List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms

An illustration from Romance of the Three Kingdoms

The following is a chronologically arranged list of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, one of the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. Although the novel is a romanticised retelling of the history of the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period, due to its widespread popularity, many people falsely believe it to a real account of the events that happened during that era. Some historians have also used the novel as a source to study the history of the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms period, regardless of factual basis. The authoritative source for the history of the Three Kingdoms is Records of Three Kingdoms, a historical text written by Chen Shou, which includes annotations by Pei Songzhi from other historical texts such as Weilue and Jiangbiao Zhuan (江表傳). Other historical sources covering the history of that period include the Book of the Later Han and the Book of Jin. Since Romance of the Three Kingdoms is a historical novel, many stories in it are either fictitious or based on folktales and historical incidents that happened in other periods of Chinese history. What follows is an incomplete list of the better known fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, each with accompanying text that explains the differences between the story and historical accounts.

Oath of the Peach Garden

An illustration of the Oath of the Peach Garden from Romance of the Three Kingdoms

Main article: Oath of the Peach Garden

The story follows three protagonists, Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, who take an oath of brotherhood in a place known as the Peach Garden, believed to be in present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei.

There is no mention of the three men becoming sworn brothers in Records of Three Kingdoms. In Guan Yu's biography, their relationship was simply described to be "as close as brothers", to the point of "sharing the same bed".

Zhang Fei thrashes the imperial inspector

An inspector was sent to survey Liu Bei's county when the latter had assumed office as a minor county-level magistrate after helping to suppress the Yellow Turban Rebellion. The inspector hinted to Liu Bei that he wanted bribes, but Liu did not understand what the inspector meant. Later, even after his assistant explained to him, Liu Bei still refused to give bribes. The inspector was unable to find any fault with Liu Bei's administration so he attempted to force the locals to file a complaint against Liu. Zhang Fei was furious when he heard about it and he barged into the county office, dragged the inspector out, tied him to a post and gave him a severe thrashing. Liu Bei showed up and stopped Zhang Fei. When Guan Yu suggested to kill the inspector and seek their fortune elsewhere, Liu Bei refused and he resigned, returning his official seal to the inspector before leaving.

Liu Bei's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that Liu Bei was the one responsible for beating up the inspector. Apparently, the inspector refused to see Liu Bei and claimed that he was ill, but Liu broke into the inspector's room and dragged him out, tied him to a tree and flogged him more than 100 times.

Cao Cao presents a precious sword

Wang Yun lent Cao Cao his Seven Gems Sword after Cao promised to assassinate the tyrannical warlord Dong Zhuo. Cao Cao met Dong Zhuo in the latter's bedroom the following day and attempted to stab Dong with the sword just as Dong faced away. However Dong Zhuo saw Cao Cao drawing his sword through a reflection in a mirror and immediately turned around to question Cao. Cao Cao sensed trouble and quickly knelt down, lying to Dong Zhuo that he intended to present the sword as a gift. Concurrently, Lü Bu had also returned after Dong Zhuo sent him to choose a new steed for Cao Cao, so Cao escaped from the capital Luoyang on the pretext of test-riding the horse.

Cao Cao's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms stated that Dong Zhuo wanted to appoint Cao Cao as a "Colonel of Valiant Cavalry" (驍騎校尉) and recruit Cao Cao to serve him. Cao Cao refused as he felt that Dong Zhuo was doomed to failure so he disguised himself and escaped back to his hometown.

Cao Cao arrested and released by Chen Gong

Cao Cao fled from the capital Luoyang after failing to assassinate Dong Zhuo. Dong Zhuo ordered notices for Cao Cao's arrest to be put around the areas surrounding Luoyang. During his escape, Cao Cao was spotted in Zhongmu County by an official called Chen Gong and captured. Chen Gong had a private conversation with Cao Cao and decided to release the latter after being inspired by Cao's sense of righteousness. Chen Gong even gave up his official post and became Cao Cao's companion.

Cao Cao's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms did mention that when Cao Cao passed by Zhongmu County, a patrol officer suspected him and put him under arrest, but released him later. However there is no evidence that Cao Cao attempted to assassinate Dong Zhuo before his arrest and the identity of the patrol officer is unknown. Besides, in Cao Cao's biography, Chen Gong was first mentioned only after Liu Dai's death in 192 when he urged Cao Cao to assume governorship of Yan Province (兗州; covering present-day southwestern Shandong and eastern Henan). This happened two years after the Campaign against Dong Zhuo was initiated in 190. As such, it contradicts Romance of the Three Kingdoms, because in the novel Cao Cao initiated the campaign only after he killed Lü Boshe (in Chen Gong's presence) and returned to his hometown of Chenliu (陳留; in present-day Kaifeng, Henan).

Guan Yu slays Hua Xiong

See also: Battle of Sishui Pass

During the fictional Battle of Sishui Pass (part of the Campaign against Dong Zhuo), Guan Yu volunteered to fight Dong Zhuo's general Hua Xiong, who had already slain four generals (Bao Zhong, Zu Mao, Yu She and Pan Feng) from the coalition army (Guan Yu's side) in earlier skirmishes. Before Guan Yu left, Cao Cao gave him a cup of warm wine to drink and boost his morale, but Guan declined, saying that he would return in a moment. Guan Yu slew Hua Xiong and returned in triumph, bringing along with him Hua's head. He then proceeded to gulp down the wine, which was still warm.

Sun Jian's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms stated that during the campaign against Dong Zhuo, Sun Jian defeated Dong Zhuo's army at Yangren (陽人) and killed its commander Hua Xiong.

Battle of Hulao Pass

Main article: Battle of Hulao Pass

The highlight of the fictional Battle of Hulao Pass (also part of the Campaign against Dong Zhuo) is the duel involving the three sworn brothers (Liu Bei, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei) fighting against Dong Zhuo's foster son, the mighty warrior Lü Bu. Lü Bu had previously defeated three generals (Fang Yue, Mu Shun and Wu Anguo) of the coalition army, as well as the warlord Gongsun Zan, before being challenged by Zhang Fei. As Zhang Fei and Lü Bu were unable to overcome each other, Guan Yu and Liu Bei consecutively joined in the fray as well, turning it into a three-on-one duel. Neither side was able to achieve an edge against the other, and Lü Bu eventually retreated as he grew weary. In the novel the three sworn brothers were serving under Gongsun Zan then and participated in the campaign against Dong Zhuo under Gongsun's banner.

Records of Three Kingdoms did not mention Gongsun Zan's involvement in the campaign. Besides, Dong Zhuo's biography in Book of the Later Han also stated that Lü Bu was defeated in battle twice by Sun Jian. The first time was at Yangren (陽人), when Dong Zhuo sent Lü Bu and Hu Zhen to attack Sun Jian but both of them could not get along well, leading to disorder in their army, so Sun Jian used the opportunity to attack them and forced them to retreat. The second time was when Sun Jian entered Luoyang's Xuanyang Gate (宣陽城門), there he attacked Lü Bu and drove him back.

