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reworking lede; not all but most recent immigrants to the UK are asylum seekers; others came thru labor channels; British Somaliland was not a colony but a protectorate; fmtting, c/e
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==History and settlement==
==History and settlement==
Although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals, the first Somali immigrants were [[seamen]] and [[merchant]]s who settled in port cities in the late [[19th century]], mainly in [[Cardiff]], [[Liverpool]] and [[London]].<ref name="Dissanayake"/><ref name=Harris>{{cite web| last=Harris| first=Hermione| url=http://www.icar.org.uk/download.php?id=67 |title=The Somali community in the UK: What we know and how we know it | location=London|publisher=[[Information Centre about Asylum and Refugees]] (ICAR) | year=June 2004|accessdate=9 August 2010|isbn=0954702441}}</ref> Many of these early sailors came from the former [[British Somaliland]] [[protectorate]] and worked in the thriving docks, whilst living in boarding houses run by other Somalis.<ref name="BriAra">{{cite web|title=The British Arab|author=Dr Anthony McRoy PhD|publisher=National Association of British Arabs|accessdate=9 August 2010|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/CONTENT/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm}}</ref><ref name="IESEWSC">{{cite web|title=Immigration and emigration: South East Wales – Somali community|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=February 2004|accessdate=7 August 2010|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/immig_emig/wales/w_se/article_2.shtml}}</ref> A second small group came during the [[Second World War]] with the [[Royal Navy]] and stayed in search of employment.<ref name="communities">{{citeweb | url=http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/communities/pdf/1210847.pdf | publisher=[[Department for Communities and Local Government]] | title=The Somali Muslim Community in England: Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities | date=April 2009 | accessdate=30 June 2010}}</ref> Most of these seamen considered their stay in the UK as temporary and had left their families behind.<ref name=Identities /><ref name=Harris/> In 1953, there were about 600 Somalis living in the UK.<ref name=Identities>{{citeweb | url=http://www.identities.group.sheffield.ac.uk/pdfs/Briefing%20Somali%20Migration%20to%20the%20UK.pdf | publisher=[[The University of Sheffield]] | title=Post-Conflict Identities: Practices and Affiliations of Somali Refugee Children – Briefing Notes | |page=1 | date=August 2005 | accessdate=6 August 2010}}</ref> When the British [[merchant navy]] started to wind down in the 1950s, many of these migrants moved to industrial cities such as [[Birmingham]], [[Sheffield]] and [[Manchester]].<ref name=Valentine>{{cite journal|title=Identities and belonging: A study of Somali refugee and asylum seekers living in the UK and Denmark|first1=Gill|last1=Valentine|first2=Deborah|last2=Sporton|first3=Katrine Bang|last3=Nielsen|journal=Environment and Planning D: Society and Space|year=2009|volume=27|issue=2|pages=234–250|doi=10.1068/d3407}}</ref> By the 1960s, there were still only a few Somali women in the UK.<ref name=Harris/> After the expansion in British industry, many of the Somali men brought over their wives and families.<ref name=Identities/><ref name=Harris/>
Although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals, the first Somali immigrants were [[seamen]] and [[merchant]]s who settled in port cities in the late [[19th century]], mainly in [[Cardiff]], [[Liverpool]] and [[London]].<ref name="Dissanayake"/><ref name=Harris>{{cite web| last=Harris| first=Hermione| url=http://www.icar.org.uk/download.php?id=67 |title=The Somali community in the UK: What we know and how we know it | location=London|publisher=[[Information Centre about Asylum and Refugees]] (ICAR) | year=June 2004|accessdate=9 August 2010|isbn=0954702441}}</ref>{{deadlink}} Many of these early sailors came from the former [[British Somaliland]] [[protectorate]] and worked in the thriving docks, whilst living in boarding houses run by other Somalis.<ref name="BriAra">{{cite web|title=The British Arab|author=Dr Anthony McRoy PhD|publisher=National Association of British Arabs|accessdate=9 August 2010|url=http://www.naba.org.uk/CONTENT/articles/Diaspora/british_arabs.htm}}</ref><ref name="IESEWSC">{{cite web|title=Immigration and emigration: South East Wales – Somali community|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=February 2004|accessdate=7 August 2010|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/immig_emig/wales/w_se/article_2.shtml}}</ref> A second small group came during the [[Second World War]] with the [[Royal Navy]] and stayed in search of employment.<ref name="communities">{{citeweb | url=http://www.communities.gov.uk/documents/communities/pdf/1210847.pdf | publisher=[[Department for Communities and Local Government]] | title=The Somali Muslim Community in England: Understanding Muslim Ethnic Communities | date=April 2009 | accessdate=30 June 2010}}</ref> Most of these seamen considered their stay in the UK as temporary and had left their families behind.<ref name=Identities /><ref name=Harris/>{{deadlink}} In 1953, there were about 600 Somalis living in the UK.<ref name=Identities>{{citeweb | url=http://www.identities.group.sheffield.ac.uk/pdfs/Briefing%20Somali%20Migration%20to%20the%20UK.pdf | publisher=[[The University of Sheffield]] | title=Post-Conflict Identities: Practices and Affiliations of Somali Refugee Children – Briefing Notes | |page=1 | date=August 2005 | accessdate=6 August 2010}}</ref> When the British [[merchant navy]] started to wind down in the 1950s, many of these migrants moved to industrial cities such as [[Birmingham]], [[Sheffield]] and [[Manchester]].<ref name=Valentine>{{cite journal|title=Identities and belonging: A study of Somali refugee and asylum seekers living in the UK and Denmark|first1=Gill|last1=Valentine|first2=Deborah|last2=Sporton|first3=Katrine Bang|last3=Nielsen|journal=Environment and Planning D: Society and Space|year=2009|volume=27|issue=2|pages=234–250|doi=10.1068/d3407}}</ref> By the 1960s, there were still only a few Somali women in the UK.<ref name=Harris/>{{deadlink}} After the expansion in British industry, many of the Somali men brought over their wives and families.<ref name=Identities/><ref name=Harris/>{{deadlink}}


