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==Britain==
==Britain==


Irish speakers of all social classes were not uncommon in early modern Britain. Irish beggars were common in 16th century England, and in the late 16th and 17th centuries many unskilled Irish labourers settled in Liverpool, Bristol and London.<ref>Camp, Anthony. ‘The Irish in England’, in ''Family Tree Magazine'', vol. 19, no. 9 (July 2003) pp. 8-10. http://www.family-tree.org.uk</ref>
Irish speakers of all social classes were to be found in early modern Britain. Irish beggars were common in 16th century England, and in the late 16th and 17th centuries many unskilled Irish labourers settled in [[Liverpool]], [[Bristol]] and [[London]].<ref>Camp, Anthony. ‘The Irish in England’, in ''Family Tree Magazine'', vol. 19, no. 9 (July 2003) pp. 8-10. http://www.family-tree.org.uk</ref>


Among the aristocracy were the Nugent brothers, members of Ireland's [[Old English]] community: Christopher, 9th Baron Delvin, who wrote an Irish-language primer for [[Elizabeth II]], and William, an Irish language poet who is known to have been at [[Oxford University|Oxford]] in 1571.<ref>De Brún, Pádraig; Ó Buachalla, Breandán; Ó Concheanainn, Tomás (eds.). ''Nua-Dhuanaire: Cuid 1''. Institiúid Ardléinn Bhaile Átha Cliath 1975, p. 179.</ref>
Among the aristocracy were the Nugent brothers, members of Ireland's [[Old English]] community: Christopher, 9th Baron Delvin, who wrote an Irish-language primer for [[Elizabeth II]], and William, an Irish language poet who is known to have been at [[Oxford University|Oxford]] in 1571.<ref>De Brún, Pádraig; Ó Buachalla, Breandán; Ó Concheanainn, Tomás (eds.). ''Nua-Dhuanaire: Cuid 1''. Institiúid Ardléinn Bhaile Átha Cliath 1975, p. 179.</ref>


Irish immigration on a large scale began with the building of canals from the 1780s and of railways in the nineteenth century. Many Irish were attracted to [[Birmingham]] in the mid-1820s by rapid industrial expansion. There were large households of Irish speakers, often from the same parts of [[County Mayo|Mayo]], [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]], [[County Galway|Galway]] and [[County Sligo|Sligo]]. By the 1830s the Irish were to be found in the larger towns of South Wales, and in [[Manchester]] and [[Glasgow]]. More Irish settled in industrial towns in [[Lancashire]] in the late eighteenth century than in any other county. By 1835 in Manchester a sixth of the family heads were Irish. Irish speakers from Roscommon, Galway and Mayo were also to be found in Stafford from the 1830s.<ref>Camp, pp. 8-10</ref>
Irish immigration on a large scale began with the building of canals from the 1780s and of railways in the nineteenth century. Many Irish were attracted to [[Birmingham]] in the mid-1820s by rapid industrial expansion. The city had large households of Irish speakers, often from the same parts of [[County Mayo|Mayo]], [[County Roscommon|Roscommon]], [[County Galway|Galway]] and [[County Sligo|Sligo]]. By the 1830s the Irish were to be found in the larger towns of South Wales, and in [[Manchester]] and [[Glasgow]]. More Irish settled in industrial towns in [[Lancashire]] in the late eighteenth century than in any other county. By 1835 in Manchester a sixth of the family heads were Irish. Irish speakers from Roscommon, Galway and Mayo were also to be found in [[Stafford]] from the 1830s.<ref>Camp, pp. 8-10</ref>


