The thin skin is also edible.
Eggplant is widely used in its native India, for example in sambar (a tamarind lentil stew), dalma (a dal preparation with vegetables, native to Odisha), chutney, curry, and achaar (a pickled dish). Owing to its versatile nature and wide use in both everyday and festive Indian food, it is often described as the "king of vegetables". Roasted, skinned, mashed, mixed with onions, tomatoes, and spices, and then slow cooked gives the South Asian dish baingan bharta or gojju, similar to salată de vinete in Romania. Another version of the dish, begun-pora (eggplant charred or burnt), is very popular in Bangladesh and the east Indian states of Odisha and West Bengal where the pulp of the vegetable is mixed with raw chopped shallot, green chilies, salt, fresh coriander, and mustard oil. Sometimes fried tomatoes and deep-fried potatoes are also added, creating a dish called begun bhorta. In a dish from Maharashtra called bharli vangi, small brinjals are stuffed with ground coconut, peanuts, onions, tamarind, jaggery and masala spices, and then cooked in oil.
Eggplant is often stewed, as in the French ratatouille. Eggplant is also often deep fried as in the Italian parmigiana di melanzane, the Turkish karnıyarık, or Turkish and Greek musakka/moussaka, and Middle Eastern and South Asian dishes. Eggplants can also be battered before deep-frying and served with a sauce made of tahini and tamarind. In Iranian cuisine, it is blended with whey as kashk e bademjan, tomatoes as mirza ghassemi, or made into stew as khoresh-e-bademjan. It can be sliced and deep-fried, then served with plain yogurt (optionally topped with a tomato and garlic sauce), such as in the Turkish dish patlıcan kızartması (meaning fried aubergines), or without yogurt, as in patlıcan şakşuka. Perhaps the best-known Turkish eggplant dishes are imam bayıldı (vegetarian) and karnıyarık (with minced meat).
It may also be roasted in its skin until charred, so the pulp can be removed and blended with other ingredients, such as lemon, tahini, and garlic, as in the Arab baba ghanoush and the similar Greek melitzanosalata. A mix of roasted eggplant, roasted red peppers, chopped onions, tomatoes, mushrooms, carrots, celery, and spices is called zacuscă in Romania, and ajvar or pinjur in the Balkans.
A Spanish dish called escalivada in Catalonia calls for strips of roasted aubergine, sweet pepper, onion, and tomato. In Andalusia, eggplant is mostly cooked thinly sliced, deep-fried in olive oil and served hot with honey (berenjenas a la Cordobesa). In the La Mancha region of central Spain, a small eggplant is pickled in vinegar, paprika, olive oil, and red peppers. The result is berenjena of Almagro, Ciudad Real.
A Levantine specialty is makdous, another pickling of eggplants, stuffed with red peppers and walnuts in olive oil.
Eggplant can be hollowed out and stuffed with meat, rice, or other fillings, and then baked. In the Caucasus, for example, it is fried and stuffed with walnut paste to make nigvziani badrijani.
Cultivation and pests
In tropical and subtropical climates, eggplant can be sown directly into the garden. Eggplant grown in temperate climates fares better when transplanted into the garden after all danger of frost has passed. Eggplant prefers hot weather, and when grown in cold climates or in areas with low humidity, the plants languish or fail to set and produce mature fruit.[26][27] Seeds are typically started eight to 10 weeks prior to the anticipated frost-free date. S. melongena is included on a list of low flammability plants, indicating that it is suitable for growing within a building protection zone.[28]
Spacing should be 45 to 60 cm (18 to 24 in) between plants, depending on cultivar, and 60 to 90 cm (24 to 35 in) between rows, depending on the type of cultivation equipment being used. Mulching helps conserve moisture and prevent weeds and fungal diseases and the plants benefit from some shade during the hottest part of the day. Hand pollination by shaking the flowers improves the set of the first blossoms. Growers typically cut fruits from the vine just above the calyx owing to the somewhat woody stems. Flowers are complete, containing both female and male structures, and may be self-pollinated or cross-pollinated.[29]
Many of the pests and diseases that afflict other solanaceous plants, such as tomato, capsicum, and potato, are also troublesome to eggplants. For this reason, it should generally not be planted in areas previously occupied by its close relatives. However, since eggplants can be particularly susceptible to pests such as whiteflies, they are sometimes grown with slightly less susceptible plants, such as pepper, as a sacrificial trap crop. Four years should separate successive crops of eggplants to reduce pest pressure.