Due to the [[Somali Civil War|civil war]] in Somalia, Somalis figured among the top ten largest groups applying for [[Right of asylum|asylum]] in the UK between 1985 and 2006,<ref name="Dissanayake"/> many arriving by way of neighboring countries in [[East Africa]] and sometimes the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf States]]. In the late 1980s, most of these early migrants were granted [[refugee]] status, while those arriving later in the 1990s more often obtained temporary status.<ref name=Identities/>
Due to the [[Somali Civil War|civil war]] in Somalia, Somalis figured among the top ten largest groups applying for [[Right of asylum|asylum]] in the UK between 1985 and 2006,<ref name="Dissanayake"/> many arriving by way of neighboring countries in [[East Africa]] and sometimes the [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf States]]. In the late 1980s, most of these early migrants were granted [[refugee]] status, while those arriving later in the 1990s more often obtained temporary status.<ref name=Identities/>
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Figures published by the Office for National Statistics show high rates of economic inactivity and unemployment amongst Somali immigrants. In the three months to June 2008, 31.4 per cent of Somali men and 84.2 per cent of Somali women were economically inactive (the statistics include students, carers and the long-term sick, injured or disabled in this group).<ref name=Khan>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/articles/nojournal/MFMigAug08.pdf|title=Employment of foreign workers: Male and female labour market participation|first=Kamran|last=Khan|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=August 2008|accessdate=5 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/about-statistics/user-guidance/lm-guide/concepts/inactivity/reasons/index.html|title=Reasons for economic inactivity|publisher=Office for National Statistics|accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref> Of those who were economically active, 41.4 per cent of the men and 39.1 per cent of the women were unemployed. Employment rates were 40.1 per cent for men and 9.6 per cent for women. The male employment rate has, however, risen from 21.5 per cent in 1998.<ref name=Khan/>
Figures published by the Office for National Statistics show high rates of economic inactivity and unemployment amongst Somali immigrants. In the three months to June 2008, 31.4 per cent of Somali men and 84.2 per cent of Somali women were economically inactive (the statistics include students, carers and the long-term sick, injured or disabled in this group).<ref name=Khan>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/articles/nojournal/MFMigAug08.pdf|title=Employment of foreign workers: Male and female labour market participation|first=Kamran|last=Khan|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=August 2008|accessdate=5 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/about-statistics/user-guidance/lm-guide/concepts/inactivity/reasons/index.html|title=Reasons for economic inactivity|publisher=Office for National Statistics|accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref> Of those who were economically active, 41.4 per cent of the men and 39.1 per cent of the women were unemployed. Employment rates were 40.1 per cent for men and 9.6 per cent for women. The male employment rate has, however, risen from 21.5 per cent in 1998.<ref name=Khan/>