The [[Great Famine]] brought an influx of Irish which affected England, [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]]. The 1840s saw Irish-speakers arriving from such counties as Mayo, Cork, Waterford and Limerick to South Wales, Liverpool, Bristol and Lancashire towns, with many moving on to London. Navvies found work on the South Wales Railway. Irish speakers from Munster were common among London immigrants, with many women speaking little or no English. Around 100,000 had arrived in London by 1851.<ref>Camp, pp. 8-10</ref> There are reports of Irish-speaking communities in some quarters of [[Liverpool]] in the Famine years (1845–52).<ref>Nic Craith, Máiréad; Leyland, Janet, ‘The Irish language in Britain: A case study of North West England,’ ''Language, Culture and Curriculum'', Volume 10, Issue 3, 1997, pp. 171-185. DOI: 10.1080/07908319709525250</ref>
The [[Great Famine]] brought an influx of Irish which affected England, [[Wales]] and [[Scotland]]. The 1840s saw Irish-speakers arriving from such counties as Mayo, Cork, Waterford and Limerick to South Wales, Liverpool]], Bristol and Lancashire towns, with many moving on to London. Navvies found work on the South Wales Railway. Irish speakers from Munster were common among London immigrants, with many women speaking little or no English. Around 100,000 had arrived in London by 1851.<ref>Camp, pp. 8-10</ref> There are reports of Irish-speaking communities in some quarters of [[Liverpool]] in the Famine years (1845–52).<ref>Nic Craith, Máiréad; Leyland, Janet, ‘The Irish language in Britain: A case study of North West England,’ ''Language, Culture and Curriculum'', Volume 10, Issue 3, 1997, pp. 171-185. DOI: 10.1080/07908319709525250</ref>


The [[Gaelic Revival]] in Ireland at the turn of the 20th century led to formation of branches of the [[Gaelic League]] abroad, including British cities. There were three branches of the Gaelic League in [[Glasgow]] by 1902<ref>”The Gaelic League is making rapid headway in Glasgow. There were only three branches in the city twelve months ago.” The Sacred Heart Review, Volume 28, Number 20, 15 November 1902: http://newspapers.bc.edu/cgi-bin/bostonsh?a=d&d=BOSTONSH19021115-01.2.57</ref> and a branch was also founded in [[Manchester]].<ref>Irish Manchester, Memories and Stories: http://www.irishmanchester.com/memories.shtml</ref>
The [[Gaelic Revival]] in Ireland at the turn of the 20th century led to formation of branches of the [[Gaelic League]] abroad, including British cities. There were three branches of the Gaelic League in [[Glasgow]] by 1902<ref>”The Gaelic League is making rapid headway in Glasgow. There were only three branches in the city twelve months ago.” The Sacred Heart Review, Volume 28, Number 20, 15 November 1902: http://newspapers.bc.edu/cgi-bin/bostonsh?a=d&d=BOSTONSH19021115-01.2.57</ref> and a branch was also founded in [[Manchester]].<ref>Irish Manchester, Memories and Stories: http://www.irishmanchester.com/memories.shtml</ref>
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===London===
===London===


Irish immigrants were a notable element of [[London]] life from the early seventeenth century. They engaged in seasonal labour and street selling, and became common around [[St Giles in the Fields]] during the eighteenth century, being prominent among the London poor. Many of them were discharged soldiers. The [[Old Bailey]] trial records give a glimpse of the common use of Irish in London backstreets, including an instance where a court interpreter was required (1768).<ref>Old Bailey Proceedings Online: Margaret Flanady, William Flanady, Deception and perjury, 19th October 1768. Reference Number: t17681019-45. http://www.oldbaileyonline.org</ref>
Irish immigrants were a notable element of London life from the early seventeenth century. They engaged in seasonal labour and street selling, and became common around [[St Giles in the Fields]] during the eighteenth century, being prominent among the London poor. Many of them were discharged soldiers. The [[Old Bailey]] trial records give a glimpse of the common use of Irish in London backstreets, including an instance where a court interpreter was required (1768).<ref>Old Bailey Proceedings Online: Margaret Flanady, William Flanady, Deception and perjury, 19th October 1768. Reference Number: t17681019-45. http://www.oldbaileyonline.org</ref>