Lü Bu and Diaochan

Diaochan is a fictional character introduced in the novel. She was sent by Wang Yun to sow discord between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu and succeeded in her mission, eventually causing the latter to kill the former.

Lü Bu's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that Lü Bu had a secret affair with one of Dong Zhuo's maids, and was afraid that Dong might find out about them. Besides, he already bore a grudge against Dong Zhuo, who threw jis (a type of halberd) at him on some occasions to vent his frustration, but Lü Bu dodged and Dong Zhuo's anger subsided. That is no historical evidence to prove that the maid's name was Diaochan. It is also unlikely that it was, because "Diao" was not, and is not, commonly used as a Chinese family name. "Diaochan" likely referred to the sable (diao) tails and jade decorations in the shape of cicadas (chan), which at the time adorned the headgears of high ranking government officials.

Guan Yu's three conditions

Cao Cao and Liu Bei joined forces to attack Lü Bu in Xu Province (徐州; covering parts of present-day Shandong and Jiangsu), eventually defeating Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi. Cao Cao put Che Zhou (車冑) in charge of Xu Province. Liu Bei broke ties with Cao Cao later and seized control of Xu Province after Guan Yu killed Che Zhou. Cao Cao led an army to attack Liu Bei and take back Xu Province. In one battle, Liu Bei and Zhang Fei led a force to attack Cao Cao's camp but fell into an ambush and were separated during the chaos. Guan Yu, who remained behind to defend Xiapi (Xu Province's capital), was lured out of the city and isolated on a small hill. Cao Cao's forces took control of Xiapi and captured Liu Bei's spouses. Cao Cao sent Zhang Liao to ask Guan Yu to surrender and Guan agreed, provided that three conditions were fulfilled:

1. Liu Bei's spouses must not be harmed and must be well taken care of
2. In name, Guan Yu surrenders to the emperor and not Cao Cao (who actually wields state power)
3. Guan Yu is allowed to leave and reunite with Liu Bei if he one day he ever finds out the latter's whereabouts

Cao Cao agreed to Guan Yu's three conditions and Guan served under him temporarily before leaving to rejoin Liu Bei later.

Guan Yu's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms stated that Liu Bei launched a surprise attack on Xu Province and killed Che Zhou. He then placed Guan Yu in charge of defending Xiapi while he moved to Xiaopei. In 200, Cao Cao led an army east to attack Liu Bei, and defeated him. Liu Bei fled to join Yuan Shao. Cao Cao captured Guan Yu and brought him back to Xuchang, and appointed him as a Lieutenant General (偏將軍) and treated him well. There was no mention of Guan Yu surrendering nor any preconditions named by Guan if he agreed to surrender.

Guan Yu slays Yan Liang and Wen Chou

Further information: Battle of Boma and Battle of Yan Ford

Prior to the Battle of Guandu between Yuan Shao and Cao Cao, both sides had engaged in two skirmishes known as the Battle of Boma and Battle of Yan Ford. Yuan Shao sent his generals Yan Liang and Wen Chou to attack Cao Cao's fortress at Boma (白馬; near present-day Hua County, Henan). During the battle, some of Cao Cao's best warriors, including Xu Huang and Zhang Liao, went forth to take up Yan Liang's challenge but were defeated by him. Cao Cao reluctantly allowed Guan Yu to fight Yan Liang and Guan emerged victorious. Wen Chou later came to avenge Yan Liang but was also slain by Guan Yu in a rout. The siege on Boma was lifted as a result.

Guan Yu's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that Yuan Shao ordered Yan Liang to besiege Cao Cao's general Liu Yan (劉延) at Boma. Cao Cao then sent Zhang Liao and Guan Yu to lead the vanguard force to attack Yan Liang. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu spotted Yan Liang and charged through enemy lines towards him, killing Yan Liang and taking his head. Yuan Shao's other generals were unable to resist the assault and the siege on Boma was thus lifted. Yuan Shao's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that after Yan Liang's death, Yuan Shao's army crossed the Yellow River to the south of Yan Ford (延津; north of present-day Yanjin, Henan), where he sent Liu Bei and Wen Chou to attack Cao Cao. They were defeated and Wen Chou was killed in battle (nothing mentioned about him being slain by Guan Yu). Yuan Shao launched another attack but was defeated again and his generals were captured by Cao Cao.

Guan Yu crosses five passes and slays six generals

Mural of Guan Yu's Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles (千里走單騎) in the Summer Palace

Main article: Guan Yu#Crossing Five Passes and Slaying Six Generals

Guan Yu heard that Liu Bei was in Hebei (Yuan Shao's territory) so he left Cao Cao to reunite with his sworn brother, bringing along Liu Bei's spouses with him. Along the journey, he crossed five passes and slew six generals who were hostile towards him or denied him permission to pass through the passes.

Records of Three Kingdoms does not mention anything about Guan Yu crossing the five passes, nor about the six generals (Kong Xiu, Meng Tan, Han Fu, Bian Xi, Wang Zhi and Qin Qi), who are fictional characters.

Guo Jia's strategy to pacify Liaodong

Cao Cao defeated Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu and continued to launch a series of campaigns against Yuan Shao's heirs in the following years, gradually seizing control of territories that used to be under Yuan's control. Around 207 Cao Cao had brought most of northern China under his control after defeating the Wuhuan tribes at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. Yuan Shao's sons Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang fled to Liaodong after their defeat to seek refuge under Gongsun Gong, the warlord of Liaodong. Cao Cao's generals were discussing plans to attack Liaodong when Cao stopped them, claiming that Gongsun Gong would surrender soon. Not long later, Gongsun Gong sent a messenger to Cao Cao, expressing his decision to surrender. The messenger also brought along the heads of Yuan Xi and Yuan Shang. Cao Cao's followers were surprised and asked him how he knew that Gongsun Gong would surrender. Cao Cao then revealed that his strategist Guo Jia had left him a note, predicting that Gongsun Gong would surrender without showing resistance. Guo Jia accompanied Cao Cao on his campaigns in the north, but fell ill and remained in Ye (located around present-day Handan and Anyang) to recover while Cao Cao continued to press further north until Liaodong. When Cao Cao returned to Ye he learnt that Guo Jia had already died of illness.

There is no mention about Guo Jia's prediction in Records of Three Kingdoms.

Guan Yu slays Cai Yang at Gucheng

Guan Yu met Zhang Fei at Gucheng (古城) after crossing five passes and slaying six generals. Zhang Fei was initially suspicious of Guan Yu, as he believed that Guan had betrayed their oath of brotherhood and joined Cao Cao. Despite explanation from Liu Bei's spouses, Zhang Fei refused to listen and he attacked Guan Yu. Both of them were locked in a duel when a group of Cao Cao's soldiers led by Cai Yang (蔡陽) showed up. Guan Yu turned around and slew Cai Yang in a duel to prove his loyalty and regain Zhang Fei's faith in him.