A report by the [[Institute for Public Policy Research]] attributes the low employment rate to the newness of the Somali community and the fact that most immigrants came in search of asylum rather than through labor migration channels. Data suggests asylum seekers in general appear to have more difficulty accessing employment and may not have the right to work while their claim is processed.<ref name="IPPR"/> This includes skilled [[professional]]s who, while constituting a high proportion of Somali immigrants, have not all been able to find work in their field.<ref name="Casciani"/><ref name=Harris/>{{rp|39}} Many have struggled to get the qualifications that they have gained in Somalia recognised in the UK.<ref name=MoL>{{cite web|url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/Collections/Onlineresources/RWWC/themes/1078/1267|title=Somali London|publisher=Museum of London|accessdate=6 August 2010}}</ref><ref name=Harris />{{rp|39}}
A report by the [[Institute for Public Policy Research]] attributes the low employment rate to the newness of the Somali community and the fact that most immigrants came in search of asylum rather than through labor migration channels. Data suggests asylum seekers in general appear to have more difficulty accessing employment and may not have the right to work while their claim is processed.<ref name="IPPR"/> This includes skilled [[professional]]s who, while constituting a high proportion of Somali immigrants, have not all been able to find work in their field.<ref name="Casciani"/><ref name=Harris/>{{deadlink}}{{rp|39}} Many have struggled to get the qualifications that they have gained in Somalia recognised in the UK.<ref name=MoL>{{cite web|url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/English/Collections/Onlineresources/RWWC/themes/1078/1267|title=Somali London|publisher=Museum of London|accessdate=6 August 2010}}</ref><ref name=Harris />{{deadlink}}{{rp|39}}


