History of the Huns: Difference between revisions

Hunnic Empire
Hunnic Empire
c. 370 AD–469
	The Hunnic Empire at its peak under Attila
Capital	Carpathian Basin
Common languages	Hunnic; Gothic (lingua franca); Latin; Proto-Slavic; Other tribal languages
Government	Monarchy
High King
• 390-410	Uldin
• c. 437-445	Attila and Bleda
• 445-453	Attila
• ?-469	Dengizich
History
• Huns destroy a tribe of Alans to their west	c. 370 AD
• Huns overrun Goths	375-376
• Death of Bleda, Attila becomes sole ruler	445
• Battle of the Catalaunian Plains	451
• Invasion of northern Italy	452
• Battle of Nedao	454
• Dengizich, King of the Huns, dies	469
• Ernakh become ruler over Huns in what is modern-day Ukraine	469
Today part of	Hungary; Ukraine; Moldova; Russia; Romania; Slovakia; Czech Republic; Poland; Germany; Belarus; Kazakhstan; Serbia; Austria; Lithuania; Croatia; Bulgaria

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The Hunnic Empire was formed under the reign of Attila, centered in present-day Hungary. Its territory included parts of Germany, the Balkans, and Ukraine and bordered the Eastern Roman Empire to the southeast and the Western Roman Empire to the west and southwest, with its other boundaries uncertain. The empire dissolved after Attila's death in 453 as a result of struggles over succession and leadership, finally disappearing around 469.

Origins

The origins of the Huns that swept through Europe during the 5th century remain unclear. Some historians have speculated that they may have been connected with the Xiongnu and the later Northern Xiongnu, which had been defeated and dispersed by China some three centuries before. However, some historians consider them a group of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with mixed origin.^{[citation needed]} The region roughly parallels that of the earlier Scythia. There was a Hunnic language, though Gothic seems also to have been used as a lingua franca and use of Latin was not uncommon.^[4]

History

Early campaigns in Europe

European accounts first mention the Huns in about 370 in the lands north-west of the Caspian Sea, when they overwhelmed a tribe of Alans to their west and propelling some of them to flee westward into Roman lands, while some remained under Hun rule. Pushing further westward, the Huns subjugated the Ostrogoths. In 375, Gothic tribes had been displaced from their homeland by a Hun invasion. In 376, an estimated 200,000 Visigoth warriors and about 1,000,000 other persons crossed south of the Danube into Roman province of Moesia seeking asylum from the Eastern Roman Emperor Valens.

In 395, a Hun army raided across the Caucasus mountains and devastated Armenia, then captured Erzurum, besieged Edessa and Antioch, and even reached Tyre.^{[citation needed]}

In 408, the Huns under Uldin (?–412) invaded the Eastern Roman province of Moesia but were repulsed and Uldin was forced to retreat.

Consolidation

For all their early exploits, the Huns were politically disunited. Rather than an empire, the Huns were more a confederation of tribes. They often served as mercenary troops under Roman command.

From 420, a chieftain named Oktar began to unite the Hunnic tribes. He was succeeded by his brother, Rugila who became the leader of the Hun confederation, uniting the Huns into a cohesive group with a common purpose. He led them into a campaign in the Western Roman Empire, through an alliance with Roman General Aetius. This gave the Huns more wealth and power. He planned a massive invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire in the year 434, but died before his plans could come to completion. His heirs to the throne were his nephews, Bleda and Attila, who ruled in a dual kingship. Though they divided their peoples between them, they still regarded the empire as a single entity.

Under dual kingship

Attila and Bleda were as ambitious as Rugila had been. They forced the Eastern Roman Empire to sign the Treaty of Margus in 435,^[5] giving the Huns trade rights and an annual tribute from the Eastern Romans. The Romans also agreed to give up Hunnic refugees (individuals who could have threatened the brothers' grip on power) for execution. With their southern border protected by the terms of this treaty, the Huns turned their attention to the further subjugation of tribes to the west.

