Van Allen radiation belt

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This video illustrates changes in the shape and intensity of a cross section of the Van Allen belts.
Van Allen radiation belts (cross section)

A Van Allen radiation belt is one of at least two layers of energetic charged particles (plasma) around the planet Earth, held in place by its magnetic field. The belts extend from an altitude of about 1,000 to 60,000 kilometres above the surface, in which region radiation levels vary. It is thought that most of the particles that form the belts come from solar wind, and other particles by cosmic rays.[1] The belts are named after their discoverer, James Van Allen, and are located in the inner region of the Earth's magnetosphere. The belts contain energetic electrons forming the outer belt and a combination of protons and electrons forming the inner belt. In addition, the radiation belts contain lesser amounts of other nuclei, such as alpha particles. The belts pose a hazard to satellites, which must protect their sensitive components with adequate shielding if their orbit spends significant time in the radiation belts. In 2013, a transient third radiation belt, discovered by the Van Allen Probes, was reported by NASA. The third belt was observed for four weeks until it was destroyed by a powerful interplanetary shock wave from the Sun.[2]

Contents

Discovery[edit]

Prior to the Space Age, the possibility of trapped charged particles had been investigated by Kristian Birkeland, Carl Stormer, and Nicholas Christofilos.[3] The existence of the belt was confirmed by the Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 missions in early 1958, under Dr. James Van Allen at the University of Iowa. The trapped radiation was first mapped out by Explorer 4, Pioneer 3 and Luna 1.

The term Van Allen belts refers specifically to the radiation belts surrounding Earth; however, similar radiation belts have been discovered around other planets. The Sun itself does not support long-term radiation belts, as it lacks a stable, global dipole field. The Earth's atmosphere limits the belts' particles to regions above 200–1,000 km,[4] while the belts do not extend past 7 Earth radii RE.[4] The belts are confined to a volume which extends about 65°[4] from the celestial equator.

Research[edit]

Jupiter's variable radiation belts

The NASA Van Allen Probes mission will go further and gain scientific understanding (to the point of predictability) of how populations of relativistic electrons and ions in space form or change in response to changes in solar activity and the solar wind. NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts–funded studies have proposed magnetic scoops to collect antimatter that occurs naturally in the Van Allen belts of Earth, although it is estimated only about 10 micrograms of antiprotons exist in the entire belt.[5]

The Van Allen Probes mission was successfully launched on August 30, 2012.[6] The primary mission is scheduled to last 2 years, with expendables expected to last for 4 years. NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center manages the overall Living With a Star program of which the Van Allen Probes is a project, along with Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO). The Applied Physics Laboratory is responsible for the overall implementation and instrument management for the Van Allen Probes.[7]

Van Allen radiation belts do exist on other planets in the solar system, whenever a planet or moon has a magnetic field that is powerful enough to sustain a radiation belt. However, many of these radiation belts have been poorly mapped. The Voyager Program (namely Voyager 2) only nominally confirmed the existence of similar belts on Uranus and Neptune.

Outer belt[edit]

Laboratory simulation of the Van Allen belt's influence on the Solar Wind; these aurora-like Birkeland currents were created by the scientist Kristian Birkeland in his terrella, a magnetized anode globe in an evacuated chamber.

The large outer radiation belt is almost toroidal in shape, extending from an altitude of about three to ten Earth radii (RE) or 13,000 to 60,000 kilometres (about 8,000 to 38,000 miles) above the Earth's surface. Its greatest intensity is usually around 4–5 RE. The outer electron radiation belt is mostly produced by the inward radial diffusion[8][9] and local acceleration[10] due to transfer of energy from whistler mode plasma waves to radiation belt electrons. Radiation belt electrons are also constantly removed by collisions with atmospheric neutrals,[10] losses to magnetopause, and the outward radial diffusion. The outer belt consists mainly of high energy (0.1–10 MeV) electrons trapped by the Earth's magnetosphere. The gyroradii for energetic protons would be large enough to bring them into contact with the Earth's atmosphere. The electrons here have a high flux and at the outer edge (close to the magnetopause), where geomagnetic field lines open into the geomagnetic "tail", fluxes of energetic electrons can drop to the low interplanetary levels within about 100 km (a decrease by a factor of 1,000).

The trapped particle population of the outer belt is varied, containing electrons and various ions. Most of the ions are in the form of energetic protons, but a certain percentage are alpha particles and O+ oxygen ions, similar to those in the ionosphere but much more energetic. This mixture of ions suggests that ring current particles probably come from more than one source.

The outer belt is larger than the inner belt and its particle population fluctuates widely. Energetic (radiation) particle fluxes can increase and decrease dramatically as a consequence of geomagnetic storms, which are themselves triggered by magnetic field and plasma disturbances produced by the Sun. The increases are due to storm-related injections and acceleration of particles from the tail of the magnetosphere.

