Jump to content

Cognitive behavioral therapy: Difference between revisions

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Browse history interactively
← Previous editNext edit →
Content deleted Content added
VisualWikitext
m Fixing citation DOI parameter error using AutoEd
Esemque (talk | contribs)
72 edits
Line 92: Line 92:
Cognitive behavioral therapy is most closely allied with the [[scientist–practitioner model]] in which clinical practice and research is informed by a scientific perspective, clear [[operationalization]] of the problem, and an emphasis on [[measurement]], including measuring changes in cognition and behavior and in the attainment of [[goal]]s. These are often met through "homework" assignments in which the patient and the therapist work together to craft an assignment to complete before the next session.<ref name="Martin"/> The completion of these assignments&nbsp;– which can be as simple as a person suffering from depression attending some kind of social event&nbsp;– indicates a dedication to treatment compliance and a desire to change.<ref name="Martin"/> The therapists can then logically gauge the next step of treatment based on how thoroughly the patient completes the assignment.<ref name="Martin"/> Effective cognitive behavioral therapy is dependent on a [[Therapeutic relationship|therapeutic alliance]] between the healthcare practitioner and the person seeking assistance.{{Citation needed|date=April 2013}} Unlike many other forms of psychotherapy, the patient is very involved in CBT.<ref name="Martin"/> For example, an anxious patient may be asked to talk to a stranger as a homework assignment, but if that is too difficult, he or she can work out an easier assignment first.<ref name="Martin"/> The therapist needs to be flexible and willing to listen to the patient rather than acting as an authority figure.<ref name="Martin"/>
Cognitive behavioral therapy is most closely allied with the [[scientist–practitioner model]] in which clinical practice and research is informed by a scientific perspective, clear [[operationalization]] of the problem, and an emphasis on [[measurement]], including measuring changes in cognition and behavior and in the attainment of [[goal]]s. These are often met through "homework" assignments in which the patient and the therapist work together to craft an assignment to complete before the next session.<ref name="Martin"/> The completion of these assignments&nbsp;– which can be as simple as a person suffering from depression attending some kind of social event&nbsp;– indicates a dedication to treatment compliance and a desire to change.<ref name="Martin"/> The therapists can then logically gauge the next step of treatment based on how thoroughly the patient completes the assignment.<ref name="Martin"/> Effective cognitive behavioral therapy is dependent on a [[Therapeutic relationship|therapeutic alliance]] between the healthcare practitioner and the person seeking assistance.{{Citation needed|date=April 2013}} Unlike many other forms of psychotherapy, the patient is very involved in CBT.<ref name="Martin"/> For example, an anxious patient may be asked to talk to a stranger as a homework assignment, but if that is too difficult, he or she can work out an easier assignment first.<ref name="Martin"/> The therapist needs to be flexible and willing to listen to the patient rather than acting as an authority figure.<ref name="Martin"/>


===Computerized===
===Computerized or Internet-Delivered===
Computerized cognitive behavioral therapy (CCBT) has been described by [[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|NICE]] as a ''"generic term for delivering CBT via an interactive computer interface delivered by a personal computer, internet, or interactive voice response system"'',<ref name=NiceTA97>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA97 |title=Depression and anxiety&nbsp;– computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT) |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence |date=2012-01-12 |accessdate=2012-02-04}}</ref> instead of face-to-face with a human therapist. CCBT has potential to improve access to evidence-based therapies, and to overcome the prohibitive costs and lack of availability sometimes associated with retaining a human therapist.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=Isaac M. |last2=Mataix-Cols |first2=David |last3=Kenwright |first3=Mark |last4=Cameron |first4=Rachel |last5=Hirsch |first5=Steven |last6=Gega |first6=Lina |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |pmid=12835245 |doi=10.1192/bjp.02-463 |doi_brokendate=April 26, 2013 |url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12835245 |year=2003 |title=Pragmatic evaluation of computer-aided self-help for anxiety and depression |volume=183 |pages=57–65}}</ref>
Computerized cognitive behavioral therapy (CCBT) (also known as internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy or iCBT<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nordgren|first1=L.B.|last2=Hedman|first2=E.|last3=Etienne|first3=J.|last4=Bodin|first4=J.|last5=Kadowaki|first5=A.|last6=Eriksson|first6=S.|last7=Lindkvist|first7=E.|last8=Andersson|first8=G.|last9=Carlbring|first9=P.|title=Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of individually tailored Internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety disorders in a primary care population: A randomized controlled trial.|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|date=August 2014|volume=59|pages=1-11|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000579671400076X|accessdate=18 August 2014}}</ref>) has been described by [[National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence|NICE]] as a ''"generic term for delivering CBT via an interactive computer interface delivered by a personal computer, internet, or interactive voice response system"'',<ref name=NiceTA97>{{cite web|url=http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/TA97 |title=Depression and anxiety&nbsp;– computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT) |publisher=National Institute for Health and Care Excellence |date=2012-01-12 |accessdate=2012-02-04}}</ref> instead of face-to-face with a human therapist. CCBT has potential to improve access to evidence-based therapies, and to overcome the prohibitive costs and lack of availability sometimes associated with retaining a human therapist.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=Isaac M. |last2=Mataix-Cols |first2=David |last3=Kenwright |first3=Mark |last4=Cameron |first4=Rachel |last5=Hirsch |first5=Steven |last6=Gega |first6=Lina |journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry |pmid=12835245 |doi=10.1192/bjp.02-463 |doi_brokendate=April 26, 2013 |url=http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=12835245 |year=2003 |title=Pragmatic evaluation of computer-aided self-help for anxiety and depression |volume=183 |pages=57–65}}</ref>