Liu Bei's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to Runan, and Liu Bei combined forces with the bandit leader Gong Du there. Cao Cao sent Cai Yang to attack them, and Cai was killed by Liu Bei.

Xu Shu serves Cao Cao

Cao Cao was impressed with Xu Shu when he heard that the latter helped Liu Bei break Cao Ren's army formation, and he was eager to recruit Xu Shu as an advisor. Cao Cao invited Xu Shu's mother to his place and asked her to write a letter to her son, requesting that her son come and serve him. Xu Shu's mother refused and denounced Cao Cao as a traitor and threw an ink stone at him. Cao Cao was furious and ordered Xu Shu's mother to be executed but refrained when Cheng Yu reminded him that Xu Shu would be more determined to help Liu Bei oppose him if he killed Xu's mother. Cao Cao then had Xu Shu's mother detained and asked Cheng Yu to pretend to be Xu Shu's sworn brother and win the trust of Xu's mother. After some time Cheng Yu got close to Xu Shu's mother and learnt to mimic her handwriting. He wrote a letter to Xu Shu in the handwriting of her latter's mother, asking him to come to Xuchang. Xu Shu was a filial son and he immediately left Liu Bei for Xuchang after reading the letter, only to discover that he had been tricked. Xu Shu's mother committed suicide in anger and Xu Shu remained by Cao Cao's side, but he swore never to give advice to Cao Cao.

Zhuge Liang's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that both Zhuge Liang and Xu Shu accompanied Liu Bei when he led his followers south to escape from Cao Cao around the time of the Battle of Changban. Xu Shu's mother was captured by Cao Cao's pursuing forces, so Xu Shu left Liu Bei to reunite with his mother. Before leaving he pointed at his heart and told Liu Bei, "I wanted to join you, General, in making great achievements. This is my purpose in life. Now that I've lost my mother, I've also lost my sense of direction. This isn't going to be helpful. Now I bid farewell to you." Xu Shu then went to join Cao Cao. Xu Shu later became Right General of the Household (右中郎將) and Palace Assistant Imperial Clerk (御史中丞) in the state of Wei during Cao Pi's reign.

Three visits to the thatched cottage

Before leaving for Xuchang, Xu Shu recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei to be his strategist, telling Liu that he needed to recruit Zhuge Liang personally. Accompanied by Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, Liu Bei travelled to Longzhong (in present-day Xiangyang, Hubei) to find Zhuge Liang. They reached Zhuge Liang's thatched cottage but Zhuge's servant said that his master was not at home. Liu Bei then asked the servant to pass a message to Zhuge Liang, telling him that Liu Bei came to visit him. Several days later during winter, Liu Bei brought his sworn brothers along with him again to visit Zhuge Liang. This time, the servant led Liu Bei to his "master", who turned out to be actually Zhuge Liang's younger brother Zhuge Jun. Just as he was about to leave, Liu Bei saw someone approaching and thought it was Zhuge Liang, but the person was Zhuge Liang's father-in-law Huang Chengyan. When winter was over and spring came, Liu Bei decided to visit Zhuge Liang again, much to the displeasure of his sworn brothers. This time, Zhuge Liang was at home but was asleep. Liu Bei waited patiently until Zhuge Liang woke up and they had a discussion. Zhuge Liang drafted a Longzhong Plan for Liu Bei and agreed to leave home and become Liu's strategist.

Not much details were provided in Records of Three Kingdoms on how Liu Bei recruited Zhuge Liang. Zhuge Liang's biography briefly mentioned that after Xu Shu recommended Zhuge Liang to Liu Bei, Liu visited Zhuge thrice and met him and their conversation led to the Longzhong Plan. However Pei Songzhi's annotations from Weilue and Jiuzhou Chunqiu (九州春秋) in Zhuge Liang's biography presented a different account on how Liu Bei first met Zhuge Liang. Both Weilue and Jiuzhou Chunqiu claimed that Zhuge Liang visited Liu Bei instead of the other way round. Both Zhuge Liang and Liu Bei did not know each other at first when the former came to visit the latter. Liu Bei did not pay much attention to Zhuge Liang because of his young age. Zhuge Liang remained behind when Liu Bei's other guests left the meeting, but Liu did not ask him if he had anything to say and continued toying with a gift from one of the guests. Zhuge Liang then initiated a conversation with Liu Bei, and Liu recognised his talent and treated him with respect. Pei Songzhi commented that the accounts in Weilue and Jiuzhou Chunqiu contradict Zhuge Liang's own statement in Chu Shi Biao, which stated, "(Liu Bei) visited me thrice in the thatched cottage, (and) consulted me on the affairs of our time.", and Pei felt that it was obvious from Chu Shi Biao that Zhuge Liang did not visit Liu Bei first.

Liu Bei's horse leaps across the Tan Stream

Once when Liu Bei was stationed at Xinye he received an invitation from Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province (荊州; covering present-day Hubei and Hunan), to attend a feast. However Liu Biao fell ill so he asked his sons Liu Qi and Liu Cong to entertain Liu Bei instead. Liu Bei arrived in Xiangyang (Jing Province's capital) with Zhao Yun and was directed to the feast. Cai Mao and others attempted to use the opportunity to kill Liu Bei but Yi Ji secretly informed Liu Bei about Cai Mao's intention. Liu Bei escaped from Xiangyang under the pretext of going to the latrine. When Cai Mao discovered that Liu Bei had fled, he led a group of soldiers in pursuit. Liu Bei was riding Dilu (的盧), a horse said to bring ill luck to its rider. Liu Bei reached the Tan Stream (檀溪), located west of Xiangyang, and attempted to ride across the stream. After taking a few steps Dilu fell forward and Liu Bei's clothing became wet. Liu Bei whipped the horse and exclaimed, "Dilu! Dilu! Today you obstruct me!" Dilu suddenly rose above the surface and leapt three zhang (or 30 chi) across the stream to the opposite bank, bringing Liu Bei to safety.

Pei Songzhi's annotations from Shiyu (世語) in Liu Bei's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms also gave a similar account of this incident. However Jin Dynasty historian Sun Sheng (孫盛) commented on this account, "I disapprove of this saying. At that time Liu Bei was making calculated moves. There was a big difference in the respective strengths of Liu Bei and Liu Biao's forces. If this incident really happened, why would Liu Bei remain silent about it throughout the period of time when Liu Biao was still living, and why were there no signs of dispute (between them)?"

The Battle of Bowang

Main article: Battle of Bowang

Cao Cao's army led by Xiahou Dun set off to attack Liu Bei in Xinye and reached Bowang Slope (博望坡) on the outskirts of Xinye. There Xiahou Dun fell into an ambush planned by Zhuge Liang and was defeated, with most of his supplies destroyed by fire. It was due to this battle that Zhuge Liang earned the respect of Guan Yu and Zhang Fei, who had initially looked down on him, not recognising his talent.

Liu Bei's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that Liu Bei resisted Xiahou Dun and Yu Jin at Bowang. He prepared an ambush and set fire to his own camp and pretended to retreat. Xiahou Dun pursued Liu Bei and fell into the ambush and was defeated. Nothing was mentioned in Records of Three Kingdoms about Zhuge Liang planning the ambush.