===Politics===
===Politics===
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==Business and enterprise==
==Business and enterprise==
===Overview===
===Overview===
The [[Somali people]] have a strong tradition in trade, with a long [[Maritime history of Somalia|history of maritime enterprise]] stretching back to antiquity that includes possible [[commerce]] with [[Ancient Britain|ancient Britons]] based on rare commodities such as [[tin]].<ref name="Jbell">{{cite book|first=James|last=Bell|title=A system of geography, popular and scientific, or, a physical, political, and statistical account of the world and its various divisions|location=Glasgow|publisher=A. Fullarton and Co.|year=1832|page=434}}</ref> The UK is now a centre for Somali commercial enterprise.<ref name=Harris/>{{rp|24}} In recent times, several Somali [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]], such as [[Omar A. Ali]]'s ''Integrated Property Investments Limited'', with multi-million dollar projects in [[East Africa]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/-/2560/521896/-/view/printVersion/-/amphwp/-/index.html|title=Dar housing project gets $6.2m boost from Shelter Afrique|author=Kaburu Mugambi|publisher=''[[The East African]]''|date=30 January 2009|accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref> and Invicta Capital, with an investment capital of £1.4 billion, have their headquarters in London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.invictacapital.co.uk/html/about_us|title=About us|publisher=Invicta Capital|accessdate=7 August 2010}}</ref> A 2008 study on immigrant business in Britain highlighted that the level of community support enjoyed by Somali traders was high in comparison to other immigrant groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdx.ac.uk/Assets/Ethnic_Min_Bus_Commu.pdf|title=New BME Business Communities In Britain: Challenges of diversity for business support policy|date=November 2008|first1=Leandro|last1=Sepulveda|first2=Stephen|last2=Syrett|first3=Fergus|last3=Lyon|publisher=Social Policy Research Centre, Middlesex University|accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref> Somali enterprise has also begun replacing previously [[India]]n-dominated business premises. [[Southall]], for example, now features several Somali-orientated [[restaurant]]s and [[café]]s.<ref name="McHafeez">{{cite conference|last1=McEvoy|first1=David|last2=Hafeez|first2=Khalid|title=The changing face of ethnic minority entrepreneurship in Britain|conference=4th Interdisciplinary European Conference on Entrepreneurship Research, [[University of Regensburg]]|date=February 2006}}</ref>
The [[Somali people]] have a strong tradition in trade, with a long [[Maritime history of Somalia|history of maritime enterprise]] stretching back to antiquity that includes possible [[commerce]] with [[Ancient Britain|ancient Britons]] based on rare commodities such as [[tin]].<ref name="Jbell">{{cite book|first=James|last=Bell|title=A system of geography, popular and scientific, or, a physical, political, and statistical account of the world and its various divisions|location=Glasgow|publisher=A. Fullarton and Co.|year=1832|page=434}}</ref> The UK is now a centre for Somali commercial enterprise.<ref name=Harris/>{{deadlink}}{{rp|24}} In recent times, several Somali [[Multinational corporation|multinational companies]], such as [[Omar A. Ali]]'s ''Integrated Property Investments Limited'', with multi-million dollar projects in [[East Africa]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/business/-/2560/521896/-/view/printVersion/-/amphwp/-/index.html|title=Dar housing project gets $6.2m boost from Shelter Afrique|author=Kaburu Mugambi|publisher=''[[The East African]]''|date=30 January 2009|accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref> and Invicta Capital, with an investment capital of £1.4 billion, have their headquarters in London.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.invictacapital.co.uk/html/about_us|title=About us|publisher=Invicta Capital|accessdate=7 August 2010}}</ref> A 2008 study on immigrant business in Britain highlighted that the level of community support enjoyed by Somali traders was high in comparison to other immigrant groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mdx.ac.uk/Assets/Ethnic_Min_Bus_Commu.pdf|title=New BME Business Communities In Britain: Challenges of diversity for business support policy|date=November 2008|first1=Leandro|last1=Sepulveda|first2=Stephen|last2=Syrett|first3=Fergus|last3=Lyon|publisher=Social Policy Research Centre, Middlesex University|accessdate=4 August 2010}}</ref> Somali enterprise has also begun replacing previously [[India]]n-dominated business premises. [[Southall]], for example, now features several Somali-orientated [[restaurant]]s and [[café]]s.<ref name="McHafeez">{{cite conference|last1=McEvoy|first1=David|last2=Hafeez|first2=Khalid|title=The changing face of ethnic minority entrepreneurship in Britain|conference=4th Interdisciplinary European Conference on Entrepreneurship Research, [[University of Regensburg]]|date=February 2006}}</ref>


===Networks===
===Networks===

Revision as of 01:24, 10 August 2010

Somalis in the United Kingdom
Regions with significant populations
London, Liverpool, Cardiff, Birmingham, Bristol, Manchester, Sheffield, Leicester
Languages
Somali, Arabic, English
Religion
Islam

Somalis in the United Kingdom include British citizens and residents born in, or with ancestors from, Somalia. The United Kingdom (UK) is home to the largest Somali community in Europe, with 43,532 Somali-born residents registered in the 2001 Census, and an estimated 105,000 Somali immigrants in 2009 according to the Office for National Statistics. Recent unofficial estimates reported by the BBC suggest that up to 250,000 Somalis may now live in the UK, with Somali community organisations putting the figure at 90,000 residents.

The earliest Somali immigrants in the UK were seamen and merchants who arrived in the 19th century. A second small group came during the Second World War with the Royal Navy, and stayed in search of employment. During the 1980s and 1990s, the civil war in Somalia lead to a large number of Somali immigrants, most consisting of asylum seekers. A Muslim people, the Somali community in the UK has produced several notable sports figures, filmmakers and local politicians, and has established business and media networks.