The first Irish colony was in St Giles in the Fields and [[Seven Dials]]. By the early nineteenth century Irish communities existed in [[Whitechapel]], [[Saffron Hill]], [[Poplar]] and [[Southwark]], and especially in [[Marylebone]]. Typical occupations were hawking and costermongering. [[Henry Mayhew]] estimated in the 1850s that around 10,000 Irish men and women were so employed. The writer and linguist [[George Borrow]] gives an account (1851) of his father venturing into the Irish-speaking London slums in the early years of the century.<ref>Borrow, George. ''Lavengro: The Scholar, The Gypsy, The Priest''. MacMillan and Co., Ltd. 1900. Chapter IX. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/452/452-h/452-h.htm</ref>
The first Irish colony was in St Giles in the Fields and [[Seven Dials]]. By the early nineteenth century Irish communities existed in [[Whitechapel]], [[Saffron Hill]], [[Poplar]] and [[Southwark]], and especially in [[Marylebone]]. Typical occupations were hawking and costermongering. [[Henry Mayhew]] estimated in the 1850s that around 10,000 Irish men and women were so employed. The writer and linguist [[George Borrow]] gives an account (1851) of his father venturing into the Irish-speaking London slums in the early years of the century.<ref>Borrow, George. ''Lavengro: The Scholar, The Gypsy, The Priest''. MacMillan and Co., Ltd. 1900. Chapter IX. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/452/452-h/452-h.htm</ref>
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The current estimate of fluent Irish speakers permanently resident in Britain is 9,000.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Cad Chuige An Ghaeilge sa Bhreatain?|year=2011|pages=6}}</ref>
The current estimate of fluent Irish speakers permanently resident in Britain is 9,000.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Cad Chuige An Ghaeilge sa Bhreatain?|year=2011|pages=6}}</ref>


The Gaelic League has a number of branches in Britain, both north and south. The current [[Glasgow]] branch was founded in 1895.<ref>Conradh na Gaeilge, Glaschú: http://www.cnag-glaschu.co.uk/AboutUs.php</ref>
The Gaelic League retains a presence in Britain (the current [[Glasgow]] branch was founded in 1895),<ref>Conradh na Gaeilge, Glaschú: http://www.cnag-glaschu.co.uk/AboutUs.php</ref> and the Irish-language organization [[Coláiste na nGael]] and its allies run language classes and other events all over Britain. The areas concerned include London, Essex, Leicestershire and Somerset. The British Association for Irish Studies (established 1985) aims to support Irish cultural activities and the study of Ireland in Britain. This includes promotion of the Irish language.<ref>British Association for Irish Studies: http://sites.brunel.ac.uk/bais/about</ref>

The Irish-language organization [[Coláiste na nGael]] and its allies run classes and other events all over Britain. The areas concerned include London, Essex, Leicestershire and Somerset.

The British Association for Irish Studies (established 1985) aims to support Irish cultural activities and the study of Ireland in Britain. This includes promotion of the Irish language.<ref>British Association for Irish Studies: http://sites.brunel.ac.uk/bais/about</ref>


Outside the Irish-born and those of Irish descent, awareness of the language in Britain does not seem high. A 2011 report found that 91% of British teenagers were not even aware that there was an Irish language.<ref>{{cite book|title=Raising Standards, Offering Choice|pages=3}}</ref>
Outside the Irish-born and those of Irish descent, awareness of the language in Britain does not seem high. A 2011 report found that 91% of British teenagers were not even aware that there was an Irish language.<ref>{{cite book|title=Raising Standards, Offering Choice|pages=3}}</ref>

Revision as of 20:24, 14 January 2014

The Irish language originated in Ireland and was historically the dominant language of the Irish people. They took it with them to a number of other countries. In Scotland and the Isle of Man it gave rise to Scottish Gaelic and Manx. It was later exported to other lands, although usually only spoken there by a minority.

In the course of the 19th century English became the dominant vernacular of Ireland, and Irish has since been spoken only by a small minority of the population.[1] Irish remaines the vehicle of a separate cultural, literary and historical experience, emphasised by purely linguistic differences, since (like other Celtic languages) it is distinctive in structure and vocabulary. Irish was the language that a large number of emigrants took with them from the 17th century (when large-scale emigration, forced or otherwise, became noticeable) to the 19th century.

The Irish diaspora mainly settled in English-speaking countries, chiefly Britain and North America. In some instances the Irish language was retained for several generations. Argentina was the only non-English-speaking country to which the Irish went in large numbers, and those emigrants came in the 19th century from areas where Irish was already in retreat.

An interest in the language has persisted among a minority in the diaspora countries, and even in countries where there was never a significant Irish presence. This has been shown in the founding of language classes (including some at tertiary level), in the use of the Internet, and in contributions to journalism or literature.