The Battle of Changban

Main article: Battle of Changban

During the Battle of Changban, Liu Bei's wife Lady Mi and infant son A'dou was isolated from the rest during an attack by Cao Cao's forces. Zhao Yun braved danger by fighting his way through enemy lines in search of Lady Mi and A'dou. He encountered the enemy general Xiahou En, defeated him and took the prized Qinggang Sword from him. When Zhao Yun finally found Lady Mi and A'dou beside a well, he urged them to mount his horse quickly, but Lady Mi refused as she did not want to be a burden to Zhao Yun. She entrusted A'dou to Zhao Yun and committed suicide by throwing herself into the well. Zhao Yun then strapped A'dou to his body and fought his way out against overwhelming numbers of enemy forces, bringing A'dou safely back to Liu Bei. Cao Cao's forces pursued Zhao Yun until they arrived at Changban Bridge, where Zhang Fei stood guard alone. Zhang Fei bellowed a challenge at the enemy and shocked Xiahou Jie (夏侯傑) to death. Cao Cao's soldiers also observed that the woods behind Zhang Fei were clouded in dust and believed that there was an ambush, so they retreated without a fight and Zhang Fei had the bridge destroyed and withdrew as well. Zhang Fei had earlier ordered his men to tie tree branches to the tails of their horses and ride around in the woods, churning up dust to create an illusion of an ambush.

Zhao Yun's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms briefly stated that during the Battle of Changban, after Liu Bei abandoned his family and fled, Zhao protected A'dou (carrying A'dou close to him) and Lady Gan and escorted them to safety. Both Lady Gan and Lady Mi also survived the battle. Zhang Fei's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms also briefly mentioned that Zhang remained behind with 20 horsemen to block Cao Cao's pursuing forces. The bridge was already destroyed when Zhang Fei bellowed a challenge, similar in tone to the one in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, but without the highly exaggerated effect on the enemy. Cao Cao's men did not dare to come near and Zhang Fei was safe. Xiahou En and Xiahou Jie were not mentioned in Records of Three Kingdoms at all.

Zhuge Liang's diplomatic mission to Jiangdong

Zhuge Liang went to Jiangdong on a diplomatic mission to discuss forming an alliance between Liu Bei and Sun Quan to counter Cao Cao. Lu Su first introduced Zhuge Liang to the civil officials and scholars under Sun Quan, who mostly advocated surrender to Cao Cao. In a subsequent debate, Zhuge Liang manage to silence all those who challenged him through his eloquent responses to their queries and comments, as well as insults and taunts. Among those who challenged Zhuge Liang include Zhang Zhao, Yu Fan, Bu Zhi, Xue Zong, Lu Ji (陸績), Yan Jun and Cheng Bing. Zhang Wen and Luo Tong also wanted to challenge Zhuge Liang, but Huang Gai arrived and stopped the debate.

Subsequently, Lu Su introduced Zhuge Liang to Sun Quan's viceroy Zhou Yu. Zhuge Liang and Zhou Yu had a conversation in the latter's house, with Lu Su present as well. Zhuge Liang said that he had a plan to make Cao Cao to retreat without a war - send Cao Cao the Two Qiaos. He also pretended that he did not know who the Qiao sisters were married to. When Zhou Yu asked Zhuge Liang for evidence that Cao Cao was after the Two Qiaos, Zhuge said he heard that Cao Cao asked his son Cao Zhi to write a poem titled Ode to the Bronze Sparrow Platform (銅雀臺賦). Zhuge Liang then recited the poem and pointed out that Cao Cao's desire to take the Qiaos for himself was evident in the poem. Zhou Yu was enraged and he hardened his decision to ally with Liu Bei and fight Cao Cao.

The debate between Zhuge Liang and the scholars is not mentioned in any of the involved parties' biographies in Records of Three Kingdoms. The biographies of Zhuge Liang, Sun Quan, Zhou Yu and Lu Su all confirmed that Zhuge Liang met Sun Quan on that diplomatic mission, but it remains unknown whether Zhuge did meet any other person on that same trip. Zhuge Liang's biography, in particular, contains a detailed record of a conversation between Zhuge Liang and Sun Quan.

The Bronze Sparrow Platform (銅雀臺) was built in the winter of 210, nearly three years after the end of the Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Zhi's poem Ode to the Bronze Sparrow Platform was written in 212, two years after the platform was constructed. Besides, the poem in Romance of the Three Kingdoms contains seven additional lines that were not present in the original version recorded in Cao Zhi's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms. Therefore, the story in Romance of the Three Kingdoms about Zhuge Liang using the poem to incite Zhou Yu's anger towards Cao Cao is purely fiction.

Zhou Yu tricks Jiang Gan

Before the Battle of Red Cliffs, Cao Cao and Sun Quan's forces had a small skirmish on the Yangtze River. Cao Cao's navy, led by Cai Mao and Zhang Yun, was defeated by a smaller enemy force led by Gan Ning. Cai Mao and Zhang Yun explained to Cao Cao that they lost because their troops, who were mostly from northerners, could not adapt well to naval warfare. They suggested constructing a naval base for training and Cao Cao agreed. The following day, Zhou Yu boarded a vessel disguised as a luxury cruiser, with a band on board playing music, and sailed towards Cao Cao's camp to observe the enemy. He saw the naval base and became worried, and felt that he needed to eliminate Cai Mao and Zhang Yun first. Cao Cao heard that Zhou Yu came to spy on his camp so he sent a small fleet to pursue Zhou Yu's vessel but Zhou had already escaped. Cao Cao then held a meeting with his subordinates to discuss how to deal with the enemy. One of Cao Cao's advisers named Jiang Gan, who was an old acquaintance of Zhou Yu, volunteered to persuade Zhou to surrender to Cao Cao. Zhou Yu understood Jiang Gan's purpose in visiting him at his camp and he tricked Jiang into believing that Cai Mao and Zhang Yun were planning to kill Cao Cao and defect to his side. Jiang Gan also got hold of a fake letter from Cai Mao and Zhang Yun addressed to Zhou Yu, so he stole the letter while Zhou was asleep and went back to his camp. Cao Cao too fell for the ruse and had Cai Mao and Zhang Yun executed.

Annotations from Wu Li (吳歷) in Sun Quan's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned an incident during the Battle of Ruxukou in 213 where Sun Quan sailed towards Cao Cao's base, similar to the one in Romance of the Three Kingdoms about Zhou Yu spying on Cao Cao's camp. Sun Quan sent men to taunt Cao Cao to come out to do battle but the latter firmly remained in his base. Sun Quan then personally sailed on a light vessel towards Cao Cao's base. Cao Cao's men thought that Sun Quan was attacking them and wanted to retaliate but Cao Cao stopped them, saying that Sun Quan was there to observe his army. Cao Cao's soldiers were put on high alert and orders were given that arrows must not be fired without permission. Sun Quan sailed for five to six li before turning back and told the band on board to play music. Cao Cao saw that the crew on Sun Quan's vessel was orderly and organised and said, "One should have a son like Sun Zhongmou (Sun Quan), Liu Jingsheng (Liu Biao)'s sons are like dogs and pigs!"