History and settlement

Although most Somalis in the UK are recent arrivals, the first Somali immigrants were seamen and merchants who settled in port cities in the late 19th century, mainly in Cardiff, Liverpool and London.[1][2][dead link] Many of these early sailors came from the former British Somaliland protectorate and worked in the thriving docks, whilst living in boarding houses run by other Somalis.[3][4] A second small group came during the Second World War with the Royal Navy and stayed in search of employment.[5] Most of these seamen considered their stay in the UK as temporary and had left their families behind.[6][2][dead link] In 1953, there were about 600 Somalis living in the UK.[6] When the British merchant navy started to wind down in the 1950s, many of these migrants moved to industrial cities such as Birmingham, Sheffield and Manchester.[7] By the 1960s, there were still only a few Somali women in the UK.[2][dead link] After the expansion in British industry, many of the Somali men brought over their wives and families.[6][2][dead link]

Due to the civil war in Somalia, Somalis figured among the top ten largest groups applying for asylum in the UK between 1985 and 2006,[1] many arriving by way of neighboring countries in East Africa and sometimes the Gulf States. In the late 1980s, most of these early migrants were granted refugee status, while those arriving later in the 1990s more often obtained temporary status.[6]

There has also been some secondary migration of Somalis to the UK from the Netherlands, Sweden and Denmark.[8][9] An academic article published in 2010 suggests that, since 2000, between 10,000 and 20,000 Somalis in the Netherlands have moved to the UK.[9] The driving forces behind this secondary migration included: a desire to reunite with family and friends;[6] a rise in Dutch opposition to Muslim immigration; Somali opposition to housing policies which forced them to live scattered in small groups all over various cities rather than in a larger agglomerated community;[10] a restrictive socio-economic environment which, among other things, made it difficult for new arrivals to find work;[11] and the comparative ease of starting a business and acquiring the means to get off social welfare in the UK.[10]

Demographics

Population and distribution

As with other communities, Somali immigrants residing in Britain represent a dynamic group of people, with diverse histories and contexts of migration. There are no wholly reliable statistics on the number of Somalis in the UK since the community at present does not have a separate entry in the UK Census,[6] though the census does have a 'write in' response option for people who identify themselves as Somali.[12] It is thought that the UK is home to the largest Somali community in Europe,[13] with 43,532 Somali-born residents registered in the 2001 Census,[14] and an estimated 105,000 Somali immigrants in 2009 according to the Office for National Statistics.[15] The BBC report that experts estimate that between 95,000 and 250,000 Somalis may now live in the UK,[16] with Somali community organisations putting the figure at 90,000 residents.[1] However, these figures are complicated by the exchange of Somalis both arriving in the UK and deciding to return to Somalia or elsewhere.[6]

Established Somali communities are found in London (where around three quarters of Somali-born UK residents live),[17] Liverpool (estimated between 3,000–5,000),[5] Cardiff, and Bristol (estimated variously at 15,000–20,000 and 30,000 residents).[18][19] Newer ones have also formed in Manchester,[17] Birmingham (3,000–4,000),[5] Sheffield[17] and Leicester (10,000–15,000).[5] Cardiff has the highest number of people of Somali heritage anywhere in the UK.[17] Both Cardiff and Liverpool has long-established Somali communities as a result of being port cities.[16] It is estimated that there are around 10,000–15,000 Somalis living in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets; 11,000–15,000 in the London Borough of Ealing; and 2,500–4,000 in London Borough of Islington.[5]

Language

The Somali language is the mother tongue of the Somali people, and the official language of Somalia. It is a member of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family.[20] Many Somalis in the UK also speak Arabic, another Afro-Asiatic tongue and the other official language of Somalia,[21] with approximately 15 per cent of Somalis in England being completely fluent in it according to a British government survey.[5] Somalis who have arrived in the UK via a secondary migration from other European countries also tend to speak those adopted Indo-European languages better than English, which can present challenges with regard to integration.[5]

Religion

With few exceptions, Somalis are entirely Muslims, the majority belonging to the Sunni branch of Islam and the Shafi`i school of Islamic jurisprudence, although some are also adherents of the Shia Muslim denomination.[22] Somalis constitute one of the largest Muslim groups in the UK.[5]

Culture

Sport

Mo Farah, a track and field athlete.