Common North American pests include the potato beetles, flea beetles, aphids, whiteflies, and spider mites. Good sanitation and crop rotation practices are extremely important for controlling fungal disease, the most serious of which is Verticillium.
Production
In 2013, global production of eggplants was 49.4 million tonnes. More than 1,600,000 hectares (4,000,000 acres) are devoted to the cultivation of eggplants in the world.[31] Fifty-seven percent of output comes from China alone.[32] India (27% of world total), Iran, Egypt, and Turkey were also major producers that combined with other Asian countries, constituted 94% of world production.[32]
| Top countries in eggplant production (2013)(millions of tonnes)(million sq. mi)[32] | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Country | Production | Production/Area | |||
| 1 |  China |
28.4 | 7.68 | |||
| 2 |  India |
13.4 | 10.56 | |||
| 3 |  Iran |
1.4 | 2.2 | |||
| 4 |  Egypt |
1.2 | 3.08 | |||
| 5 |  Turkey |
0.8 | 2.64 | |||
| 49.4 | 0.85 | |||||
Nutrition
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
|---|---|
| Energy | 104 kJ (25 kcal) |
5.88 g | |
| Sugars | 3.53 g |
| Dietary fiber | 3 g |
0.18 g | |
0.98 g | |
| Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
| Thiamine (B1) | 3% 0.039 mg |
| Riboflavin (B2) | 3% 0.037 mg |
| Niacin (B3) | 4% 0.649 mg |
| Pantothenic acid (B5) | 6% 0.281 mg |
| Vitamin B6 | 5% 0.084 mg |
| Folate (B9) | 6% 22 μg |
| Vitamin C | 2% 2.2 mg |
| Vitamin E | 2% 0.3 mg |
| Vitamin K | 3% 3.5 μg |
| Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
| Calcium | 1% 9 mg |
| Iron | 1% 0.23 mg |
| Magnesium | 3% 14 mg |
| Manganese | 10% 0.232 mg |
| Phosphorus | 2% 24 mg |
| Potassium | 8% 229 mg |
| Zinc | 1% 0.16 mg |
| Other constituents | Quantity |
| Water | 92 g |
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[33] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[34] | |
Raw eggplant is composed of 92% water, 6% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and negligible fat (table). It provides low amounts of essential nutrients, with only manganese having a moderate percentage (11%) of the Daily Value. Minor changes in nutrient composition occur with season, environment of cultivation (open field or greenhouse), and genotype.[35]
Host plant
The Potato Tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella) is an oligophagous insect that prefers to feed on plants of the family Solanaceae such as eggplants. Female P. operculella use the leaves to lay their eggs and the hatched larvae will eat away at the mesophyll of the leaf.[36]
Chemistry
The color of purple skin cultivars is due to the anthocyanin nasunin.[37]
The browning of eggplant flesh results from the oxidation of polyphenols, such as the most abundant phenolic compound in the fruit, chlorogenic acid.[38]
Allergies
Case reports of itchy skin or mouth, mild headache, and stomach upset after handling or eating eggplant have been reported anecdotally and published in medical journals (see also oral allergy syndrome).
A 2008 study of a sample of 741 people in India, where eggplant is commonly consumed, found nearly 10% reported some allergic symptoms after consuming eggplant, with 1.4% showing symptoms within two hours.[39] Contact dermatitis from eggplant leaves[40] and allergy to eggplant flower pollen[41] have also been reported.
Individuals who are atopic (genetically predisposed to developing certain allergic hypersensitivity reactions) are more likely to have a reaction to eggplant, which may be because eggplant is high in histamines. A few proteins and at least one secondary metabolite have been identified as potential allergens.[42] Cooking eggplant thoroughly seems to preclude reactions in some individuals, but at least one of the allergenic proteins survives the cooking process.
Taxonomy
The eggplant is quite often featured in the older scientific literature under the junior synonyms S. ovigerum and S. trongum. Several other now-invalid names have been uniquely applied to it:[43]
- Melongena ovata Mill.
- Solanum album Noronha
- Solanum insanum L.
- Solanum longum Roxb.
- Solanum melanocarpum Dunal
- Solanum melongenum St.-Lag.
- Solanum oviferum Salisb.
- Prachi Salisb.