CCBT has been found in meta-studies to be cost-effective and often cheaper than usual care.<ref name="journals.cambridge.org">{{cite web|author=P. Musiata1&nbsp;c1 and N. Tarriera1 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9179337&fileId=S0033291714000245 |title=Cambridge Journals Online - Psychological Medicine - Abstract - Collateral outcomes in e-mental health: a systematic review of the evidence for added benefits of computerized cognitive behavior therapy interventions for mental health |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>MoodGYM was superior to informational websites in terms of psychological outcomes or service use</ref> A key issue in CCBT use is low uptake and completion rates, even when it has been clearly made available and explained.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjc.12055/abstract;jsessionid=5F15A0E1173D280B880925B92D746C0B.f01t02?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false |title=A randomized controlled trial of the computerized CBT programme, MoodGYM, for public mental health service users waiting for interventions - Twomey - 2014 - British Journal of Clinical Psychology - Wiley Online Library |doi=10.1111/bjc.12055 |publisher=Onlinelibrary.wiley.com |date= |accessdate=2014-08-14}}</ref> CCBT completion rates and treatment efficacy have been found in some studies to be higher when use of CCBT is supported personally, with supporters not limited only to therapists, than when use is in a self-help form alone.<ref name="journals.cambridge.org"/><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11920-010-0152-4 |title=Computer-Assisted Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy |year=2010 |last1=Spurgeon |first1=Joyce A. |last2=Wright |first2=Jesse H. |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=547–52 |pmid=20872100}}</ref>
CCBT has been found in meta-studies to be cost-effective and often cheaper than usual care.<ref name="journals.cambridge.org">{{cite web|author=P. Musiata1&nbsp;c1 and N. Tarriera1 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9179337&fileId=S0033291714000245 |title=Cambridge Journals Online - Psychological Medicine - Abstract - Collateral outcomes in e-mental health: a systematic review of the evidence for added benefits of computerized cognitive behavior therapy interventions for mental health |publisher=Journals.cambridge.org |date= |accessdate=2014-08-14}}</ref><ref>MoodGYM was superior to informational websites in terms of psychological outcomes or service use</ref> A key issue in CCBT use is low uptake and completion rates, even when it has been clearly made available and explained.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bjc.12055/abstract;jsessionid=5F15A0E1173D280B880925B92D746C0B.f01t02?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false |title=A randomized controlled trial of the computerized CBT programme, MoodGYM, for public mental health service users waiting for interventions - Twomey - 2014 - British Journal of Clinical Psychology - Wiley Online Library |doi=10.1111/bjc.12055 |publisher=Onlinelibrary.wiley.com |date= |accessdate=2014-08-14}}</ref> CCBT completion rates and treatment efficacy have been found in some studies to be higher when use of CCBT is supported personally, with supporters not limited only to therapists, than when use is in a self-help form alone.<ref name="journals.cambridge.org"/><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11920-010-0152-4 |title=Computer-Assisted Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy |year=2010 |last1=Spurgeon |first1=Joyce A. |last2=Wright |first2=Jesse H. |journal=Current Psychiatry Reports |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=547–52 |pmid=20872100}}</ref>

Revision as of 17:16, 18 August 2014

Cognitive behavioral therapy
MeSHD015928
Part of a series on
Psychology
Basic psychology
Applied psychology
Concepts
Lists

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapeutic approach that addresses dysfunctional emotions, maladaptive behaviors and cognitive processes and contents through a number of goal-oriented, explicit systematic procedures. The name refers to behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, and to therapy based upon a combination of basic behavioral and cognitive principles and research. Most therapists working with patients dealing with anxiety and depression use a blend of cognitive and behavioral therapy. This technique acknowledges that there may be behaviors that cannot be controlled through rational thought. CBT is "problem focused" (undertaken for specific problems) and "action oriented" (therapist tries to assist the client in selecting specific strategies to help address those problems).[1]

CBT is thought to be effective for the treatment of a variety of conditions, including mood, anxiety, personality, eating, substance abuse, tic, and psychotic disorders. Many CBT treatment programs for specific disorders have been evaluated for efficacy; the health-care trend of evidence-based treatment, where specific treatments for symptom-based diagnoses are recommended, has favored CBT over other approaches such as psychodynamic treatments.[2]

CBT was primarily developed through an integration of behavior therapy (the term "behavior modification" appears to have been first used by Edward Thorndike) with cognitive psychology research, first by Donald Meichenbaum and several other authors with the label of cognitive behavior modification in the late 1970s. This tradition thereafter merged with earlier work of a few clinicians, labeled as Cognitive Therapy (CT), developed first by Albert Ellis as Rational Emotive Therapy (RET) and later Aaron Beck. While rooted in rather different theories, these two traditions have been characterised by a constant reference to experimental research to test hypotheses, both at clinical and basic level. Common features of CBT procedures are the focus on the "here and now", a directive or guidance role of the therapist, a structuring of the psychotherapy sessions and path, and on alleviating both symptoms and patients' vulnerability.[3]

Description

Mainstream cognitive behavioral therapy assumes that changing maladaptive thinking leads to change in affect and behavior,[4] but recent variants emphasize changes in one's relationship to maladaptive thinking rather than changes in thinking itself.[5] Therapists or computer-based programs use CBT techniques to help individuals challenge their patterns and beliefs and replace "errors in thinking such as overgeneralizing, magnifying negatives, minimizing positives and catastrophizing" with "more realistic and effective thoughts, thus decreasing emotional distress and self-defeating behavior." [4] These errors in thinking are known as cognitive distortions. CBT techniques may also be used to help individuals take a more open, mindful, and aware posture toward them so as to diminish their impact.[5] Mainstream CBT helps individuals replace "maladaptive... coping skills, cognitions, emotions and behaviors with more adaptive ones",[6] by challenging an individual's way of thinking and the way that s/he reacts to certain habits or behaviors,[7] but there is still controversy about the degree to which these traditional cognitive elements account for the effects seen with CBT over and above the earlier behavioral elements such as exposure and skills training.[8]

Modern forms of CBT include a number of diverse but related techniques such as exposure therapy, stress inoculation training, cognitive processing therapy, cognitive therapy, relaxation training, dialectical behavior therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy.[9] Some practitioners promote a form of mindful cognitive therapy which includes a greater emphasis on self awareness as part of the therapeutic process.[10]

CBT has six phases:[6]

  1. Assessment or psychological assessment;
  2. Reconceptualization;
  3. Skills acquisition;
  4. Skills consolidation and application training;
  5. Generalization and maintenance;
  6. Post-treatment assessment follow-up.