Somali athletes in the UK include Mo Farah, a long-distance runner based in London. He generally competes in the 5000 metres event, having won his first major title at the European Junior Championships in 2001. Farah also competes in cross-country running, where in December 2006, he became European champion in Italy.[23] In 2009, he won a gold medal in the 3000 metres at the European Indoor Championships in Turin. He also currently holds the British indoor record in the 3000 metres. Most recently, Farah earned Britain its first ever gold medal in the 10,000 metre event at the European Athletics Championships, as well as a second gold in the 5,000 metres.[24][25] Other prominent Somali athletes include footballers Abdisalam Ibrahim of Manchester City, who is the Premier League's first Somali player and first from East Africa (although he represents Norway at international level),[26] and Somali international Liban Abdi of Ferencvárosi, on loan from Sheffield United.[27]

Media

The BBC Somali Service is a radio station transmitted in the Somali language around the world. The majority of Somalis in the UK listen to the BBC Somali Service for news and information.[28] While many listen at home via satellite radio or the Internet, others listen in groups at Somali shops, restaurants, khat houses or mosques.[28]

Somali Eye Media is a media organisation based in London and set up by Adam Dirir, a prominent member of the Somali community, in 2003. It publishes the magazine Somali Eye once every three months,[29] and operates Somali Voice Radio, a radio station, through Sound Radio 1503 AM.[30] Another UK-based Somali radio station is Somali On Air.[28] Bristol Community FM features a weekly chat show that is hosted by Somali Women's Voice.[19] There are also a few weekly and monthly Somali newspapers available in the UK in both Somali and English, including Kasmo, Jamhuuriya,[28] and The Somali Voice.[31] Other magazines and newspapers have failed due to poor readership figures.[28] A 2006 survey by the International Organization for Migration suggests that Somalis in the UK prefer to read newspapers such as Metro to improve their English language skills, although listening to radio was more popular.[28] In 2007, five emerging Somali authors (including Adam Dirir) published Silent Voices, an anthology about Somali life in Britain.[32]

Prominent Somali media figures in the UK include Rageh Omaar, a television news presenter and writer, and advocate for the Somali community. He received the 2002–2003 Ethnic Multicultural Media Academy award for the best TV journalist.[33] Omaar was formerly a BBC world affairs correspondent, where he made his name reporting from Iraq. In September 2006, he moved to a new post at Al Jazeera English, where he currently hosts the current-affairs programme, The Rageh Omaar Show.[34] Yusuf Garaad Omar is a journalist and head of the BBC Somali Service.[35] Other prominent Somali media figures include Mo Ali, an up-and-coming film director born in Saudi Arabia,[36][37] who debuted in 2010 his feature film, Shank, set in a futuristic London.[38][39]

Community

Social issues and solutions

One of the main barriers to integration facing Somalis is language, which has an effect on housing and health conditions.[40] While initially troubles with adolescent gangs began to emerge, they have now increasingly given way to community youth forums that work closely with law enforcement to deter crime. Women's groups have also started to form, and the Metropolitan Police recently hired its first Somali female officer. With the assistance of local police and social agencies, neighborhoods have also become more involved in policing their environs.[41] To this end, the Somali Youth Development Resource Centre (SYDRC), a Somali community reach organization based in Camden, has joined forces with the Metropolitan Police's Communities Together Strategic Engagement Team to establish the London Somali Youth Forum, which provides an outlet for the city's young Somalis to address security-related issues and get engaged with the local police. The SYDRC has hired numerous youth ambassadors for the purpose, 16 of whom have been specifically trained in community engagement.[42]

Khat

Khat is a plant that is mainly grown in East Africa and the Middle East. Its leaves are chewed for their stimulating properties, primarily by people from these regions. Within Somali culture especially, khat chewing has a long history as a social custom that traditionally brings people together to relax and to encourage conversation. Some people also use it to help them stay alert during work or school. Ordinarily, khat use would be limited to specific periods of the day and session durations.[43] Khat itself is legal in the UK and readily available at mafrishes, commercial establishments where the substance is sold and chewed.[44] Within the Somali community as well as other groups with khat-chewing traditions, the activity is generally perceived as legitimate and is not censured like alcohol and illegal drug use are within those same communities.[43]