Inner belt[edit]

While protons form one radiation belt, trapped electrons present two distinct structures, the inner and outer belt. The inner electron Van Allen Belt extends typically from an altitude of 0.2 to 2 Earth radii (L values of 1 to 3) or 600 miles (1,000 km) to 3,700 miles (6,000 km) above the Earth.[1][11] In certain cases when solar activity is stronger or in geographical areas such as the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA), the inner boundary may go down to roughly 200 kilometers[12] above the Earth's surface. The inner belt contains high concentrations of electrons in the range of hundreds of keV and energetic protons with energies exceeding 100 MeV, trapped by the strong (relative to the outer belts) magnetic fields in the region. [13]

It is believed that proton energies exceeding 50 MeV in the lower belts at lower altitudes are the result of the beta decay of neutrons created by cosmic ray collisions with nuclei of the upper atmosphere. The source of lower energy protons is believed to be proton diffusion due to changes in the magnetic field during geomagnetic storms.[14]

Due to the slight offset of the belts from Earth's geometric center, the inner Van Allen belt makes its closest approach to the surface at the South Atlantic Anomaly.[15] [16]

Flux values[edit]

In the belts, at a given point, the flux of particles of a given energy decreases sharply with energy.

At the magnetic equator, electrons of energies exceeding 500 keV (resp. 5 MeV) have omnidirectional fluxes ranging from 1.2×106 (resp. 3.7×104) up to 9.4×109 (resp. 2×107) particles per square centimeter per second.

The proton belts contain protons with kinetic energies ranging from about 100 keV (which can penetrate 0.6 µm of lead) to over 400 MeV (which can penetrate 143 mm of lead).[17]

Most published flux values for the inner and outer belts may not show the maximum probable flux densities that are possible in the belts. There is a reason for this discrepancy: the flux density and the location of the peak flux is variable (depending primarily on solar activity), and the number of spacecraft with instruments observing the belt in real time has been limited. The Earth has not experienced a solar storm of Carrington event intensity and duration while spacecraft with the proper instruments have been available to observe the event.

Regardless of the differences of the flux levels in the Inner and Outer Van Allen belts, the beta radiation levels would be dangerous to humans if they were exposed for an extended period of time.[15][18]

  • Flux values, normal solar conditions

  • AP8 MIN omnidirectional proton flux ≥ 100 keV

  • AP8 MIN omnidirectional proton flux ≥ 1 MeV

  • AP8 MIN omnidirectional proton flux ≥ 400 MeV

Antimatter confinement[edit]

In 2011, a study has confirmed earlier speculation that the Van Allen belt could confine antiparticles. The PAMELA experiment detected orders of magnitude higher levels of antiprotons than are expected from normal particle decays while passing through the SAA. This suggests the Van Allen belts confine a significant flux of antiprotons produced by the interaction of the Earth's upper atmosphere with cosmic rays.[19] The energy of the antiprotons has been measured in the range from 60-750 MeV.

Implications for space travel[edit]

Missions beyond low Earth orbit leave the protection of the geomagnetic field, and transit the Van Allen belts. Thus they may need to be shielded against exposure to cosmic rays, Van Allen radiation, or solar flares. The region between two to four earth radii lies between the two radiation belts and is sometimes referred to as the "safe zone".[20][21]

Solar cells, integrated circuits, and sensors can be damaged by radiation. Geomagnetic storms occasionally damage electronic components on spacecraft. Miniaturization and digitization of electronics and logic circuits have made satellites more vulnerable to radiation, as the total charge in these circuits is now small enough so as to be comparable with the charge of incoming ions. Electronics on satellites must be hardened against radiation to operate reliably. The Hubble Space Telescope, among other satellites, often has its sensors turned off when passing through regions of intense radiation.[22] A satellite shielded by 3 mm of aluminium in an elliptic orbit (200 by 20,000 miles (320 by 32,000 km)) passing the radiation belts will receive about 2,500 rem (25 Sv) per year. Almost all radiation will be received while passing the inner belt.[23]

The Apollo missions marked the first event where humans traveled through the Van Allen belts, which was one of several radiation hazards known by mission planners. The astronauts had low exposure in the Van Allen belts due to the short period of time spent flying through them. The command module's inner structure was an aluminum "sandwich" consisting of a welded aluminium inner skin, a thermally bonded honeycomb core, and a thin aluminium "face sheet". The steel honeycomb core and outer face sheets were thermally bonded to the inner skin.