The reconceptualization phase makes up much of the "cognitive" portion of CBT.[6] A summary of modern CBT approaches is given by Hofmann.[11]

There are different protocols for delivering cognitive behavioral therapy, with important similarities among them.[12] Use of the term CBT may refer to different interventions, including "self-instructions (e.g. distraction, imagery, motivational self-talk), relaxation and/or biofeedback, development of adaptive coping strategies (e.g. minimizing negative or self-defeating thoughts), changing maladaptive beliefs about pain, and goal setting".[6] Treatment is sometimes manualized, with brief, direct, and time-limited treatments for individual psychological disorders that are specific technique-driven. CBT is used in both individual and group settings, and the techniques are often adapted for self-help applications. Some clinicians and researchers are cognitively oriented (e.g. cognitive restructuring), while others are more behaviorally oriented (e.g. in vivo exposure therapy). Interventions such as imaginal exposure therapy combine both approaches.[13][14]

Specific applications

CBT has been applied in both clinical and non-clinical environments to treat disorders such as personality conditions and behavioral problems.[15] A systematic review of CBT in depression and anxiety disorders concluded that "CBT delivered in primary care, especially including computer- or Internet-based self-help programs, is potentially more effective than usual care and could be delivered effectively by primary care therapists."[16]

Emerging evidence suggests a possible role for CBT in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD);[17] hypochondriasis;[18] coping with the impact of multiple sclerosis;[19] sleep disturbances related to aging;[20] dysmenorrhea;[21] and bipolar disorder,[22] but more study is needed and results should be interpreted with caution. CBT has been studied as an aid in the treatment of anxiety associated with stuttering. Initial studies have shown CBT to be effective in reducing social anxiety in adults who stutter,[23] but not in reducing stuttering frequency.[24][25]

Martinez-Devesa et al. (2010) found no evidence that CBT is effective for tinnitus, although there appears to be an effect on management of associated depression and quality of life in this condition.[26] Turner et al. (2007) found no convincing evidence that CBT training helps foster care providers manage difficult behaviors in the youth under their care,[27] and Smedslund et al. (2007) found that it was not helpful in treating men who abuse their intimate partners.[28]

In the case of metastatic breast cancer, Edwards et al. (2008) maintained that the current body of evidence is not sufficient to rule out the possibility that psychological interventions may cause harm to women with this advanced neoplasm.[29]

In adults, CBT has been shown to have a role in the treatment plans for anxiety disorders;[30] depression;[31] eating disorders;[32] chronic low back pain;[6] personality disorders;[33] psychosis;[34] schizophrenia;[35] substance use disorders;[36] in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia;[4] and with post-spinal cord injuries.[37] There is some evidence that CBT is superior in the long-term to benzodiazepines and the nonbenzodiazepines in the treatment and management of insomnia.[38] CBT has been shown to be moderately effective for treating chronic fatigue syndrome.[39]

In children or adolescents, CBT is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders;[40] body dysmorphic disorder;[41] depression and suicidality;[42] eating disorders and obesity;[43] obsessive–compulsive disorder;[44] and posttraumatic stress disorder;[45] as well as tic disorders, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders.[46] CBT-SP, an adaptation of CBT for suicide prevention (SP), was specifically designed for treating youth who are severely depressed and who have recently attempted suicide within the past 90 days, and was found to be effective, feasible, and acceptable.[47] Sparx is a video game to help young persons, using the CBT method to teach them how to resolve their own issues. That's a new way of therapy, which is quite effective for child and teenager. CBT has also been shown to be effective for posttraumatic stress disorder in very young children (3 to 6 years of age).[48] Cognitive Behavior Therapy has also been applied to a variety of childhood disorders,[49] including depressive disorders and various anxiety disorders.

In the United Kingdom, the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) recommends CBT in the treatment plans for a number of mental health difficulties, including posttraumatic stress disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), bulimia nervosa, and clinical depression.[50]

Anxiety disorders

CBT has been shown to be effective in the treatment of adult anxiety disorders.[51] It has also been found in a University of Bath study that teaching CBT in schools is effective in reducing anxiety in children.[52]

A basic concept in some CBT treatments used in anxiety disorders is in vivo exposure. The term refers to the direct confrontation of feared objects, activities, or situations by a patient. For example, a woman with PTSD who fears the location where she was assaulted may be assisted by her therapist in going to that location and directly confronting those fears. Likewise, a person with social anxiety disorder who fears public speaking may be instructed to directly confront those fears by giving a speech.[53] This "two-factor" model is often credited to O. Hobart Mowrer.[54] Through exposure to the stimulus, this harmful conditioning can be "unlearned" (referred to as extinction and habituation).

Schizophrenia, psychosis and mood disorders

Cognitive behavioral therapy has been shown as an effective treatment for clinical depression.[31] The American Psychiatric Association Practice Guidelines (April 2000) indicated that, among psychotherapeutic approaches, cognitive behavioral therapy and interpersonal psychotherapy had the best-documented efficacy for treatment of major depressive disorder.[55] One etiological theory of depression is Aaron T. Beck's cognitive theory of depression. His theory states that depressed people think the way they do because their thinking is biased towards negative interpretations. According to this theory, depressed people acquire a negative schema of the world in childhood and adolescence as an effect of stressful life events, and the negative schema is activated later in life when the person encounters similar situations.[56]

Beck also described a negative cognitive triad, made up of the negative schemata and cognitive biases of the person, theorizing that depressed individuals make negative evaluations of themselves, the world, and the future. Depressed people, according to this theory, have views such as, "I never do a good job", "It is impossible to have a good day", and "things will never get better." A negative schema helps give rise to the cognitive bias, and the cognitive bias helps fuel the negative schema. This is the negative triad. Beck further proposed that depressed people often have the following cognitive biases: arbitrary inference, selective abstraction, over-generalization, magnification, and minimization. These cognitive biases are quick to make negative, generalized, and personal inferences of the self, thus fueling the negative schema.[56]

In long-term psychoses, CBT is used to complement medication and is adapted to meet individual needs. Interventions particularly related to these conditions include exploring reality testing, changing delusions and hallucinations, examining factors which precipitate relapse, and managing relapses.[34] Several meta-analyses have shown CBT to be effective in schizophrenia,[35][57] and the American Psychiatric Association includes CBT in its schizophrenia guideline as an evidence-based treatment. There is also some (limited) evidence of effectiveness for CBT in bipolar disorder[22] and severe depression.[58]

A 2010 meta-analysis found that no trial employing both blinding and psychological placebo has shown CBT to be effective in either schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, and that the effect size of CBT was small in major depressive disorder. They also found a lack of evidence to conclude that CBT was effective in preventing relapses in bipolar disorder.[59] Evidence that severe depression is mitigated by CBT is also lacking, with anti-depressant medications still viewed as significantly more effective than CBT,[31] although success with CBT for depression was observed beginning in the 1990s.[60]

According to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012), cognitive behavioral therapy can also be used to reduce prejudice towards others. This other-directed prejudice can cause depression in the "others," or in the self when a person becomes part of a group he or she previously had prejudice towards (i.e. deprejudice).[61] "Devine and colleagues (2012) developed a successful Prejudice Perpetrator intervention with many conceptual parallels to CBT.[62] Like CBT, their intervention taught Sources to be aware of their automative thoughts and to intentionally deploy a variety of cognitive techniques against automatic stereotyping."[61]