Britain

Irish speakers of all social classes were to be found in early modern Britain. Irish beggars were common in 16th century England, and in the late 16th and 17th centuries many unskilled Irish labourers settled in Liverpool, Bristol and London.[2]

Among the aristocracy were the Nugent brothers, members of Ireland's Old English community: Christopher, 9th Baron Delvin, who wrote an Irish-language primer for Elizabeth II, and William, an Irish language poet who is known to have been at Oxford in 1571.[3]

Irish immigration on a large scale began with the building of canals from the 1780s and of railways in the nineteenth century. Many Irish were attracted to Birmingham in the mid-1820s by rapid industrial expansion. The city had large households of Irish speakers, often from the same parts of Mayo, Roscommon, Galway and Sligo. By the 1830s the Irish were to be found in the larger towns of South Wales, and in Manchester and Glasgow. More Irish settled in industrial towns in Lancashire in the late eighteenth century than in any other county. By 1835 in Manchester a sixth of the family heads were Irish. Irish speakers from Roscommon, Galway and Mayo were also to be found in Stafford from the 1830s.[4]

The Great Famine brought an influx of Irish which affected England, Wales and Scotland. The 1840s saw Irish-speakers arriving from such counties as Mayo, Cork, Waterford and Limerick to South Wales, Liverpool]], Bristol and Lancashire towns, with many moving on to London. Navvies found work on the South Wales Railway. Irish speakers from Munster were common among London immigrants, with many women speaking little or no English. Around 100,000 had arrived in London by 1851.[5] There are reports of Irish-speaking communities in some quarters of Liverpool in the Famine years (1845–52).[6]

The Gaelic Revival in Ireland at the turn of the 20th century led to formation of branches of the Gaelic League abroad, including British cities. There were three branches of the Gaelic League in Glasgow by 1902[7] and a branch was also founded in Manchester.[8]

In the aftermath of the Second World War there were a large number of Irish working in Britain in the construction industry and as nurses. Many of them, both in provincial towns and in London, were Irish speakers from Conamara and other Gaeltacht areas, and Irish was commonly heard on building sites and in dance halls.[9]

London

Irish immigrants were a notable element of London life from the early seventeenth century. They engaged in seasonal labour and street selling, and became common around St Giles in the Fields during the eighteenth century, being prominent among the London poor. Many of them were discharged soldiers. The Old Bailey trial records give a glimpse of the common use of Irish in London backstreets, including an instance where a court interpreter was required (1768).[10]

The first Irish colony was in St Giles in the Fields and Seven Dials. By the early nineteenth century Irish communities existed in Whitechapel, Saffron Hill, Poplar and Southwark, and especially in Marylebone. Typical occupations were hawking and costermongering. Henry Mayhew estimated in the 1850s that around 10,000 Irish men and women were so employed. The writer and linguist George Borrow gives an account (1851) of his father venturing into the Irish-speaking London slums in the early years of the century.[11]

The use of the language was affected by a decline in the number of immigrants. By the middle of the nineteenth century the Irish-born numbered around 109,000 individuals (4.5% of Londoners). By 1861 their number had fallen to 107,000, in 1871 to 91,000, and in 1901 to 60,000.[12]

The Gaelic League was active in London as elsewhere. The London branch had a number of notable London Irish figures as members, and it was a pioneer in the publication of Irish-language material.[13] [14]

The modern period

The current estimate of fluent Irish speakers permanently resident in Britain is 9,000.[15]

The Gaelic League retains a presence in Britain (the current Glasgow branch was founded in 1895),[16] and the Irish-language organization Coláiste na nGael and its allies run language classes and other events all over Britain. The areas concerned include London, Essex, Leicestershire and Somerset. The British Association for Irish Studies (established 1985) aims to support Irish cultural activities and the study of Ireland in Britain. This includes promotion of the Irish language.[17]

Outside the Irish-born and those of Irish descent, awareness of the language in Britain does not seem high. A 2011 report found that 91% of British teenagers were not even aware that there was an Irish language.[18]

North America

Irish people brought the language with them to North America as early as the 17th century (when it is first mentioned), and in the 18th century it had many speakers in Pennsylvania. Immigration from Irish-speaking counties to America was strong throughout the 19th century, particularly after the Famine, and many manuscripts in Irish came with the immigrants.[19] 1881 saw the founding of “An Gaodhal”, the first newspaper anywhere which was largely in Irish. It continued to be published into the 20th century,[20] and now has an on-line successor in An Gael.[21] Irish has retained some cultural importance in the northeast United States. According to the 2000 Census, 25,661 people in the U.S. speak Irish at home.[22] The equivalent 2005 Census reports 18,815.[23]

The Irish language came to Newfoundland in the late 17th century and was spoken in a form known as Newfoundland Irish up until the early 20th century.[24] It remains the only place outside Europe that can claim a unique Irish name (Talamh an Éisc, meaning Land of the Fish).