In fact, the astronauts' overall exposure was dominated by solar particles once outside the Earth's magnetic field. The total radiation received by the astronauts varied from mission to mission but was measured to be between 0.16 and 1.14 rads (1.6 and 11.4 mGy), much less than the standard of 5 rem (50 mSv) per year set by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for people who work with radioactivity.[24]

Causes[edit]

Simulated Van Allen Belts generated by a plasma thruster in tank #5 Electric Propulsion Laboratory at the then-called Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio.

It is generally understood that the inner and outer Van Allen belts result from different processes. The inner belt, consisting mainly of energetic protons, is the product of the decay of so-called "albedo" neutrons which are themselves the result of cosmic ray collisions in the upper atmosphere. The outer belt consists mainly of electrons. They are injected from the geomagnetic tail following geomagnetic storms, and are subsequently energized through wave-particle interactions.

In the inner belt, particles are trapped in the Earth's nonlinear magnetic field. Particles gyrate and move along field lines. As particles encounter regions of larger density of magnetic field lines, their "longitudinal" velocity is slowed and can be reversed, reflecting the particle. This causes the particles to bounce back and forth between the Earth's poles.[25] Globally, the motion of these trapped particles is chaotic. [26]

A gap between the inner and outer Van Allen belts, sometimes called safe zone or safe slot, is caused by the Very Low Frequency (VLF) waves which scatter particles in pitch angle which results in the gain of particles to the atmosphere. Solar outbursts can pump particles into the gap but they drain again in a matter of days. The radio waves were originally thought to be generated by turbulence in the radiation belts, but recent work by James Green of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center comparing maps of lightning activity collected by the Micro Lab 1 spacecraft with data on radio waves in the radiation-belt gap from the IMAGE spacecraft suggests that they are actually generated by lightning within Earth's atmosphere. The radio waves they generate strike the ionosphere at the right angle to pass through it only at high latitudes, where the lower ends of the gap approach the upper atmosphere. These results are still under scientific debate.

There have been nuclear tests in space that have caused artificial radiation belts. Starfish Prime, a high altitude nuclear test, created an artificial radiation belt that damaged or destroyed as many as one third of the satellites in low Earth orbit at the time.

Proposed removal[edit]

The belts are a hazard for artificial satellites and are dangerous for human beings, and are difficult and expensive to shield against.