With older adults

CBT is used to help people of all ages, but the therapy should be adjusted based on the age of the patient with whom the therapist is dealing. Older individuals in particular have certain characteristics that need to be acknowledged and the therapy altered to account for these differences thanks to age.[63] Some of the challenges to CBT because of age include the following:

The Cohort effect
The times that each generation lives through partially shape its thought processes as well as values, so a 70-year-old may react to the therapy very differently from a 30-year-old, because of the different culture in which they were brought up. A tie-in to this effect is that each generation has to interact with one another, and the differing values clashing with one another may make the therapy more difficult.[63]
Established role
By the time one reaches old age, the person has a definitive idea of her or his role in life and is invested in that role. This social role can dominate who the person thinks he or she is and may make it difficult to adapt to the changes required in CBT.[63]
Mentality toward aging
If the older individual sees aging itself as a negative this can exacerbate whatever malady the therapy is trying to help (depression and anxiety for example).[63] Negative stereotypes and prejudice against the elderly cause depression as the stereotypes become self-relevant.[61]
Processing speed decreases
As we age, we take longer to learn new information, and as a result may take more time to learn and retain the cognitive therapy. Therefore, therapists should slow down the pacing of the therapy and use any tools both written and verbal that will improve the retention of the cognitive behavioral therapy.[63]

Methods of access

Therapist

A typical CBT programme would consist of face-to-face sessions between patient and therapist, made up of 6-18 sessions of around an hour each with a gap of a 1–3 weeks between sessions. This initial programme might be followed by some booster sessions, for instance after one month and three months.[64] CBT has also been found to be effective if patient and therapist type in real time to each other over computer links.[65][66]

Cognitive behavioral therapy is most closely allied with the scientist–practitioner model in which clinical practice and research is informed by a scientific perspective, clear operationalization of the problem, and an emphasis on measurement, including measuring changes in cognition and behavior and in the attainment of goals. These are often met through "homework" assignments in which the patient and the therapist work together to craft an assignment to complete before the next session.[67] The completion of these assignments – which can be as simple as a person suffering from depression attending some kind of social event – indicates a dedication to treatment compliance and a desire to change.[67] The therapists can then logically gauge the next step of treatment based on how thoroughly the patient completes the assignment.[67] Effective cognitive behavioral therapy is dependent on a therapeutic alliance between the healthcare practitioner and the person seeking assistance.[citation needed] Unlike many other forms of psychotherapy, the patient is very involved in CBT.[67] For example, an anxious patient may be asked to talk to a stranger as a homework assignment, but if that is too difficult, he or she can work out an easier assignment first.[67] The therapist needs to be flexible and willing to listen to the patient rather than acting as an authority figure.[67]

Computerized or Internet-Delivered

Computerized cognitive behavioral therapy (CCBT) (also known as internet-delivered cognitive behavioral therapy or iCBT[68]) has been described by NICE as a "generic term for delivering CBT via an interactive computer interface delivered by a personal computer, internet, or interactive voice response system",[69] instead of face-to-face with a human therapist. CCBT has potential to improve access to evidence-based therapies, and to overcome the prohibitive costs and lack of availability sometimes associated with retaining a human therapist.[70]

CCBT has been found in meta-studies to be cost-effective and often cheaper than usual care.[71][72] A key issue in CCBT use is low uptake and completion rates, even when it has been clearly made available and explained.[73] CCBT completion rates and treatment efficacy have been found in some studies to be higher when use of CCBT is supported personally, with supporters not limited only to therapists, than when use is in a self-help form alone.[71][74]

A wide range of software products incorporate CCBT, including, for example, products such as Sparx (video game).

In February 2006 NICE recommended that CCBT be made available for use within the NHS across England and Wales for patients presenting with mild-to-moderate depression, rather than immediately opting for antidepressant medication,[69] and CCBT is made available by some health systems.[75] The 2009 NICE guideline recognized that there are likely to be a number of computerized CBT products that are useful to patients, but removed endorsement of any specific product.[76]

A relatively new avenue of research is the combination of artificial intelligence and CCBT. It has been proposed to use modern technology to create CCBT that simulates face-to-face therapy. This might be achieved in cognitive behaviour therapy for a specific disorders using the comprehensive domain knowledge of CBT.[77] One area where this has been attempted, is the specific domain area of social anxiety in those who stutter.[78]

Reading self-help materials

Enabling patients to read self-help CBT guides has been shown to be effective by some studies.[79][80][81] However one study found a negative effect in patients who tended to ruminate,[82] and another meta-analysis found that the benefit was only significant when the self-help was guided (e.g. by a medical professional).[83]

Group educational course

Patient participation in group courses has been shown to be effective.[84]

Brief cognitive behavioral therapy

Brief cognitive behavioral therapy (BCBT) is a form of CBT which has been developed for situations in which there are time constraints on the therapy sessions.[85] BCBT takes place over a couple of sessions that can last up to 12 accumulated hours by design. This technique was first implemented and developed on soldiers overseas in active duty by David M. Rudd to prevent suicide.[85]

Breakdown of treatment[85]

  1. Orientation
    1. Commitment to treatment
    2. Crisis response and safety planning
    3. Means restriction
    4. Survival kit
    5. Reasons for living card
    6. Model of suicidality
    7. Treatment journal
    8. Lessons learned
  2. Skill focus
    1. Skill development worksheets
    2. Coping cards
    3. Demonstration
    4. Practice
    5. Skill refinement
  3. Relapse prevention
    1. Skill generalization
    2. Skill refinement

Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy

Main article: Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy

Cognitive emotional behavioral therapy (CEBT) is a form of (CBT) developed initially for individuals with eating disorders but now used with a range of problems including anxiety, depression, obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and anger problems. It combines aspect of CBT and Dialectical Behavioural Therapy and aims to improve understanding and tolerance of emotions in order to facilitate the therapeutic process. It is frequently used as a 'pretreatment' to prepare and better equip individuals for longer term therapy.