However, some commentators, health professionals and community members have expressed concerns about the long-term effects of the use of khat by Somalis in the UK, suggesting that excessive use has a negative social and health impact on the community.[44] One review of studies of the effects of khat use by Somalis and other immigrants on their mental health suggests that there is a need for better research on khat-chewing and its possible link with psychiatric disorders; it also suggests that public discourse on the issue displays elements of a moral panic.[45] Some Somali community organisations have also campaigned for khat to be banned.[46] As a result of these concerns, the Home Office commissioned successive research studies to look into the matter, and in 2005, presented the question of khat's legal status before the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. After a careful review of the evidence, the expert committee recommended in January 2006 that the status of khat as a legal substance should stay as is for the moment.[44]

That same year, the Home Office also issued a report on research examining the level and nature of the use of khat by Somalis in four English cities; Birmingham, Bristol, London and Sheffield. It found that 38 per cent of the respondents had ever used khat in their lifetime, with 58 per cent of men and only 16 per cent of women reporting having ever used it. 34 per cent of the overall sample indicated that they had chewed khat the month before, 51 per cent of which were men and 14 per cent were women. Some reported family tensions arising from their khat use. 49 per cent of those surveyed were in favour of banning khat, with 35 opposed, but the report suggested that this would not be effective. Three quarters of participants who had used khat reported having suffered health effects, although these were mostly mild in nature, with the most common symptoms respondents associated with khat use being sleeping difficulties, loss of appetite, and an urge to chew more khat. The study concluded that most of the participants who were using khat were using it moderately in terms of both the quantity used and the frequency and duration of chewing sessions, and that khat use was typically a social activity. Only a small minority of the study participants' khat use was judged to be excessive.[43]

Housing

According to reports, over 95 per cent of Somali immigrants in the UK reside in rental accommodation, and of this group, about 80 per cent live in social housing.[47][48] However, this representation is numerically very small in relation to the total number of social tenants in the UK.[48] Factors that account for the high uptake of social housing in the community include generally lower household incomes that make it difficult to purchase property; large families for which to find suitable accommodation; a preference for settling in London, where property prices are higher and there are proportionately more social tenants from all communities; and a high proportion of new arrivals in the Somali community, with newcomers least likely to have accumulated the savings necessary to purchase property.[49][48]

Employment

Figures published by the Office for National Statistics show high rates of economic inactivity and unemployment amongst Somali immigrants. In the three months to June 2008, 31.4 per cent of Somali men and 84.2 per cent of Somali women were economically inactive (the statistics include students, carers and the long-term sick, injured or disabled in this group).[50][51] Of those who were economically active, 41.4 per cent of the men and 39.1 per cent of the women were unemployed. Employment rates were 40.1 per cent for men and 9.6 per cent for women. The male employment rate has, however, risen from 21.5 per cent in 1998.[50]

A report by the Institute for Public Policy Research attributes the low employment rate to the newness of the Somali community and the fact that most immigrants came in search of asylum rather than through labor migration channels. Data suggests asylum seekers in general appear to have more difficulty accessing employment and may not have the right to work while their claim is processed.[47] This includes skilled professionals who, while constituting a high proportion of Somali immigrants, have not all been able to find work in their field.[16][2][dead link]: 39  Many have struggled to get the qualifications that they have gained in Somalia recognised in the UK.[52][2][dead link]: 39 

Politics

Although interested in participating in local politics,[53] many Somalis in the UK cannot vote in elections on account of their refugee status. Instead, they rely on community media to be heard. Kayse Maxamed, editor of Somali Voice, has argued that many Somalis with British citizenship who are entitled to vote do not exercise this right, partly because of a lack of understanding of the voting registration process.[19]

On the representative front, however, the Somali community has become increasingly engaged in local politics.[53] Mohamed "Jimmy" Ali became the UK's first Somali councillor in 2004.[16] The incumbent mayor of Tower Hamlets, Ahmed Omer, is originally from Somalia, the first to be appointed to office in London and the country when he assumed office in 2009.[54] Mark Hendrick, who is partly of Somali descent, previously served as a member of the European Parliament before being elected a Labour Co-operative Member of Parliament for Preston in a by-election in 2000.[55][56] Around 17 Somali candidates also stood in the 2010 local elections. Of these, at least seven Somali councillors were elected,[53] including Gulaid Abdullah Ahmed,[57] Abdifatah Aden,[58] Awale Olad,[59] and Abdul Mohamed of the Labour Party,[60] as well as Asad Osman of the Liberal Democrats, a 25-year-old former chairman of the Somali Youth Development Resource Centre.[61][53]