Annotations from Jiangbiao Zhuan (江表傳) in Zhou Yu's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms state that Cao Cao heard of Zhou Yu's reputation as a young talent and wanted Zhou on his side, so he did send Jiang Gan to persuade Zhou Yu to join him, but this took place after the Battle of Red Cliffs. Jiang Gan was also described to have good looks, and his debating skills were unmatched in the Jiangdong and Huai River region. When they met, Zhou Yu indirectly affirmed his loyalty to Sun Quan in front of Jiang Gan. Jiang Gan smiled and did not respond. He later praised Zhou Yu's demeanor and elegance and claimed that Zhou's loyalty could not be shaken by words. Nothing was recorded about Zhou Yu tricking Jiang Gan. There is also no evidence in historical sources to prove that Cai Mao and Zhang Yun were involved in the Battle of Red Cliffs.

Borrowing arrows with straw boats

Zhou Yu was jealous of Zhuge Liang's talent and felt that the latter would become a threat to his lord in future. He assigned Zhuge Liang the task of making 100,000 arrows in ten days or face execution for failure in duties under military law. Zhuge Liang promised that he could complete the mission in three days. With help from Lu Su, Zhuge Liang prepared 20 large boats, each manned by a few soldiers and filled with human-like figures made of straw and hay. Near dawn, when there was a great fog, Zhuge Liang deployed the boats and they sailed towards Cao Cao's camp across the river. He ordered the troops to beat war drums loudly and shout orders to imitate the noise of an attack. Upon hearing the noise, Cao Cao's troops rushed out to engage the enemy, but they were unsure of the enemy's strength, because their vision was obscured by the fog. They fired volleys of arrows towards the sound of the drums and the arrows became stuck in the straw figures. The boats changed direction when one side became loaded with too much arrows so as to restore balance. In the meantime, Zhuge Liang was enjoying wine with Lu Su inside the cabin and they returned to camp when the fog cleared. By the time they returned to camp Zhuge Liang had acquired more than 100,000 arrows and Zhou Yu had no choice but to let him off.

This event is not documented in Records of Three Kingdoms. However, an annotation from Weilue in Sun Quan's biography mentioned a similar incident during the Battle of Ruxukou in 213. Sun Quan sailed on a large vessel to observe Cao Cao's base. Cao Cao ordered his archers to fire arrows at Sun Quan's ship. The arrow were stuck to one side of the vessel and the ship was on the verge of overturning due to the weight of the arrows. Sun Quan ordered the vessel to turn around so the other side would have arrows stuck to it. Balance was restored and Sun Quan sailed back to his camp.

Huang Gai's self-torture ruse

Huang Gai volunteered to defect over to Cao Cao to allow Zhou Yu's fire attack plan to succeed. He had a secret conversation with Zhou Yu one night and suggested his plan. The following morning when Zhou Yu called for an assembly of the generals to discuss their battle plans, Huang Gai pretended to challenge and insult Zhou Yu openly. Zhou Yu was "furious" and he ordered Huang Gai to be executed, but with some intervention from Gan Ning and others, he spared Huang's life and had him severely flogged. Huang Gai then wrote a letter to Cao Cao expressing his willingness to defect over to Cao's side because he was unhappy with Zhou Yu. Cai Zhong and Cai He, two spies planted by Cao Cao in Zhou Yu's camp, confirmed Huang Gai's account that he was flogged on Zhou Yu's order because of an argument. Kan Ze later helped in convincing Cao Cao that Huang Gai's defection was genuine, even though Cao initially saw through the ruse. Huang Gai then arranged with Cao Cao that on a certain night he would sail across the river over to Cao Cao's camp. That night, Huang Gai made use of the opportunity to launch the fire attack, leading to the Battle of Red Cliffs.

Huang Gai's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms briefly covered Huang's role in the Battle of Red Cliffs, mentioning that he followed Zhou Yu to fight Cao Cao at Red Cliffs and planned the fire attack. The details of Huang Gai's involvement in the battle are found in Zhou Yu's biography, which stated that Huang Gai told Zhou Yu, "The enemy are superior in numbers in comparison with our side. I fear that we cannot last long. However I observe that Cao Cao's ships are linked to each other. We can destroy them by fire." Huang Gai then prepared about ten mengchongs (蒙沖; a type of leather-covered assault capital ship), all loaded with the necessary ingredients for starting a fire. He then wrote a letter to Cao Cao, lying that he wanted to surrender. When Cao Cao's men saw Huang Gai's fleet approaching they thought that Huang had come to surrender. Huang Gai then ordered the mengchongs to be set aflame concurrently and the fire spread across Cao Cao's ships to his bases on land. Nothing was documented in Records of Three Kingdoms about the self-torture ruse and Kan Ze's role in the plan, but one thing can be confirmed - Huang Gai did feign surrender to Cao Cao and that was crucial to the success of the fire attack.

Pang Tong presents the chain links strategy

Pang Tong played an important role in the Battle of Red Cliffs by presenting a chain links strategy (連環計) to Cao Cao. The plan involved linking Cao Cao's battleships together with strong iron chains, so as to make the ships more stable when they sail on the river, as well as reducing the chances of Cao Cao's soldiers falling seasick from excessive rocking. This contributed to Cao Cao's defeat as his battleships were unable to separate from each other during the fire attack, and when one ship is set aflame, the other ships linked to it will catch fire as well.

Nothing was documented in Records of Three Kingdoms about Pang Tong's involvement in the Battle of Red Cliffs, but Cao Cao did indeed moor his ships from stem to stem to reduce the chances of his troops falling seasick.^{[citation needed]}

Zhuge Liang prays for the eastern wind

After all preparations for the fire attack on Cao Cao's fleet had been made, Zhou Yu suddenly realised that in order for his plan to succeed, the wind must blow from southeast or else his own fleet would catch fire instead of Cao Cao's. He saw that the wind was blowing from the northwest and vomited blood, fainted. and became ill. Zhuge Liang visited him later and pointed out the root cause of Zhou Yu's "illness". He claimed that he knew Taoist magical arts and had the ability to change the wind direction. An altar was set up and Zhuge Liang performed rituals there for days until the southeast wind started blowing just before the fire attack was carried out. Zhuge Liang left immediately after the wind started blowing as he knew that Zhou Yu would send his men to kill him. As Zhuge Liang expected, Zhou Yu did send Ding Feng and Xu Sheng to kill him, but Zhuge had already fled on a vessel commanded by Zhao Yun.

Nothing was mentioned in Records of Three Kingdoms about this event.