The Russian physicist Valentin Danilov proposed the use of a High Voltage Orbiting Long Tether as a potential means to drain the radiation belt of high energy particles.[27] The proposal was developed further by Robert L. Forward and involves deploying highly electrically charged tethers from satellites in orbit. Charged particles within the radiation belt encountering these tethers would be deflected by their large electrostatic fields onto paths that intersect with the atmosphere, where they would be harmlessly dissipated.[28] Simulations have suggested that the inner belt could be drained to 1% of its natural electron flux within two months of HiVOLT operation.[29]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b Van Allen Radiation Belts - HowStuffWorks - Discovery Communications - Retrieved 5 June 2011.
  2. ^ Phillips, Tony, ed. (February 28, 2013). "Van Allen Probes Discover a New Radiation Belt". Science@NASA. NASA. Retrieved 5 April 2013. 
  3. ^ Stern, David P.; Peredo, Mauricio. "Trapped Radiation -- History". Retrieved 2009-04-28. 
  4. ^ a b c Introduction to Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation by Martin Walt (1994).
  5. ^ "Extraction of Antiparticles Concentrated in Planetary Magnetic Fields". NASA. Retrieved 2008-05-24. 
  6. ^ "RBSP Launches Successfully - Twin Probes are Healthy as Mission Begins". NASA. Retrieved 2012-09-02. 
  7. ^ "Construction Begins!". The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory. January 2010. 
  8. ^ Elkington, S. R.; Hudson, M. K.; Chan, A. A. (May 2001). "Enhanced Radial Diffusion of Outer Zone Electrons in an Asymmetric Geomagnetic Field". Spring Meeting 2001. American Geophysical Union. Bibcode:2001AGUSM..SM32C04E. 
  9. ^ Shprits, Y. Y.; Thorne, R. M. (2004). "Time dependent radial diffusion modeling of relativistic electrons with realistic loss rates". Geophysical Research Letters 31 (8): L08805. Bibcode:2004GeoRL..3108805S. doi:10.1029/2004GL019591. 
  10. ^ a b Horne, Richard B.; Thorne, Richard M. et al (2005). "Wave acceleration of electrons in the Van Allen radiation belts". Nature 437 (7056): 227–230. Bibcode:2005Natur.437..227H. doi:10.1038/nature03939. PMID 16148927. 
  11. ^ Ganushkina, N.Y., I. Dandouras, Y. Y. Shprits, and J. Cao (2011). "Locations of boundaries of outer and inner radiation belts as observed by Cluster and Double Star". Journal of Geophysical Research 116: 1–18. doi:10.1029/2010JA016376. 
  12. ^ ECSS Space engineering ECSS-E-ST-10-04C 15 November 2008
  13. ^ Gusev, A.A., G.I. Pugacheva, U.B. Jayanthi, and N. Schuch (2003). "Modeling of Low-altitude Quasi-trapped Proton Fluxes at the Equatorial Inner Magnetosphere". Brazilian Journal of Physics 33 (4): 775–781. 
  14. ^ Tascione, Thomas F. (1994). Introduction to the Space Environment, 2nd. Ed. Malabar, Florida USA: Kreiger Publishing CO. ISBN 0-89464-044-5. 
  15. ^ a b NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center, The Van Allen Belts (Accessed May 25, 2011)
  16. ^ Underwood, C.; Brock, D.; Williams, P.; Kim, S.; Dilão, R.; Ribeiro Santos, P.; Brito, M.; Dyer, C.; Sims, A. (1994). "Radiation Environment Measurements with the Cosmic Ray Experiments On-Board the KITSAT-1 and PoSAT-1 Micro-Satellites". IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Sciences 41: 2353–2360. 
  17. ^ Hess, Wilmot N. (1968). The Radiation Belt and Magnetosphere. Blaisdell Pub. Co. 
  18. ^ Jerry L. Modisette, Manuel D. Lopez, and Joseph W. Snyder, "Radiation Plan for the Apollo Lunar Mission". AIAA paper 69-19 (accessed May 25, 2011).
  19. ^ Adriani, O.; Barbarino, G. C.; Bazilevskaya, G. A.; Bellotti, R.; Boezio, M.; Bogomolov, E. A.; Bongi, M.; Bonvicini, V. et al. (2011). "The Discovery of Geomagnetically Trapped Cosmic-Ray Antiprotons". The Astrophysical Journal Letters 737 (2): L29. arXiv:1107.4882v1. Bibcode:2011ApJ...737L..29A. doi:10.1088/2041-8205/737/2/L29. 
  20. ^ "Earth's Radiation Belts with Safe Zone Orbit". Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA. Retrieved 2009-04-27. 
  21. ^ Weintraub, Rachel A. "Earth's Safe Zone Became Hot Zone During Legendary Solar Storms". Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA. Retrieved 2009-04-27. 
  22. ^ "Hubble Achieves Milestone: 100,000th Exposure". STScI. 1996-07-18. Retrieved 2009-01-25. 
  23. ^ Ptak, Andy (1997). "Ask an Astrophysicist". NASA GSFC. Retrieved 2006-06-11. 
  24. ^ Bailey, J. Vernon. "Radiation Protection and Instrumentation". Biomedical Results of Apollo. Retrieved 13 June 2011. 
  25. ^ NASA/GSFC, The Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere, An educational web site by David P. Stern and Mauricio Peredo.
  26. ^ Dilão, R.; Alves-Pires, R.; (2007) "Chaos is the Stormer problem". (Progress In Nonlinear Differential Equations and Their Applications, Vol. 75, pp. 175-194, Birkhauser).
  27. ^ Mirnov, Vladimir; Üçer, Defne; Danilov, Valentin (November 1996). "High-Voltage Tethers For Enhanced Particle Scattering In Van Allen Belts, abstract #7E.06". APS Division of Plasma Physics Meeting Abstracts 38. American Physical Society. p. 7. OCLC 36233809. 
  28. ^ David, L. (2002-09-16). "Proposal: Removing Earth's Radiation Belts". Space.com. Retrieved 2010-03-09. 
  29. ^ "High-Voltage Orbiting Long Tether (HiVOLT): A System for Remediation of the Van Allen Radiation Belts". Tethers Unlimited. Retrieved 2010-03-09. 

Additional sources[edit]

  1. Holmes-Siedle, A. G. and Adams, L (2002), Handbook of Radiation Effects (Oxford University Press, England 2002). ISBN 0-19-850733-X.
  2. Adams, L., Harboe Sorensen, R., Holmes Siedle, A. G., Ward, A. K. and Bull, R. (1991), "Measurement of SEU and total dose in geostationary orbit under normal and solar flare conditions," IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, NS 38 (6), pp. 1686–92 (Dec 1991)
  3. Shprits, Y. Y., S. R. Elkington, N. P. Meredith, and D. A. Subbotin (2008), "Review of modeling of losses and sources of relativistic electrons in the outer radiation belts," J. Atmos. Sol. Terr. Phys., 70: Part I, Radial transport, pp. 1679–1693, doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2008.06.008; Part II. Local acceleration and loss, pp. 1694–1713, doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2008.06.014.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Van Allen radiation belts
Submagnetosphere
Earth's magnetosphere
Solar wind
Satellites
Research projects
Other magnetospheres
Related topics
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Van_Allen_radiation_belt&oldid=560122864"