In 2007 a number of Canadian speakers founded the first officially designated "Gaeltacht" outside of Ireland in an area near Kingston, Ontario (see main article Permanent North American Gaeltacht). Despite its designation, the area has no permanent Irish-speaking inhabitants. The site (named Gaeltacht Bhaile na hÉireann) is located in Tamworth, Ontario, and is to be a retreat centre for Irish-speaking Canadians and Americans.[25][26]

In the past ten years, the Irish Government has established funding for fluent language teaching assistants to travel to Canada and the United States to teach at universities. This program has been coordinated by the Fulbright Commission in the United States and the Ireland Canada University Foundation in Canada.

A number of North American universities have full-time lecturers in Modern Irish. These include Boston College (Philip O'Leary), Harvard University (Sìm Innes), Lehman College-CUNY (Tomás Ó h-Íde), New York University (Pádraig Ó Cearúill), Saint Mary's University (Pádraig Ó Siadhail), and most notably the University of Notre Dame (Tara MacLeod, Sarah McKibben, Peter McQuillan, Briona Nic Dhiarmada, and Brian Ó Conchubhair). Two of these institutions offer undergraduate degrees with advanced Irish language coursework, the University of Notre Dame with a BA in Irish Language and Literature and Lehman College-CUNY with a BA in Comparative Literature.

Australia

Newman College, University of Melbourne: holder of the O'Donnell Collection, an important collection of Irish-language material.

The Irish language reached Australia in 1788, along with English. In the early colonial period Irish was seen as a language of covert opposition among Irish convicts. As such it was viewed with suspicion by colonial authorities.[27]

The Irish were a greater proportion of the European population than in any other British colony, and there has been debate about the extent to which Irish was used in Australia.[28] [29] The historian Patrick O’Farrell argued that the language was soon discarded; other historians, including Dymphna Lonergan and Val Noone, have argued that its use was widespread among the first generation, with some transmission to the second and occasional evidence of literacy. Most Irish immigrants came from counties in the west and south-west where Irish was strong (e.g. County Clare and County Galway). It has been argued that at least half the approximately 150,000 Irish emigrants to Victoria in the 19th century spoke Irish,[30] helping to make Irish the most widely used European language in Australia after English.

English was the language of social advancement, and the Irish and their descendants adopted it as they integrated into Australian life. Irish survived in various ways in spite of this. The 2011 census indicated that 1,895 people used Irish as a household language in Australia.[31] This marks an increase from the 2001 census, which gave a figure of 828.[32] The census does not count those who use Irish or other languages outside the household context.

The Department of Celtic Studies at the University of Sydney offers courses in both Modern Irish linguistics, Old Irish and Modern Irish language.[33] The University of Melbourne houses a valuable collection of 19th and early 20th century books and manuscripts in Irish, frequently used by specialists in the field.[34]

The language has seen increased cultivation in Australia since the 1970s and has attracted some public attention.[35] The Irish National Association, with support from the Sydney branch of the Gaelic League (Conradh na Gaeilge), ran free classes in Sydney from the 1960s through to 2007, when the language group became independent.[36] In 1993 Máirtín Ó Dubhlaigh, a Sydney-based Irish speaker, founded the first Irish language summer school, Scoil Samhraidh na hAstráile. This brought together for the first time Irish speakers and teachers from all over the country.