Guan Yu releases Cao Cao at Huarong Trail

Guan Yu was sent to guard Huarong Trail (believed to be near Dongshan Town, Huarong County, Hunan) and intercept Cao Cao when the latter was retreating after his defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Initially Zhuge Liang was reluctant in allowing Guan Yu to take up that responsibility, since he was worried that Guan might take into account the kindness Cao Cao showed towards him when he temporarily served Cao years ago, and release Cao as a result. Guan Yu insisted, claiming that he had already repaid Cao Cao's kindness by slaying Yuan Shao's generals Yan Liang and Wen Chou and lifting the siege on Boma. He made a military pledge not to let Cao Cao off, while Zhuge Liang also stated that he would give up his head to Guan Yu if Cao Cao did not pass through Huarong Trail. As Zhuge Liang predicted, Cao Cao did reach Huarong Trail and encountered Guan Yu there. However Guan Yu decided to spare Cao Cao in consideration of their past dealings, and taking pity on the plight of Cao Cao's men. He allowed Cao Cao and his men to pass through Huarong Trail unharmed. When he returned to camp he confessed the truth to Liu Bei and Zhuge Liang. Zhuge Liang ordered Guan Yu to be executed for failing in his mission and agreed to pardon Guan when Liu Bei intervened.

This incident is not mentioned in Records of Three Kingdoms and is entirely fictional. Annotations from Shanyang Gong Zaiji (山陽公載記) in Cao Cao's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms state that after Cao Cao lost the Battle of Red Cliffs, he retreated on foot with his surviving men and passed by Huarong Trail. The path was muddy and difficult to access, so Cao Cao told the weaker soldiers to lay the ground with vegetation so that his horsemen can pass. Many of those weaker soldiers were trampled to death by horses when they became stuck in the mud. When Cao Cao finally got out of the dire situation, he expressed joy so his generals asked him why he was happy. Cao Cao replied, "Liu Bei, he's my mate. However he doesn't think fast; if he set fire earlier I'd have no chance of escaping." Liu Bei did catch up later and set fire but Cao Cao had already left.

Liu Bei and Lady Sun's marriage

Sun Quan adopted Zhou Yu's "beauty scheme" (美人計) to seize control of Jing Province (荊州; covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) from Liu Bei. In the plan, Liu Bei was lured to Jiangdong under the pretext of marrying Sun Quan's younger sister Lady Sun to affirm the Sun-Liu alliance. Sun Quan would then hold Liu Bei hostage in exchange for Jing Province. Zhuge Liang foiled Zhou Yu's scheme and the marriage became reality. Liu Bei also left Jiangdong and returned to Jing Province safely with his bride. Zhou Yu led troops in an attempt to pursue the couple after they left, but fell into an ambush by Liu Bei's forces and defeated. Liu Bei's men chanted, "Zhou Lang (a reference to Zhou Yu)'s brilliant strategy brings peace to the world. He lost both the lady and his soldiers." (周郎妙計安天下，陪了夫人又折兵！). The infuriated Zhou Yu coughed blood and fainted.

The marriage between Liu Bei and Lady Sun was mentioned in Liu Bei's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms as follows: After Liu Qi died of illness, Liu Bei's subordinates urged him to take up governorship of Jing Province, with the provincial capital at Gong'an (公安; present-day Gong'an County, Hubei). Sun Quan felt slightly uneasy so he married his younger sister to Liu Bei to strengthen relations between him and Liu Bei. This suggests that the marriage took place in Gong'an, as Sun Quan sent his sister there to marry Liu Bei, instead of Liu travelling to Sun's territory for the marriage.

However, Zhou Yu's biography mentioned that Zhou Yu did suggest to Sun Quan to have Liu Bei confined in their territory. After Liu Bei assumed governorship of Jing Province, he went to Jing (京; present-day Zhenjiang, Jiangsu) to meet Sun Quan. At that time, Zhou Yu said to Sun Quan, "Liu Bei possesses characteristics of a fierce and ambitious hero. Besides, he also has under him generals with the might of bears and tigers, such as Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. He's definitely not someone who will remain subservient to another lord. I suggest moving Liu Bei to Wu (吳; in present-day Suzhou, Jiangsu), build a palace for him there, and present him with women and gifts to entertain him. We'll then put the two men (Guan Yu and Zhang Fei) each in a different location. If I can use Liu Bei as a hostage and attack (his men) at the same time, our goal (take over Jing Province) will be accomplished. And now yet we carve out land for them as resources, and allow the three men to be together? I'm afraid once the dragon encounters clouds and rain, it'll no longer remain in a pond." Sun Quan considered that Cao Cao was still a threat in the north, so he thought it would be better for him to have more allies (instead of creating hostility between him and his allies), and besides, he was also worried that Liu Bei's men might not submit to him, so he rejected Zhou Yu's idea. This shows that Zhou Yu did wanted to confine Liu Bei in Wu and use him as a hostage to control his men (Guan Yu, Zhang Fei and others), but nothing was mentioned about him using Lady Sun as a bait to lure Liu Bei into a trap. The women mentioned in the plan were used to entertain Liu Bei during his confinement and distract him from his men. Most importantly, the plan was not carried out because Sun Quan disapproved, therefore the story in Romance of the Three Kingdoms is entirely fiction.

Fa Zheng's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms hinted that Liu Bei and Lady Sun's relationship was not as romantic as described in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, but rather, Liu Bei was suspicious of Lady Sun and feared her. Zhuge Liang once said, "When our lord (Liu Bei) was in Gong'an, he was wary of Cao Cao's influence in the north, feared Sun Quan's presence in the east, even in home territory he was afraid that Lady Sun might stir up trouble." Lady Sun's personality was described as follows in Fa Zheng's biography: Sun Quan married his sister to Liu Bei. She was fierce and tough in character, much like her older brother. She had about 100 female servants, each of them standing on guard and carrying a sword. Every time Liu Bei entered (her room), he felt a chill in his heart.

Zhao Yun crosses the river to rescue A'dou

When Liu Bei left Jing Province (荊州; covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) for Yi Province (益州; covering the Sichuan Basin), Zhuge Liang and others remained behind to defend Jing Province. Sun Quan, disgruntled by Liu Bei's repeated excuses in refusing to return Jing Province, decided to adopt a scheme suggested by Zhang Zhao to take Jing Province. He sent a general called Zhou Shan to Jing Province to meet Lady Sun, lying to her that her mother (Lady Wu) was critically ill and wanted to see her. Lady Sun immediately prepared to board Zhou Shan's ship and return to Wu, bringing along Liu Bei's son A'dou with her. When Zhao Yun heard about it, he rushed to the dock but Zhou Shan's ship had already set sail. Zhao Yun then boarded a small boat, caught up with the ship, fought with Zhou Shan and his men, and managed to take back A'dou. Just as Zhao Yun was being cornered, a fleet of vessels commanded by Zhang Fei appeared and blocked Lady Sun's ship. Zhang Fei boarded the ship and killed Zhou Shan. After some negotiations, Lady Sun was allowed to leave but Zhao Yun and Zhang Fei insisted that A'dou stays. Lady Sun returned to Wu and never met Liu Bei again.