The Huns breached the treaty in 440 when Attila and Bleda attacked Castra Constantias, a Roman fortress and marketplace on the banks of the Danube.^[6] The Eastern Romans stopped delivery of the agreed tribute, and to honour other conditions of the Treaty of Margus. The Hunnic kings turned their attention back to the Eastern Romans. Reports that the Bishop of Margus had crossed into Hun lands and desecrated royal graves further angered the Hun kings. War broke out between the two empires, and the Huns overcame a weak Roman army to raze the cities of Margus, Singidunum and Viminacium. Although a truce was signed in 441, two years later Constantinople again failed to deliver the tribute and war resumed. In the following campaign, Hun armies came alarmingly close to Constantinople, sacking Sardica, Arcadiopolis and Philippopolis along the way. Suffering a complete defeat at the Battle of Chersonesus, the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II gave in to Hun demands and in autumn 443 signed the Peace of Anatolius with the two Hun kings. The Huns returned to their lands with a vast train full of plunder.

Attila's empire

Bleda died in 445, with some historians speculating that his death was at the hands of Attila, Attila had unchallenged power over his subjects. In 447, Attila turned the Huns again toward the Eastern Roman Empire. His invasion of the Balkans and Thrace was devastating. The Eastern Roman Empire was already beset by internal problems, such as famine and plague, as well as riots and a series of earthquakes in Constantinople itself. Only a hasty rebuilding of its walls had preserved Constantinople unscathed. Victory over a Roman army had already left the Huns virtually unchallenged in Eastern Roman lands and only disease forced a retreat, after they had conducted raids as far south as Thermopylae. The war against the Eastern Romans came to an end in 449 with the signing of the Third Peace of Anatolius.

Throughout their raids on the Eastern Roman Empire, the Huns had maintained good relations with the Western Roman Empire, to a large extent due to a friendship with Flavius Aetius, a powerful Roman general (sometimes even referred to as the de facto ruler of the Western Empire) who had spent some time with the Huns. However, this all changed in 450 when Honoria, sister of the Western Roman Emperor Valentinian III, sent Attila a ring and requested his help to escape her betrothal to a senator. Although it is not known whether Honoria intended this as a proposal of marriage to Attila, that is how Attila interpreted the gesture. He claimed half the Western Roman Empire as dowry. To add to the worsening relations, a dispute arose between Attila and Aetius about who should inherit the kingship of the Salian Franks. Finally, the repeated raids on the Eastern Roman Empire had left it with little to plunder.

In 451, Attila's forces entered Gaul, with his army recruiting from the Franks, Goths and Burgundian tribes en route. Once in Gaul, the Huns first attacked Metz, then his armies continued westwards, passing both Paris and Troyes to lay siege to Orléans.

Aetius was given the duty by Valentinian of relieving Orléans. Bolstered by Frankish and Visigothic troops (under King Theodoric), Aetius' Roman army met the Huns at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains, also known as the Battle of Châlons. Although a tactical defeat for Attila, thwarting his invasion of Gaul and forcing his retreat back to non-Roman lands, the macrohistorical significance of the allied and Roman victory remains a matter of debate.^[7]^[8]^[9]

The following year, Attila renewed his claims to Honoria and territory in the Western Roman Empire. Leading his horde across the Alps and into northern Italy, he sacked and razed the cities of Aquileia, Vicetia, Verona, Brixia, Bergamum, and Milan. Hoping to avoid the sack of Rome itself, Emperor Valentinian III sent three envoys, the high civilian officers Gennadius Avienus and Trigetius, as well as the Bishop of Rome Leo I, who met Attila at Mincio in the vicinity of Mantua, and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the emperor. Prosper of Aquitaine gives a short, reliable description of the historic meeting, but gives all the credit of the successful negotiation to Leo. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of Alaric—who died shortly after sacking Rome in 410—gave him pause. In reality, Italy had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452; Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this year did not improve the harvest. To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation. Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat back to his homeland. Secondly, an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of another officer also named Aetius—who had participated in the Council of Chalcedon the previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left behind by Attila to safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire from Italy before moving south of the Po. Attila retreated without Honoria or her dowry.

The new Eastern Roman Emperor Marcian then halted tribute payments. From the Carpathian Basin, Attila mobilised to attack Constantinople. However, in 453 he married a German girl named Ildico, and died of a nosebleed on his wedding night.

Fall

Attila was succeeded by his eldest son, Ellak. However, Attila's other sons, Dengizich and Ernakh, challenged Ellak for the throne. Taking advantage of the situation, subjugated tribes rose up in rebellion. The year after Attila's death, the Huns were defeated in the Battle of Nedao. In 469, Dengizik, the last Hunnic king and successor of Ellak, died. This date is seen as the end of the Hunnic Empire.