There is presently a network of Irish learners and users dominated by the Irish Language Association of Australia (Cumann Gaeilge na hAstráile), through which Irish-language classes are run. Week-long courses are available twice a year in the states of Victoria and New South Wales. The Association has won several prestigious prizes (the last in 2009 in a global competition run by Glór na nGael and sponsored by the Irish Department of Foreign Affairs).[37][38]

Australians contribute fiction and journalism to Irish-language magazines, both in print and on-line.[39] There is also a widely distributed electronic newsletter in Irish called An Lúibín.[40]

New Zealand

Irish migration to New Zealand was strongest in the 1840s, the 1860s (at the time of the gold rush) and the 1870s. These immigrants arrived at a time when the language was still widely spoken in Ireland, particularly in the south-west and west.[41] In the 1840s the New Zealand Irish included many discharged soldiers: over half those released in Auckland (the capital) in the period 1845-1846 were Irish, as were 56.8% of those released in the 1860s. There was, however, a fall in Irish immigration from the 1880s.[42] At first the Irish clustered in certain occupations, with single women in domestic service and men working as navvies or miners. By the 1930s Irish Catholics were to be found in government service, in transport and in the liquor industry, and assimilation was well advanced.[43]

The use of Irish was influenced by immigrants' local origins, the time of their arrival and the degree to which a sense of Irishness survived. In 1894 the New Zealand Tablet, a Catholic newspaper, published articles on the study of Irish. In 1895 it was resolved at a meeting in the city of Dunedin that an Irish-language society on the lines of the Philo-Celtic Society of New York should be established in New Zealand.[44] Gaelic League branches were formed in two New Zealand localities (Milton and Balclutha) and items in Irish were published by the Southern Cross of Invercargill.[45] In 1903 Fr William Ganly, a native speaker from the Aran Islands prominent in Gaelic Revival circles in Melbourne, visited Milton, where he met a large number of Irish speakers.[46]

The dwindling of Irish immigration, the decay of the Gaeltacht in Ireland and the passing of earlier generations were accompanied by a loss of the language. Interest is presently maintained among an activist minority.

Argentina

Between 40,000 and 45,000 Irish emigrants went to Argentina in the 19th century. Of these, only about 20,000 settled in the country, the remainder returning to Ireland or re-emigrating to North America, Australia and other destinations.[47] Of the 20,000 that remained, between 10,000 and 15,000 left no descendants or lost any link they had to the local Irish community. The nucleus of the Irish-Argentine community therefore consisted of only four to five thousand settlers.[48]

Many came from a quadrangle on the Longford/Westmeath border, its perimeter marked by Athlone, Edgeworthstown, Mullingar and Kilbeggan.[49] It has been estimated that 43.35% of emigrants were from Westmeath, 14.57% from Longford and 15.51% from Wexford.[49] Such migrants tended to be younger sons and daughters of the larger tenant farmers and leaseholders, but labourers also came, their fares paid by sheep-farmers seeking skilled shepherds.[50]

Irish census figures for the 19th century give an indication of the percentage of Irish speakers in the areas in question. Allowing for underestimation, it is clear that most immigrants would have been English speakers.[51] Census figures for Westmeath, a major source of Argentinian immigrants, show the following percentages of Irish speakers: 17% in the period 1831-41, 12% in 1841-51, and 8% in 1851-61.

In the 1920s there came a new wave of immigrants from Ireland, most being educated urban professionals who included a high proportion of Protestants.[52] It is unlikely that there were many Irish speakers among them.

The persistence of an interest in Irish is indicated by the fact that the Buenos Aires branch of the Gaelic League was founded as early as 1899.[53] It continued to be active for several decades thereafter, but evidence is lacking for organised attempts at language maintenance into the present day, though the Fahy Club in Buenos Aires continues to host Irish classes.[54]