Structured cognitive behavioral training

Main article: Structured cognitive behavioral training

Structured cognitive behavioral training (SCBT) is a cognitive-based process with core philosophies that draw heavily from CBT. Like CBT, SCBT asserts that behavior is inextricably related to beliefs, thoughts and emotions. SCBT also builds on core CBT philosophy by incorporating other well-known modalities in the fields of behavioral health and psychology: most notably, Albert Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. SCBT differs from CBT in two distinct ways. Firstly, SCBT is delivered in a highly regimented format. Secondly, SCBT is a predetermined and finite training process that becomes personalized by the input of the participant. SCBT is designed with the intention to bring a participant to a specific result in a specific period of time. SCBT has been used to challenge addictive behavior, particularly with substances such as tobacco, alcohol and food; and to manage diabetes and subdue stress and anxiety. SCBT has also been used in the field of criminal psychology in the effort to reduce recidivism.

Effectiveness

In adults, CBT has been shown to have effectiveness and a role in the treatment plans for anxiety disorders,[30][86] depression,[31][87] eating disorders,[32] chronic low back pain,[6] personality disorders,[33] psychosis,[34] schizophrenia,[35] substance use disorders,[36] in the adjustment, depression, and anxiety associated with fibromyalgia,[4] and with post-spinal cord injuries.[37] Evidence has shown CBT is effective in helping treat schizophrenia, and it is now offered in most treatment guidelines.[35][88]

In children or adolescents, CBT is an effective part of treatment plans for anxiety disorders,[40] body dysmorphic disorder,[41] depression and suicidality,[42] eating disorders and obesity,[43] obsessive–compulsive disorder,[44] and posttraumatic stress disorder,[45] as well as tic disorders, trichotillomania, and other repetitive behavior disorders.[46]

Cochrane reviews have found no evidence that CBT is effective for tinnitus, although there appears to be an effect on management of associated depression and quality of life in this condition.[26] Other recent Cochrane Reviews found no convincing evidence that CBT training helps foster care providers manage difficult behaviors in the youth under their care,[27] nor was it helpful in treating men who abuse their intimate partners.[28]

According to a 2004 review by INSERM of three methods, cognitive behavioral therapy was either "proven" or "presumed" to be an effective therapy on several specific mental disorders.[89] According to the study, CBT was effective at treating schizophrenia, depression, bipolar disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress, anxiety disorders, bulimia, anorexia, personality disorders and alcohol dependency.[89]

Some meta-analyses find CBT more effective than psychodynamic therapy and equal to other therapies in treating anxiety and depression.[90][91] However, psychodynamic therapy may provide better long-term outcomes.[92]

Computerized CBT (CCBT) has been proven to be effective by randomized controlled and other trials in treating depression and anxiety disorders,[16][86][87][93][94][95][96] including children,[97] as well as insomnia.[98] Some research has found similar effectiveness to an intervention of informational websites and weekly telephone calls.[99][100] CCBT was found to be equally effective as face-to-face CBT in adolescent anxiety[101] and insomnia.[98]

Criticism of CBT sometimes focuses on implementations (such as the UK IAPT) which may result initially in low quality therapy being offered by poorly trained practitioners.[102][103] However evidence supports the effectiveness of CBT for anxiety and depression.[94]

Mounting evidence suggests that the addition of hypnotherapy as an adjunct to CBT improves treatment efficacy for a variety of clinical issues.[104][105][106]

Criticisms

One criticism of CBT theory, especially as applied to Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), is that it confounds the symptoms of the disorder with its causes.[107]

A major criticism has been that clinical studies of CBT efficacy (or any psychotherapy) are not double-blind (i.e., neither subjects nor therapists in psychotherapy studies are blind to the type of treatment). They may be single-blinded, i.e. the rater may not know the treatment the patient received, but neither the patients nor the therapists are blinded to the type of therapy given (two out of three of the persons involved in the trial, i.e., all of the persons involved in the treatment, are unblinded). The patient is an active participant in correcting negative distorted thoughts, thus quite aware of the treatment group they are in.[107]

The importance of double-blinding was shown in a meta-analysis that examined the effectiveness of CBT when placebo control and blindedness were factored in.[108] Pooled data from published trials of CBT in schizophrenia, MDD, and bipolar disorder that used controls for non-specific effects of intervention were analyzed. This study concluded that CBT is no better than non-specific control interventions in the treatment of schizophrenia and does not reduce relapse rates, treatment effects are small in treatment studies of MDD, and it is not an effective treatment strategy for prevention of relapse in bipolar disorder. For MDD, the authors note that the pooled effect size was very low. Nevertheless, the methodological processes used to select the studies in the previously mentioned meta-analysis and the worth of its findings have been called into question.[109][110][111]

The element of hope and expectation on the part of the patients to get better in non-blinded trials will bias the results in favor of CBT. The informed consent procedure required to enter a psychotherapy trial biases the subjects who enter to those that are favorably inclined to the psychotherapy. Taken together, trials using psychotherapy do not meet the qualifications of high quality evidence.[112]

Use in prevention of mental illness

For anxiety disorders, use of CBT with people at risk has significantly reduced the number of episodes of generalized anxiety disorder and other anxiety symptoms, and also given significant improvements in explanatory style, hopelessness, and dysfunctional attitudes.[94][113][114] In another study, 3% of the group receiving the CBT intervention developed GAD by 12 months postintervention compared with 14% in the control group.[115] Subthreshold panic disorder sufferers were found to significantly benefit from use of CBT.[116][117] Use of CBT was found to significantly reduce social anxiety prevalence.[118]

For depressive disorders, a stepped-care intervention (watchful waiting, CBT and medication if appropriate) achieved a 50% lower incidence rate in a patient group aged 75 or older.[119] Another depression study found a neutral effect compared to personal, social, and health education, and usual school provision, and included a comment on potential for increased depression scores from people who have received CBT due to greater self recognition and acknowledgement of existing symptoms of depression and negative thinking styles.[120] A further study also saw a neutral result.[121] A meta-study of the Coping with Depression course, a cognitive behavioural intervention delivered by a psychoeducational method, saw a 38% reduction in risk of major depression.[122]

For schizophrenia, one study of preventative CBT showed a positive effect[123] and another showed neutral effect.[124]

History

Behavior therapy roots

Precursors of certain fundamental aspects of CBT have been identified in various ancient philosophical traditions, particularly Stoicism.[125] For example, Aaron T. Beck's original treatment manual for depression states, "The philosophical origins of cognitive therapy can be traced back to the Stoic philosophers".[126] The modern roots of CBT can be traced to the development of behavior therapy in the early 20th century, the development of cognitive therapy in the 1960s, and the subsequent merging of the two. Behaviorally-centered therapeutic approaches appeared as early as 1924[3] with Mary Cover Jones' work on the unlearning of fears in children.[127] In 1937, American psychiatrist Abraham Low developed cognitive training techniques for patient aftercare following psychiatric hospitalization.[128][129][130][131]