A similar incident was mentioned in an annotation from Yun Biezhuan (雲別傳) in Zhao Yun's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms. It stated that when Liu Bei went to Yi Province, Zhao Yun remained behind to guard Jing Province. At that time Lady Sun was arrogant and used her brother's influence to allow her followers to behave lawlessly. Liu Bei knew that Zhao Yun was a serious and orderly person, so he specially put Zhao in charge of internal affairs (in Jing Province). When Sun Quan heard that Liu Bei had travelled west (to Yi Province), he sent a ship to fetch his sister. Lady Sun attempted to bring Liu Shan (A'dou) with her back to Wu, but Zhao Yun and Zhang Fei led troops to block her from crossing the river and retrieved Liu Shan.

Battle of Tong Pass

Further information: Battle of Tong Pass (211)

Ma Chao rallied an army to attack Cao Cao for revenge after the latter murdered his father Ma Teng and younger brothers Ma Xiu and Ma Tie. Cao Cao was defeated by Ma Chao in the first skirmish of the Battle of Tong Pass. Amidst the chaos, Cao Cao fled and was pursued by Ma Chao. Ma Chao shouted that the man dressed in the red robe was Cao Cao, so Cao took off his robe and discarded it to avoid being recognised. When Ma Chao saw that he shouted again that the man with a long beard was Cao Cao, so Cao drew his sword and quickly trimmed his beard until it was very short. Ma Chao then shouted that the man with a short beard was Cao Cao, and Cao responded by wrapping a flag around his jaw. Cao Hong appeared and held off Ma Chao long enough for Cao Cao to escape. Ma Chao also engaged Cao Cao's general Xu Chu in a duel. Xu Chu removed his upper garments, fighting topless against Ma Chao both on horseback and on foot. Neither of them managed to overcome his opponent. Eventually, Cao Cao followed Jia Xu's strategy to turn Ma Chao and his ally Han Sui against each other. Ma Chao fell for the ruse and believed that Han Sui was planning to betray him so he barged into Han Sui's tent and attacked him. Han Sui lost his left arm during the fight and narrowly escaped under the protection of his subordinates. Cao Cao then took advantage of their internal conflict to attack them and defeated Ma Chao. Ma Chao fled to join the warlord Zhang Lu in Hanzhong after his defeat.

Both Ma Chao and Cao Cao's biographies in Records of Three Kingdoms confirmed that Ma Chao started a rebellion in 211 together with Han Sui, Yang Qiu, Li Kan and Cheng Yi in Guanzhong and they formed a coalition army to attack Cao Cao, leading to the Battle of Tong Pass. An annotation from Dianlue in Ma Chao's biography stated that around a year after Ma Chao rebelled, Emperor Xian issued an imperial decree to Cao Cao, ordering him to have Ma Chao's family in Ye executed. This proves that the order of events had been reversed in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, because Ma Chao started a rebellion in the first place, and then his clan was exterminated by Cao Cao about a year later.

The duel between Ma Chao and Xu Chu is not documented in Records of Three Kingdoms and is likely to be fictional. Ma Chao, Cao Cao and Xu Chu's biographies gave an account of a meeting between Cao Cao, Ma Chao and Han Sui during the battle. Cao Cao rode forth on horseback to speak with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Cao Cao was accompanied only by Xu Chu. Ma Chao had confidence in himself and secretly harboured the intention of charging forward and capturing Cao Cao when they met. However he had heard of Xu Chu before and suspected that the man with Cao Cao was Xu Chu. He then asked Cao Cao, "Where's your Tiger Marquis?" Cao Cao pointed at Xu Chu, and Xu glared at Ma Chao. Ma Chao was afraid and did not dare to make his move.

Ma Chao, Cao Cao and Jia Xu's biographies all mentioned about Cao Cao heeding Jia Xu's suggestion to sow discord between Ma Chao and Han Sui and turn them against each other. Cao Cao's biography gave a detailed account of this incident, which is mainly similar to the description in Romance of the Three Kingdoms, except that there is no mention about Ma Chao cutting off Han Sui's arm in a fight. Besides, the generals Cheng Yi, Li Kan, Yang Qiu and others were not subordinates of Han Sui, but rather, independent members who joined Ma Chao's alliance.

Pang Tong's death

Further information: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

Liu Bei attacked Liu Zhang in Yi Province on the advice of Pang Tong. Before a battle at Luo County (雒縣; present-day Guanghan, Sichuan), Pang Tong's horse reared and threw him off its back. This was regarded as a bad omen. Liu Bei then offered to Pang Tong his own steed, Dilu (的盧), out of kindness. Dilu was said to bring bad luck to its rider. Liu Zhang's general Zhang Ren, who planned an ambush near Luo County, recognised Dilu and mistook its rider to be Liu Bei, so he ordered his archers to fire at the rider, who was actually Pang Tong. Pang Tong's place of death was called Valley of the Fallen Phoenix (Pang Tong's nickname was "Young Phoenix" (鳳雛)).

Not much details were provided on Pang Tong's death in his biography in Records of Three Kingdoms. It briefly stated that Pang Tong led an attack on Luo County and was hit by stray arrows and died at the age of 36 (by East Asian age reckoning).

Battle of Jiameng Pass

Main article: Battle of Jiameng Pass

See also: Liu Bei's takeover of Yi Province

Liu Zhang requested aid from his former rival Zhang Lu when he came under attack by Liu Bei. Zhang Lu sent Ma Chao to lead an army to help Liu Zhang (Ma Chao came to serve Zhang Lu after being defeated by Cao Cao). Liu Bei and Ma Chao's armies battled at Jiameng Pass (葭萌關; near present-day Jiange County, Sichuan). Zhang Fei dueled with Ma Chao for more than 200 rounds but neither emerged the winner. Liu Bei was impressed with Ma Chao's valour and wanted him on his side, so he consulted Zhuge Liang for advice. Zhuge Liang sent Sun Qian to bribe Zhang Lu's aide Yang Song to speak ill of Ma Chao in front of Zhang Lu, causing Zhang Lu to doubt and suspect Ma Chao's loyalty towards him. In the meantime, Liu Bei also sent Li Hui to meet Ma Chao and Li Hui succeeded in persuading Ma Chao to defect to Liu Bei's side. Ma Chao helped Liu Bei in taking over Yi Province from Liu Zhang, and later became one of the Five Tiger Generals.

The Battle of Jiameng Pass was not documented in Records of Three Kingdoms and there is no mention of a duel between Ma Chao and Zhang Fei. Ma Chao's defection from Zhang Lu to Liu Bei's side is described in Ma's biography as follows: Ma Chao could not get along well with Zhang Lu and there was suspicion between them. When Ma Chao heard that Liu Bei was besieging Liu Zhang in Chengdu (Yi Province's capital) he secretly wrote a letter to Liu Bei, expressing his willingness to surrender. Liu Bei sent men to receive Ma Chao, and Ma led his troops to outside Chengdu. This caused panic in the city and Liu Zhang surrendered. An annotation from Dianlue in Ma Chao's biography stated: When Liu Bei heard that Ma Chao had arrived he was pleased and said, "Yi Province is mine." He then sent men to meet Ma Chao and sent reinforcements and supplies to the latter. When Ma Chao reached Chengdu he stationed his army north of the city and Chengdu fell (to Liu Bei) within 10 days of Ma Chao's arrival. Nothing is mentioned about the roles Zhuge Liang, Yang Song and Li Hui played in Ma Chao's defection.