See also

References

  1. ^ A detailed view of the linguistic geography may be found in Fitzgerald, Garret, ‘Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861-1871,’ pp.117-155, Volume 84, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. His analysis of the 19th century census figures relating to Irish shows that the language remained very strong in the south-west (Munster) and west (Connacht) until towards the end of the century. He remarks, furthermore, that for the decennial periods of 1841-51, 1851-61 and 1861-71, the results are in all likelihood an underestimate (extrapolations included): p.118.
  2. ^ Camp, Anthony. ‘The Irish in England’, in Family Tree Magazine, vol. 19, no. 9 (July 2003) pp. 8-10. http://www.family-tree.org.uk
  3. ^ De Brún, Pádraig; Ó Buachalla, Breandán; Ó Concheanainn, Tomás (eds.). Nua-Dhuanaire: Cuid 1. Institiúid Ardléinn Bhaile Átha Cliath 1975, p. 179.
  4. ^ Camp, pp. 8-10
  5. ^ Camp, pp. 8-10
  6. ^ Nic Craith, Máiréad; Leyland, Janet, ‘The Irish language in Britain: A case study of North West England,’ Language, Culture and Curriculum, Volume 10, Issue 3, 1997, pp. 171-185. DOI: 10.1080/07908319709525250
  7. ^ ”The Gaelic League is making rapid headway in Glasgow. There were only three branches in the city twelve months ago.” The Sacred Heart Review, Volume 28, Number 20, 15 November 1902: http://newspapers.bc.edu/cgi-bin/bostonsh?a=d&d=BOSTONSH19021115-01.2.57
  8. ^ Irish Manchester, Memories and Stories: http://www.irishmanchester.com/memories.shtml
  9. ^ Mac Amhlaigh, Dónall. Dialann Deoraí. An Clóchomhar Tta 1960. The standard autobiographical account of an Irish navvy’s life in the period in question.
  10. ^ Old Bailey Proceedings Online: Margaret Flanady, William Flanady, Deception and perjury, 19th October 1768. Reference Number: t17681019-45. http://www.oldbaileyonline.org
  11. ^ Borrow, George. Lavengro: The Scholar, The Gypsy, The Priest. MacMillan and Co., Ltd. 1900. Chapter IX. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/452/452-h/452-h.htm
  12. ^ Old Bailey Proceedings Online: Irish London: http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Irish.jsp
  13. ^ Art Ó Briain papers, Leabhar Náisiúnta na hÉireann: http://www.nli.ie/pdfs/mss%20lists/150_OBriain.pdf
  14. ^ Papers of Michael Collins (1890-1922): Gaelic League of London, Programme for Feis Lonndan: http://digital.ucd.ie/view/ivrla:11420
  15. ^ "Cad Chuige An Ghaeilge sa Bhreatain?". 2011: 6. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ^ Conradh na Gaeilge, Glaschú: http://www.cnag-glaschu.co.uk/AboutUs.php
  17. ^ British Association for Irish Studies: http://sites.brunel.ac.uk/bais/about
  18. ^ Raising Standards, Offering Choice. p. 3.
  19. ^ The cultural and linguistic context are discussed in: Ó hAnnracháin, Stiofán (ed.), 1979. Go Meiriceá Siar. An Clóchomhar Tta, Baile Átha Cliath; Ihde, Thomas W. (ed.), 1994. The Irish Language in the United States: a historical, sociolinguistic and applied linguistic survey. Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 0-89789-331-X
  20. ^ The paper and its context are discussed by Fionnuala Uí Fhlannagáin in: Uí Fhlannagáin, Fionnuala, 1990. Mícheál Ó Lócháin agus An Gaodhal. An Clóchomhar Tta, Baile Átha Cliath.
  21. ^ Jim Norton. "An Gael - Baile". Angaelmagazine.com. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  22. ^ MLA Language Map Data Center, Irish Gaelic. Retrieved on 7 January 2010
  23. ^ MLA Language Map Data Center, Irish Gaelic. Retrieved on 7 January 2010
  24. ^ "Language". Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Web Site. Retrieved 14 October 2013.
  25. ^ Gaelport, Irish at home in Canada, 17 February 2007
  26. ^ Gaelport, First Gaeltacht abroad planned for Canada, 23 January 2007.
  27. ^ Cumann Gaeilge na hAstráile. The Irish Language in Australia. Retrieved on 13 October 2007.
  28. ^ O’Farrell, Patrick (1986). The Irish in Australia: 1788 to the present. New South Wales University Press. ISBN 0-86840-234-6 / 0868401463. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  29. ^ Lonergan, Dymphna (2004). Sounds Irish: The Irish Language in Australia. South Australia: Lythrum Press. ISBN 1-921013-00-1.
  30. ^ Noone, Val (2012). Hidden Ireland in Victoria. Ballarat Heritage Services, p.12. ISBN 978-1-876478-83-4.