It was during the period 1950 to 1970 that behavioral therapy became widely utilized by researchers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and South Africa, who were inspired by the behaviorist learning theory of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and Clark L. Hull.[3] In Britain, this work was mostly focused on the neurotic disorders through the work of Joseph Wolpe, who applied the findings of animal experiments to his method of systematic desensitization,[132] the precursor to today's fear reduction techniques.[3] British psychologist Hans Eysenck, inspired by the writings of Karl Popper, criticized psychoanalysis in arguing that "if you get rid of the symptoms, you get rid of the neurosis",[133][page needed] and presented behavior therapy as a constructive alternative.[3][134] In the United States, psychologists were applying the radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner to clinical use. Much of this work was concentrated on severe chronic psychiatric disorders, such as psychotic behavior[135] and autism.[3][136]

Other roots

Although the early behavioral approaches were successful in many of the neurotic disorders, they had little success in treating depression.[3] Behaviorism was also losing in popularity due to the so-called "cognitive revolution". The therapeutic approaches of Albert Ellis and Aaron T. Beck gained popularity among behavior therapists, despite the earlier behaviorist rejection of "mentalistic" concepts like thoughts and cognitions. Both of these systems included behavioral elements and interventions and primarily concentrated on problems in the present. Albert Ellis' system, originated in the early 1950s, was first called rational therapy, and can (arguably) be called one of the first forms of cognitive behavioral therapy. It was partly founded as a reaction against popular psychotherapeutic theories at the time (mainly psychoanalysis).[137][page needed] Beck describes his therapeutic approach as originating in a realization he made while conducting free association with patients in the context of classical psychoanalysis. He noted that patients had not been reporting certain thoughts at the fringe of consciousness – thoughts which often preceded intense emotional reactions. This realization led Beck to begin viewing emotional reactions as resulting from cognitions, rather than understanding emotion within the abstract psychoanalytic framework.[138] He named these cognitions "automatic thoughts" because he believed that people were not necessarily aware that the cognitions existed, but that they could identify these types of thoughts when questioned closely.[67] Beck believed that pushing his clients to identify these automatic thoughts was integral to overcoming a particular difficulty.[67]

In initial studies, cognitive therapy was often contrasted with behavioral treatments to see which was most effective. During the 1980s and 1990s, cognitive and behavioral techniques were merged into cognitive behavioral therapy. Pivotal to this merging was the successful development of treatments for panic disorder by David M. Clark in the UK and David H. Barlow in the US.[3]

Society and culture

The UK's National Health Service announced in 2008 that more therapists would be trained to provide CBT at government expense[139] as part of an initiative called Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT).[140] NICE said that CBT would become the mainstay of treatment for non-severe depression, with medication used only in cases where CBT had failed.[139] Therapists complained that the data does not fully support the attention and funding CBT receives. Psychotherapist and professor Andrew Samuels stated that this constitutes "a coup, a power play by a community that has suddenly found itself on the brink of corralling an enormous amount of money ... Everyone has been seduced by CBT's apparent cheapness."[139][141] The UK Council for Psychotherapy issued a press release in 2012 saying that the IAPT's policies were undermining traditional psychotherapy and criticized proposals that would limit some approved therapies to CBT,[142] claiming that they restricted patients to "a watered down version of cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), often delivered by very lightly trained staff".[142]

NICE also recommends offering CBT to all people with schizophrenia.[88]