Guan Yu attends a banquet alone armed with only a blade

Guan Yu attended a banquet hosted by Sun Quan's viceroy Lu Su, armed with only his Green Dragon Crescent Blade. The banquet was actually a mask for an attempt by Lu Su and Sun Quan's generals to coerce Guan Yu to hand over Jing Province (荊州; covering present-day Hubei and Hunan). Lü Meng, Gan Ning and some soldiers were lying in ambush near the banquet area, waiting for a signal from Lu Su to dash out and kill Guan Yu. Guan Yu knew it was a trap for him but he still attended the banquet, chatting with Lu Su. He sensed imminent danger but pretended to be drunk and grabbed Lu Su, using him as a hostage and releasing him only after he had boarded his vessel bound for Jing Province.

Records of Three Kingdoms did mention Guan Yu and Lu Su having talks over the division of Jing Province between their respective lords. During the negotiations, both sides had their soldiers stationed at least a hundred paces away from the meeting area, while each of the generals present at the talks was armed with a blade weapon.

Hua Tuo heals Guan Yu's arm

During the Battle of Fancheng Guan Yu was injured in the arm by a poisoned crossbow bolt. Just then a famous physician named Hua Tuo came to Guan Yu's camp and offered to cure Guan's arm. Hua Tuo diagnosed that the poison had already seeped through the flesh into the bone and he needed to perform surgery on Guan Yu's arm. He also told Guan Yu that Guan must be blindfolded and his arm must be secured in place before the surgery was conducted, but Guan told Hua Tuo it was too troublesome and he could just perform the surgery on the spot. Hua Tuo cut open the flesh on Guan Yu's arm, exposing the bone, then scrapped off the venom on the bone and stitched up the wound. Guan Yu showed no sign of pain and continued playing weiqi with Ma Liang during the surgery. He thanked Hua Tuo for healing his arm and wanted to reward the physician but Hua declined.

According to history Hua Tuo died in 208, 11 years before the Battle of Fancheng, so it is impossible that he was around to heal Guan Yu's arm.

Lü Meng's death

See also: Lü Meng's invasion of Jing Province

Sun Quan threw a feast to celebrate and honour his general Lü Meng, who led a campaign on Jing Province (荊州; covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) and succeeded in seizing it from Guan Yu. Guan Yu was captured after his defeat and executed on Sun Quan's order. During the feast, Lü Meng was suddenly possessed by Guan Yu's spirit and he grabbed Sun Quan. As Sun Quan's men rushed forth to save their lord, the possessed Lü Meng shoved Sun Quan away and sat on Sun's seat, announcing that he was Guan Yu and swearing vengeance on Lü Meng. As Sun Quan and his men quickly sank to their knees in fear, Lü Meng collapsed and died, bleeding from seven body orifices.

Lü Meng's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms mentioned that Sun Quan rewarded Lü Meng handsomely after he conquered Jing Province, including granting him a large sum of money and gold, as well as the title of a marquis. Lü Meng rejected the gold and money but Sun Quan insisted that he accept. Lü Meng had yet to receive his marquis title when he became ill and his condition deteriorated. Sun Quan was very worried about Lü Meng's condition and tried his best to preserve Lü Meng's life, including offering a large sum of gold to any person who could heal Lü Meng, as well as hiring priests to perform rituals to increase Lü Meng's lifespan. He also visited Lü Meng personally. Despite Sun Quan's efforts, Lü Meng still eventually died of illness at the age of 42 (by East Asian age reckoning), and Sun Quan was deeply grieved by the loss of Lü Meng.

Gan Ning's death

Liu Bei sought vengeance on Sun Quan after the latter conquered Jing Province (荊州; covering present-day Hubei and Hunan) and captured Guan Yu and executed him. He led a large army to attack Sun Quan, leading to the Battle of Xiaoting. Gan Ning was down with dysentery then but he still participated in the battle regardless of his illness. He was resting when he heard that enemy forces were approaching, so he quickly mounted his horse and prepared for battle. Gan Ning encountered a group of barbarian warriors led by Shamoke, a tribal king who was Liu Bei's ally. He saw that the enemy force was too large and decided to withdraw without fighting. While retreating on horseback, Gan Ning was hit in the head by an arrow fired by Shamoke. He fled, with the arrow still embedded in his head, reached Fuchi (富池; in present-day Yangxin County, Hubei), sat down under a big tree and died. Dozens of crows on the tree flew around Gan Ning's body. When Sun Quan heard of Gan Ning's death, he was deeply saddened and ordered Gan Ning to be buried with full honours.

No details were given on Gan Ning's cause and time of death in his biography in Records of Three Kingdoms. Gan Ning's death was briefly stated as follows: Gan Ning died, Sun Quan lamented his death.

Meng Huo captured and released seven times

See also: Zhuge Liang's Southern Campaign

The Nanman barbarian leader Meng Huo rebelled against the state of Shu Han. Shu's chancellor Zhuge Liang led an army to pacify the Nanman tribes. Meng Huo was defeated and captured by Zhuge Liang's forces seven times. During the first six times, Meng Huo complained that he was dissatisfied as he was captured by strategy and did not have a chance to fight a real battle, so Zhuge Liang released him each time to come back for another battle. On the seventh time, Meng Huo felt ashamed of himself and swore eternal allegiance to Shu.

Pei Songzhi's annotations to Zhuge Liang's biography in Records of Three Kingdoms contained a line about "capture and release seven times" but no details were provided. Characters associated with Meng Huo such as E'huan (鄂煥), Lady Zhurong, Meng You and King Mulu are purely fictional.

Zhuge Liang's Empty Fort Strategy

See also: Empty Fort Strategy

During one of Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions, Shu forces were defeated at the Battle of Jieting due to the incompetence of the Shu general Ma Su. Zhuge Liang's lightly defended position was exposed as a result of Ma Su's defeat. When he received news of Wei troops approaching, Zhuge Liang ordered his men to leave the city gates wide open and disguise themselves as civilians doing ordinary routine tasks such as sweeping near the gates. Zhuge Liang stationed himself at the top of the gates, playing a guqin calmly in the face of great danger. The Wei general Sima Yi was baffled by the sight before him. He suspected an ambush in the city and eventually ordered a retreat.

Evidence from historical sources indicate that Sima Yi was not present around that area at that time, and there was no mention about Wei forces pursuing their retreating Shu counterparts after the Battle of Jieting. Historians have also pointed out logical fallacies in the story.