A number of subspecies and varieties have been named, mainly by Dikii, Dunal, and (invalidly) by Sweet. Names for various eggplant types, such as agreste, album, divaricatum, esculentum, giganteum, globosi, inerme, insanum, leucoum, luteum, multifidum, oblongo-cylindricum, ovigera, racemiflorum, racemosum, ruber, rumphii, sinuatorepandum, stenoleucum, subrepandum, tongdongense, variegatum, violaceum, and viride, are not considered to refer to anything more than cultivar groups at best. However, Solanum incanum and cockroach berry (S. capsicoides), other eggplant-like nightshades described by Linnaeus and Allioni, respectively, were occasionally considered eggplant varieties, but this is not correct.[43]
The eggplant has a long history of taxonomic confusion with the scarlet and Ethiopian eggplants (Solanum aethiopicum), known as gilo and nakati, respectively, and described by Linnaeus as S. aethiopicum. The eggplant was sometimes considered a variety violaceum of that species. S. violaceum of de Candolle applies to Linnaeus' S. aethiopicum. An actual S. violaceum, an unrelated plant described by Ortega, included Dunal's S. amblymerum and was often confused with the same author's S. brownii.[43]
Like the potato and S. lichtensteinii, but unlike the tomato, which then was generally put in a different genus, the eggplant was also described as S. esculentum, in this case once more in the course of Dunal's work. He also recognized the varieties aculeatum, inerme, and subinerme at that time. Similarly, H.C.F. Schuhmacher and Peter Thonning named the eggplant as S. edule, which is also a junior synonym of sticky nightshade (S. sisymbriifolium). Scopoli's S. zeylanicum refers to the eggplant, and that of Blanco to S. lasiocarpum.[43]
-
Flowers of the Thai eggplant -
Matured yellow eggplant -
Three varieties of eggplant
See also
- List of eggplant cultivars
- Eggplant production in China
- Eggplant salads and appetizers
- Imperial examination in Chinese mythology
- Lao eggplant
- List of eggplant dishes
- Solanum aethiopicum
- Vietnamese eggplant
References
- ^ "Aubergine", Oxford English Dictionary, undated. Retrieved: 7 August 2015.
- ^ "Oxford Dictionary, s.v. brinjal". Oxford University Press. Retrieved 4 April 2016.
- ^ Tsao and Lo in "Vegetables: Types and Biology". Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering by Yiu H. Hui (2006). CRC Press. ISBN 1-57444-551-0.
- ^ Doijode, S. D. (2001). Seed storage of horticultural crops (pp 157). Haworth Press: ISBN 1-56022-901-2
- ^ Doganlar, Sami; Frary, Anne; Daunay, Marie-Christine; Lester, Richard N.; Tanksley, Steven D. (1 August 2002). "A Comparative Genetic Linkage Map of Eggplant (Solanum melongena) and Its Implications for Genome Evolution in the Solanaceae". 161 (4): 1697–1711. PMC 1462225. PMID 12196412 – via www.genetics.org.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ "Solanum melongena". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 20 November 2014.
- ^ Fuchsia Dunlop (2006), Revolutionary Chinese Cookbook: Recipes from Hunan Province, Ebury Press, p. 202
- ^ The Book of Agriculture by Ibn Al-Awwam, translated from Arabic to French by J.-J. Clément-Mullet, year 1866, volume 2 page 236.
- ^ The first record of Catalan albergínia = "aubergine" is in 1328 according to the Catalan dictionary Diccionari.cat. An earlier record in Catalan is known, from the 13th century, according to the French Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales. A number of old variant spellings for the aubergine word in Romance dialects in Iberia indicate the word was borrowed from Arabic; Dictionary of Arabic and Allied Loanwords: Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, Galician and Kindred Dialects, by Federico Corriente, year 2008 page 60.
- ^ The Herball, or Generall Historie of Plantes, by John Gerarde, year 1597 page 274.
- ^ Kitchen Daily (30 August 2012). "Is Raw Eggplant Poisonous?". Kitchen Daily.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition, 2000, s.v. 'mad-apple'
- ^ Edward William Lane, An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, v. 1, p. 378, footnote 1.
- ^ "Guinea squash". Carolina Gold Rice Foundation. 4 April 2011.
- ^ a b Oxford English Dictionary, 1st edition, 1888, s.v. 'brinjal', which supersedes the 1885 OED etymology s.v. 'aubergine'
- ^ Henry Yule, A.C. Burnell, Hobson-Jobson: The Anglo-Indian Dictionary, 1886, reprint ISBN 185326363X, p. 115, s.v. 'brinjaul'
- ^ "Eggplant". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2017. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
- ^ "Eggplant". World Wide Worlds. 20 October 2002. Retrieved 8 December 2017.
- ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd edition, 2001, s.v. 'melongena' and 'melongene'
- ^ Stephens, James M. "Eggplant, White — Solanum ovigerum Dun. and Solanum melongena var. esculentum (L.) Nees" (PDF). University of Florida IFAS Extension. Retrieved 31 August 2012.
- ^ a b c "Bt brinjal in India: a long way to go". GM Crops. 2 (2): 92–8. 2011. doi:10.4161/gmcr.2.2.16335. PMID 21865863.
{{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=(help) - ^ "Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) transgenic crop: an environment friendly insect-pest management strategy". J Environ Biol. 29 (5): 641–53. 2008. PMID 19295059.
{{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=(help) - ^ "Regulatory options for genetically modified crops in India". Plant Biotechnol J. 12 (2): 135–46. 2014. doi:10.1111/pbi.12155. PMID 24460889.
{{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=(help) - ^ IANS (2016-09-07). "Bt Brinjal in Bangladesh: Too early to draw conclusions on contamination, says expert". Business Standard India. Retrieved 2016-12-01.
- ^ "Vegetarian Meat Substitutes".
- ^ "How to Grow Eggplant in Cooler Climates".
- ^ "Growing Eggplant Successfully in Cooler Climates – Garden Mentors". 16 August 2012.
- ^ Mark Chladil and Jennifer Sheridan. "Fire retardant garden plants for the urban fringe and rural areas" (PDF). www.fire.tas.gov.au. Tasmanian Fire Research Fund.
- ^ Westerfield, Robert (2008-11-14). "Pollination of Vegetable Crops" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-13. Retrieved 2009-07-01.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ "FAOSTAT". faostat3.fao.org. Retrieved 2016-04-07.
- ^ "FAOSTAT". FAO. 2012-05-12. Archived from the original on 2015-09-06. Retrieved 2012-05-12.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|deadurl=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - ^ a b c "Production/Crops for Eggplant in 2013". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT). 2015. Retrieved 20 November 2015.
- ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ "Eggplant fruit composition as affected by the cultivation environment and genetic constitution". J Sci Food Agric. 94 (13): 2774–84. 2014. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6623. PMID 25328929.
{{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=(help) - ^ Varela, L. G.; Bernays, E. A. (1988-07-01). "Behavior of newly hatched potato tuber moth larvae,Phthorimaea operculella Zell. (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae), in relation to their host plants". Journal of Insect Behavior. 1 (3): 261–275. doi:10.1007/BF01054525. ISSN 0892-7553.
- ^ Noda, Yasuko; Kneyuki, Takao; Igarashi, Kiharu; Mori, Akitane; Packer, Lester (2000). "Antioxidant activity of nasunin, an anthocyanin in eggplant peels". Toxicology. 148 (2–3): 119. doi:10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00202-X. PMID 10962130.
- ^ "Total Phenolic Concentration and Browning Susceptibility in a Collection of Different Varietal Types and Hybrids of Eggplant: Implications for Breeding for Higher Nutritional Quality and Reduced Browning". J Amer Soc Hort Sci. 132 (5): 638–646. 2007.
{{cite journal}}: Cite uses deprecated parameter|authors=(help)) - ^ Harish Babu, B. N.; Mahesh, P. A.; Venkatesh, Y. P. (2008). "A cross-sectional study on the prevalence of food allergy to eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) reveals female predominance". Clinical & Experimental Allergy. 38 (11): 1795–1802. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2008.03076.x.
- ^ Kabashima, K.; Miyachi, Y. (2004). "Contact dermatitis due to eggplant". Contact Dermatitis. 50 (2): 101–102. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.0295c.x.
- ^ Gerth van Wijk, R.; Toorenenbergen, A. W.; Dieges, P. H. (1989). "Occupational pollinosis in commercial gardeners". Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd (in Dutch). 133 (42): 2081–3. PMID 2812095.
- ^ Pramod, S. N.; Venkatesh, Y. P. (2008). "Allergy to Eggplant (Solanum melongena) Caused by a Putative Secondary Metabolite". J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol. 18 (1): 59–62. PMID 18361104.
- ^ a b c d Solanum melongena L. on Solanaceae Source Archived March 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine: Images, specimens and a full list of scientific synonyms previously used to refer to the eggplant.