  31. ^ http://www.sbs.com.au/news/census/: Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) – see "All other languages" and "Irish".
  32. ^ "Languages Spoken At Home" from Australian Government Office of Multicultural Interests website. Retrieved 27 December 2007
  33. ^ "Undergraduate Units of Study for Celtic Studies : Celtic Studies : Faculty of Arts : University of Sydney Australia". Arts.usyd.edu.au. 15 February 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  34. ^ This is known as the O’Donnell Collection, after Dr Nicholas O’Donnell, the Gaelic scholar who amassed it: http://www.academiccentre.stmarys.newman.unimelb.edu.au/?page_id=17
  35. ^ Transcript of Lingua Franca of 26 September 1998, Why Learn Irish?. Retrieved on 13 October 2007.
  36. ^ [1]
  37. ^ "Fáilte | Glór na nGael". Glornangael.ie. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  38. ^ "Cumann Gaeilge na hAstráile". Gaeilgesanastrail.com. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  39. ^ Examples can be found in Feasta, Beo and Nós.
  40. ^ This can be downloaded from the Irish Language Association website: http://www.gaeilgesanastrail.com/.
  41. ^ Fitzgerald, Garret, ‘Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861-1871,’ Volume 84, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy, 1984
  42. ^ Phillips, Jack and Hearn, Terry (2008), Settlers: New Zealand Immigrants from England, Ireland and Scotland 1800-1945, Auckland University Press, pp.60-61.
  43. ^ "Irish - Culture and politics before 1911 - Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand". Teara.govt.nz. 4 March 2009. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  44. ^ Gaelic Journal, 1 June 1894, 1 May 1895, and l June 1895; Irish Australian, 16 February 1895; cited in Greg Byrnes, ‘The Gaelic League in Australasia, 1893-1993’, in Rebecca Pelan, assisted by Mark Finnane and Noel Quirke (eds), Irish-Australian Studies: Papers delivered at the Seventh Irish-Australian Conference, July 1993, Sydney, Crossing Press, 1994, 244-5.
  45. ^ Kevin Molloy, ‘Victorians, historians and Irish history: a reading of the New Zealand Tablet 1873-1942,’ pp.153-170 in Brad Patterson (ed.), The Irish in New Zealand: Historical Contexts and Perspectives, Wellington, Stout Centre for New Zealand Studies, 2002, p.166.
  46. ^ ‘Rev. W. Ganly in New Zealand,’ The Advocate, 14 February 1903, p.19, reprinted from New Zealand Tablet, 5 February 1903.
  47. ^ Murray, Edmundo (2006), 'The Irish Road to South America: Nineteenth-Century Travel Patterns from Ireland to the River Plate,' Irish Migration Studies in Latin America, http://www.irlandeses.org/road.htm, p.1.
  48. ^ Murray, Edmundo, 'Irish Settlers in Argentina,' Irish Migration Studies in Latin America, http://www.irlandeses.org/settlers.htm
  49. ^ a b Murray, 'The Irish Road to South America', p.1, from McKenna, Patrick (1992), 'Irish Migration to Argentina' in: O’Sullivan, Patrick (ed.) The Irish World Wide: History, Heritage, Identity, Vol. 1, London and Washington: Leicester University Press.
  50. ^ Murray,'The Irish Road to South America', p.6.
  51. ^ Fitzgerald, Garret, ‘Estimates for baronies of minimal level of Irish-speaking amongst successive decennial cohorts, 117-1781 to 1861-1871,’ pp.153-4. He suggests that, in the light of the Statistical Surveys made in the early 19th century, the observations of reliable contemporary observers and the known deficiencies of the census figures, the percentage figures for Irish speakers may need to be revised upwards.
  52. ^ Murray, 'The Irish Road to South America', p.8.
  53. ^ See '19th Century Irish Emigration to Argentina,' a lecture by Prof. David Barnwell, Department of Spanish & Portuguese, Columbia University New York, given at a Columbia University Irish Studies Seminar (undated): http://www.irlandeses.org/argentina.pdf (Irish Migration Studies in Latin America), retrieved on 30 May 2010.
  54. ^ See 'A la comunidad irlandesa le falta más cohesión,' an interview by Julián Doyle with Fernando (Ferry) O'Killian for The Southern Cross (Mayo 2010): http://www.tsc.com.ar/notacomp.php?id=768/, retrieved 30 May 2010. See also http://www.temperleyweb.com.ar/celta/killian.htm. A search for regular Irish-language gatherings in Argentina yielded very low results, even for Buenos Aires: http://irish.meetup.com/cities/ar/.

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