See also

References

  1. ^ Schacter, D. L., Gilbert, D. T., & Wegner, D. M. (2010). Psychology. (2nd ed., p. 600). New York: Worth Pub.
  2. ^ Lambert MJ, Bergin AE, Garfield SL (2004). "Introduction and Historical Overview". In Lambert MJ (ed.). Bergin and Garfield's Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behavior Change (5th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 3–15. ISBN 0-471-37755-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Rachman, S (1997). "The evolution of cognitive behaviour therapy". In Clark, D, Fairburn, CG & Gelder, MG (ed.). Science and practice of cognitive behaviour therapy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–26. ISBN 0-19-262726-0.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  4. ^ a b c d Hassett, Afton L.; Gevirtz, Richard N. (2009). "Nonpharmacologic Treatment for Fibromyalgia: Patient Education, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, Relaxation Techniques, and Complementary and Alternative Medicine". Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America. 35 (2): 393–407. doi:10.1016/j.rdc.2009.05.003. PMC 2743408. PMID 19647150.
  5. ^ a b Hayes, Steven C.; Villatte, Matthieu; Levin, Michael; Hildebrandt, Mikaela (2011). "Open, Aware, and Active: Contextual Approaches as an Emerging Trend in the Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies". Annual Review of Clinical Psychology. 7: 141–68. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-032210-104449. PMID 21219193.
  6. ^ a b c d e f Gatchel, Robert J.; Rollings, Kathryn H. (2008). "Evidence-informed management of chronic low back pain with cognitive behavioral therapy". The Spine Journal. 8 (1): 40–4. doi:10.1016/j.spinee.2007.10.007. PMC 3237294. PMID 18164452.
  7. ^ Kozier B (2008). Fundamentals of nursing: concepts, process and practice. Pearson Education. p. 187. ISBN 978-0-13-197653-5.
  8. ^ Longmore, Richard J.; Worrell, Michael (2007). "Do we need to challenge thoughts in cognitive behavior therapy?". Clinical Psychology Review. 27 (2): 173–87. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.08.001. PMID 17157970.
  9. ^ E. B. Foa, Effective Treatments for PTSD: Practice Guidelines from the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Guilford, New York, NY, USA, 2nd edition, 2009.[page needed]
  10. ^ Graham, Michael C. (2014). Facts of Life: ten issues of contentment. Outskirts Press. ISBN 978-1-4787-2259-5.
  11. ^ Hofmann SG (2011). An Introduction to Modern CBT. Psychological Solutions to Mental Health Problems. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-470-97175-4.[page needed]
  12. ^ Hofmann, Stefan G.; Sawyer, Alice T.; Fang, Angela (2010). "The Empirical Status of the "New Wave" of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 701–10. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.006. PMC 2898899. PMID 20599141.
  13. ^ Foa, Edna B.; Rothbaum, Barbara O.; Furr, Jami M. (Jan 2003). "Augmenting exposure therapy with other CBT procedures". Psychiatric Annals. 33 (1): 47–53.
  14. ^ Jessamy, Hibberd; Jo, Usmar. This book will make you happy. Quercus. ISBN 9781848662810. Retrieved 15 July 2014.
  15. ^ Butler, A; Chapman, J; Forman, E; Beck, A (2006). "The empirical status of cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of meta-analyses". Clinical Psychology Review. 26 (1): 17–31. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.07.003. PMID 16199119.
  16. ^ a b Hoifodt, R. S.; Strøm, C.; Kolstrup, N.; Eisemann, M.; Waterloo, K. (2011). "Effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapy in primary health care: A review". Family Practice. 28 (5): 489–504. doi:10.1093/fampra/cmr017. PMID 21555339.
  17. ^ Knouse, Laura E.; Safren, Steven A. (2010). "Current Status of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 497–509. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.001. PMC 2909688. PMID 20599129.
  18. ^ Thomson, Alex; Page, Lisa (2007). Thomson, Alex (ed.). "Psychotherapies for hypochondriasis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD006520. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006520.pub2. PMID 17943915.
  19. ^ Thomas, Peter W; Thomas, Sarah; Hillier, Charles; Galvin, Kate; Baker, Roger (2006). Thomas, Peter W (ed.). "Psychological interventions for multiple sclerosis". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD004431. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004431.pub2. PMID 16437487.
  20. ^ Montgomery, Paul; Dennis, Jane A (2003). Montgomery, Paul (ed.). "Cognitive behavioural interventions for sleep problems in adults aged 60+". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2): CD003161. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003161. PMID 12076472.
  21. ^ Proctor, Michelle; Murphy, Patricia A; Pattison, Helen M; Suckling, Jane A; Farquhar, Cindy (2007). Proctor, Michelle (ed.). "Behavioural interventions for dysmenorrhoea". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3): CD002248. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002248.pub3. PMID 17636702.
  22. ^ a b Costa, Rafael Thomaz da; Rangé, Bernard Pimentel; Malagris, Lucia Emmanoel Novaes; Sardinha, Aline; De Carvalho, Marcele Regine de; Nardi, Antonio Egidio (2010). "Cognitive–behavioral therapy for bipolar disorder". Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. 10 (7): 1089–99. doi:10.1586/ern.10.75. PMID 20586690.
  23. ^ O'Brian, S.; Onslow, M. (2011). "Clinical management of stuttering in children and adults". BMJ. 342: d3742. doi:10.1136/bmj.d3742. PMID 21705407.
  24. ^ Iverach, L.; Menzies, R. G.; O'Brian, S.; Packman, A.; Onslow, M. (2011). "Anxiety and Stuttering: Continuing to Explore a Complex Relationship". American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology. 20 (3): 221–32. doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0091). PMID 21478283.
  25. ^ Menzies, Ross G.; Onslow, Mark; Packman, Ann; O'Brian, Sue (2009). "Cognitive behavior therapy for adults who stutter: A tutorial for speech-language pathologists". Journal of Fluency Disorders. 34 (3): 187–200. doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2009.09.002. PMID 19948272.
  26. ^ a b Martinez-Devesa, Pablo; Perera, Rafael; Theodoulou, Megan; Waddell, Angus (2010). Martinez-Devesa, Pablo (ed.). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for tinnitus". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (9): CD005233. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005233.pub3. PMID 20824844.
  27. ^ a b Turner, William; MacDonald, Geraldine; Dennis, Jane A (2007). Turner, William (ed.). "Behavioural and cognitive behavioural training interventions for assisting foster carers in the management of difficult behaviour". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (1): CD003760. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003760.pub3. PMID 17253496.
  28. ^ a b Smedslund, Geir; Dalsbø, Therese K; Steiro, Asbjørn; Winsvold, Aina; Clench-Aas, Jocelyne (2007). Smedslund, Geir (ed.). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for men who physically abuse their female partner". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3): CD006048. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006048.pub2. PMID 17636823.
  29. ^ Edwards, Adrian GK; Hulbert-Williams, Nicholas; Neal, Richard D (2008). Edwards, Adrian GK (ed.). "Psychological interventions for women with metastatic breast cancer". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (3): CD004253. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004253.pub3. PMID 18646104.
  30. ^ a b Otte, C (2011). "Cognitive behavioral therapy in anxiety disorders: Current state of the evidence". Dialogues in clinical neuroscience. 13 (4): 413–21. PMC 3263389. PMID 22275847.
  31. ^ a b c d Driessen, Ellen; Hollon, Steven D. (2010). "Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Mood Disorders: Efficacy, Moderators and Mediators". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 537–55. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.005. PMC 2933381. PMID 20599132.
  32. ^ a b Murphy, Rebecca; Straebler, Suzanne; Cooper, Zafra; Fairburn, Christopher G. (2010). "Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Eating Disorders". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 611–27. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.004. PMC 2928448. PMID 20599136.
  33. ^ a b Matusiewicz, Alexis K.; Hopwood, Christopher J.; Banducci, Annie N.; Lejuez, C.W. (2010). "The Effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Personality Disorders". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 657–85. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.007. PMC 3138327. PMID 20599139.