Business and enterprise

Overview

The Somali people have a strong tradition in trade, with a long history of maritime enterprise stretching back to antiquity that includes possible commerce with ancient Britons based on rare commodities such as tin.[62] The UK is now a centre for Somali commercial enterprise.[2][dead link]: 24  In recent times, several Somali multinational companies, such as Omar A. Ali's Integrated Property Investments Limited, with multi-million dollar projects in East Africa,[63] and Invicta Capital, with an investment capital of £1.4 billion, have their headquarters in London.[64] A 2008 study on immigrant business in Britain highlighted that the level of community support enjoyed by Somali traders was high in comparison to other immigrant groups.[65] Somali enterprise has also begun replacing previously Indian-dominated business premises. Southall, for example, now features several Somali-orientated restaurants and cafés.[66]

Networks

The Somali diaspora in the UK operates various networks, with the Somaliland Chamber of Commerce having an office locally. Another Somali business network, the Midlands Somali Business Association, a non-profit organization centered in Birmingham, offers commercial advice to Somali businesses based in the city. It also publishes a quarterly newsletter and runs workshops and conferences for the local Somali business community. Additionally, the number of Somali businesses in the UK is increasing, ranging from restaurants, remittance companies, hairdressing salons and travel agencies to, especially, internet cafés. Although some of these businesses cater to mainstream British society, most are aimed at a Somali clientele. However, the Midlands Somali Business Association has recognized the potential benefits of penetrating the larger British business community, and is encouraging stakeholders to tap into this sector. The organization is also exploring opportunities for transnational businesses.[67]

Money transfer operators

Dahabshiil, headquartered in London, is the largest of the Somali community's many money transfer companies.

Some Somali businesses with a presence in the UK, particularly in the remittance sector, already operate internationally. The latter include Dahabshiil, Qaran Express, Mustaqbal, Amal Express, Kaah Express, Hodan Global, Olympic, Amana Express, Iftin Express and Tawakal Express. Most are credentialed members of the Somali Money Transfer Association (SOMTA), an umbrella organization that regulates the community's money transfer sector, or its predecessor, the Somali Financial Services Association (SFSA). A unique feature of the Somali funds transfer companies is that they all charge the same low commission of 5% for sending amounts of up to approximately $1000, a fee range that encompasses the vast majority of household Somali remittances. For amounts greater than $1000, these companies charge commission fees of between 3%-4%, significantly lower than Western Union's 7.1% fee and MoneyGram's 7.2% fee for sending the same amount to Ethiopia. The bulk of remittances are sent by Somalis to relatives in Somalia, a practice which has had a stimulating effect on that country's economy. Dahabshiil is the largest of the Somali money transfer operators (MTO), having captured most of the market vacated by Al-Barakaat. The firm has its headquarters in London and employs more than 2000 people across 144 countries, with 130 branches in the United Kingdom alone, a further 130 branches in Somalia, and 400 branches globally, including one in Dubai.[67][68] It also invests 5% per cent of its profits into community projects aimed at improving schools, hospitals, agriculture and sanitation services, and sponsors a number of social events, including the Somali Week Festival and the Somali Youth Sports Association, which help to promote understanding and cooperation through Somali art and culture and sport, respectively.[68] In 2008, Dahabshiil's CEO, Abdirashid Duale, was awarded Top Manager of the Year by the International Association of Money Transfer Networks in recognition of the outstanding services that the firm offers its clients.[69] This was followed in 2010 with the UK's Mayor of Tower Hamlets award for excellence in the community, which recognizes the "outstanding contribution" Dahabshiil has made to the local, national and international Somali community over the last 40 years.[68] After Dahabshiil, Qaran Express is the largest Somali-owned funds transfer company. The firm has its headquarters in both London and Dubai, with 175 agents worldwide, 64 agents in London and 66 in Somalia, and charges nothing for remitting charity funds. Mustaqbal is the third most prominent Somali MTO with branches in the United Kingdom, having 49 agents in the UK and 8 agents in Somalia. As with Dahabshiil and Qaran Express, it also has a notable presence internationally.[67]

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Further reading

External links

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