References and notes

^ Wolfram, Herwig, The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples, (University of California Press, 1990), 142.
^ Heather, Peter, The Fall of the Roman Empire, (Oxford University Press, 2006), 330.
^ Pohl, Walter. 1999. Huns. Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, ed. Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. Harvard University Press. pp.501-502
^ Priscus fr. 8 ("For the subjects of the Huns, swept together from various lands, speak, besides their own barbarous tongues, either Hunnic or Gothic, or--as many as have commercial dealings with the western Romans--Latin")
^ Thompson, E. A.; et al. (1999). The Huns. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 136. {{cite book}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |last= (help)
^ Harvey, Bonnie (2003). Attila the Hun. Infobase Publishing. p. 15.
^ Creasy, The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World
^ Norwich, Byzantium: the Early Centuries. 1997, p. 158.
^ Bury, The Later Roman Empire, pp. 294f.

@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 |event_start = Huns destroy a tribe of Alans to their west
 |year_start = c. 370 AD
-|event_end = King of the Huns, [[Dengizich]] dies
+|event_end = [[Dengizich]], King of the Huns, dies
 |year_end = 469
 |image_map = Huns empire.png
 |image_map_caption = The Hunnic Empire at its peak under [[Attila]]
-|common_languages = [[Hunnic language|Hunnic]]<br>[[Gothic language|Gothic]] (<small>''lingua franca''</small>)<ref>Wolfram, Herwig, ''The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples'', (University of California Press, 1990), 142.</ref><ref>Heather, Peter, ''The Fall of the Roman Empire'', (Oxford University Press, 2006), 330.</ref>
+|common_languages = [[Hunnic language|Hunnic]]<br>{{nowrap|[[Gothic language|Gothic]] (<small>''lingua franca''</small>)<ref>Wolfram, Herwig, ''The Roman Empire and its Germanic peoples'', (University of California Press, 1990), 142.</ref><ref>Heather, Peter, ''The Fall of the Roman Empire'', (Oxford University Press, 2006), 330.</ref>}}<br>[[Latin]]<br>[[Proto-Slavic]]<ref>[[Walter Pohl|Pohl, Walter]]. 1999. Huns. Late Antiquity: a guide to the postclassical world, ed. Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert Lamont Brown, Oleg Grabar. [[Harvard University Press]]. pp.501-502</ref><br>Other tribal languages
-|leader1 = [[Attila]]
+|leader1 = Uldin
-|year_leader1 = 445-453
+|year_leader1 = 390-410
 |title_leader = [[List of Hunnic rulers|High King]]
 |today        = {{flag|Hungary}}<br>{{flag|Ukraine}}<br>{{flag|Moldova}}<br>{{flag|Russia}}<br>{{flag|Romania}}<br>{{flag|Slovakia}}<br>{{flag|Czech Republic}}<br>{{flag|Poland}}<br>{{flag|Germany}}<br>{{flag|Belarus}}<br>{{flag|Kazakhstan}}<br>{{flag|Serbia}}<br>{{flag|Austria}}<br>{{flag|Lithuania}}<br>{{flag|Croatia}}<br>{{flag|Bulgaria}}
+|leader2 = [[Attila]] and [[Bleda]]|year_leader2 = c. 437-445|leader3 = Attila|year_leader3 = 445-453|leader4 = Dengizich|year_leader4 = ?-469|capital = [[Carpathian Basin]]|event1 = Huns overrun [[Goths]]|event2 = Death of Bleda, Attila becomes sole ruler|event3 = [[Battle of the Catalaunian Plains]]|event4 = Invasion of northern Italy|event_post = [[Ernakh]] become ruler over Huns in what is modern-day Ukraine|event5 = [[Battle of Nedao]]|date_event1 = 375-376|date_event2 = 445|date_event3 = 451|date_event4 = 452|date_event5 = 454|date_post = 469}}
-}}
 The '''Hunnic Empire''' was formed under the reign of [[Attila]], centered in present-day [[Hungary]]. Its territory included parts of [[Germany]], the [[Balkans]], and [[Ukraine]] and bordered the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] to the southeast and the [[Western Roman Empire]] to the west and southwest, with its other boundaries uncertain. The empire dissolved after Attila's death in 453 as a result of struggles over [[order of succession|succession]] and leadership, finally disappearing around 469.
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 [[Category:Ancient peoples of Russia]]
 [[Category:Battles involving the Huns]]
-[[Category:Former empires of Asia]]
 [[Category:Nomadic groups in Eurasia]]
 [[Category:Nomads of the Eurasian steppe]]