  34. ^ a b c Gutiérrez, M; Sánchez, M; Trujillo, A; Sánchez, L (2009). "Cognitive-behavioral therapy for chronic psychosis" (PDF). Actas espanolas de psiquiatria. 37 (2): 106–14. PMID 19401859.
  35. ^ a b c d Rathod, Shanaya; Phiri, Peter; Kingdon, David (2010). "Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Schizophrenia". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 527–36. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.009. PMID 20599131.
  36. ^ a b McHugh, R. Kathryn; Hearon, Bridget A.; Otto, Michael W. (2010). "Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Substance Use Disorders". Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 33 (3): 511–25. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.012. PMC 2897895. PMID 20599130.
  37. ^ a b Mehta, Swati; Orenczuk, Steven; Hansen, Kevin T.; Aubut, Jo-Anne L.; Hitzig, Sander L.; Legassic, Matthew; Teasell, Robert W.; Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Evidence Research Team (2011). "An evidence-based review of the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for psychosocial issues post-spinal cord injury". Rehabilitation Psychology. 56 (1): 15–25. doi:10.1037/a0022743. PMC 3206089. PMID 21401282.
  38. ^ Mitchell, Matthew D; Gehrman, Philip; Perlis, Michael; Umscheid, Craig A (2012). "Comparative effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia: A systematic review". BMC Family Practice. 13: 40. doi:10.1186/1471-2296-13-40. PMC 3481424. PMID 22631616.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  39. ^ Chambers, D.; Bagnall, A.-M.; Hempel, S.; Forbes, C. (2006). "Interventions for the treatment, management and rehabilitation of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis: An updated systematic review". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 99 (10): 506–20. doi:10.1258/jrsm.99.10.506. PMC 1592057. PMID 17021301.
  40. ^ a b Seligman, Laura D.; Ollendick, Thomas H. (2011). "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders in Youth". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 20 (2): 217–38. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.003. PMC 3091167. PMID 21440852.
  41. ^ a b Phillips, Katharine A.; Rogers, Jamison (2011). "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Youth with Body Dysmorphic Disorder: Current Status and Future Directions". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 20 (2): 287–304. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.004. PMC 3070293. PMID 21440856.
  42. ^ a b Spirito, Anthony; Esposito-Smythers, Christianne; Wolff, Jennifer; Uhl, Kristen (2011). "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adolescent Depression and Suicidality". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 20 (2): 191–204. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.012. PMC 3073681. PMID 21440850.
  43. ^ a b Wilfley, Denise E.; Kolko, Rachel P.; Kass, Andrea E. (2011). "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Weight Management and Eating Disorders in Children and Adolescents". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 20 (2): 271–85. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.002. PMC 3065663. PMID 21440855.
  44. ^ a b Boileau, B (2011). "A review of obsessive-compulsive disorder in children and adolescents". Dialogues in clinical neuroscience. 13 (4): 401–11. PMC 3263388. PMID 22275846.
  45. ^ a b Kowalik, Joanna; Weller, Jennifer; Venter, Jacob; Drachman, David (2011). "Cognitive behavioral therapy for the treatment of pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder: A review and meta-analysis". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 42 (3): 405–13. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2011.02.002. PMID 21458405.
  46. ^ a b Flessner, Christopher A. (2011). "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Childhood Repetitive Behavior Disorders: Tic Disorders and Trichotillomania". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 20 (2): 319–28. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.007. PMC 3074180. PMID 21440858.
  47. ^ Stanley, B., Brown, G., Brent, D.A., Wells, K., Poling, K., Curry, J., Kennard, B.D., Wagner, A., Cwik, M.F., Klomek, A.B., Goldstein, T., Vitiello, B., Barnett, S., Daniel, S., & Hughes, J. (2009). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Suicide Prevention (CBT-SP): Treatment model, feasibility, and acceptability. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry, 48 (10), 1005-1013.
  48. ^ Scheeringa, Michael S.; Weems, Carl F.; Cohen, Judith A.; Amaya-Jackson, Lisa; Guthrie, Donald (2011). "Trauma-focused cognitive-behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder in three-through six year-old children: A randomized clinical trial". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 52 (8): 853–60. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02354.x. PMC 3116969. PMID 21155776.
  49. ^ Reinicke, M., Dattillo, F., Freeman, A., (Eds.), 2003. Cognitive Therapy with Children and Adolescents, Second Edition: A Casebook for Clinical Practice. ISBN 978-1572308534
  50. ^ "Cognitive behavioural therapy for the management of common mental health problems" (PDF). National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. April 2008. Retrieved 2013-11-04.
  51. ^ Hoffman, Stefan G.; Smits, Jasper A. J. (2008). "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult Anxiety Disorders". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 69 (4): 621–32. doi:10.4088/JCP.v69n0415. PMC 2409267. PMID 18363421.
  52. ^ ""CBT lessons in school reduce anxiety in children"". University of Bath. 16 July 2014. Retrieved 18 July 2014.
  53. ^ "Definition of In Vivo Exposure". Ptsd.about.com. 2014-06-09. Retrieved 2014-08-14.
  54. ^ Mowrer OH (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York: Wiley. ISBN 0-88275-127-1.[page needed]
  55. ^ "APA Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders: Comprehensive Guidelines and Guideline Watches". 1. 2006. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890423363.50051. ISBN 0-89042-336-9. {{cite journal}}: |chapter= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)[page needed]
  56. ^ a b Neale JM, Davison GC (2001). Abnormal psychology (8th ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 247. ISBN 0-471-31811-6.
  57. ^ Wykes, T.; Steel, C.; Everitt, B.; Tarrier, N. (2007). "Cognitive Behavior Therapy for Schizophrenia: Effect Sizes, Clinical Models, and Methodological Rigor". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 34 (3): 523–37. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbm114. PMC 2632426. PMID 17962231.
  58. ^ Kingdon, David; Price, Jessica (April 17, 2009). "Cognitive-behavioral Therapy in Severe Mental Illness". Psychiatric Times. 26 (5).
  59. ^ Lynch, D.; Laws, K. R.; McKenna, P. J. (2009). "Cognitive behavioural therapy for major psychiatric disorder: Does it really work? A meta-analytical review of well-controlled trials". Psychological Medicine. 40 (1): 9–24. doi:10.1017/S003329170900590X. PMID 19476688.
  60. ^ Gloaguen, Valérie; Cottraux, Jean; Cucherat, Michel; Blackburn, IM (1998). "A meta-analysis of the effects of cognitive therapy in depressed patients". Journal of Affective Disorders. 49 (1): 59–72. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00199-7. PMID 9574861.
  61. ^ a b c Cox, W. T. L.; Abramson, L. Y.; Devine, P. G.; Hollon, S. D. (2012). "Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 7 (5): 427–49. doi:10.1177/1745691612455204.
  62. ^ Devine, Patricia G.; Forscher, Patrick S.; Austin, Anthony J.; Cox, William T.L. (2012). "Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 48 (6): 1267–1278. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003. PMC 3603687. PMID 23524616.
  63. ^ a b c d e Bienenfeld, David (2009). "Cognitive therapy with older adults". Psychiatric Annals. 39 (9): 828–32. doi:10.3928/00485713-20090821-02.
  64. ^ Cognitive behavioural therapy for the management of common mental health problems (PDF). National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. April 2008.[page needed]
  65. ^ Kessler, David; Lewis, Glyn; Kaur, Surinder; Wiles, Nicola; King, Michael; Weich, Scott; Sharp, Debbie J; Araya, Ricardo; Hollinghurst, Sandra; Peters, Tim J (2009). "Therapist-delivered internet psychotherapy for depression in primary care: A randomised controlled trial". The Lancet. 374 (9690): 628–34. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61257-5. PMID 19700005.
  66. ^ Hollinghurst, S.; Peters, T. J.; Kaur, S.; Wiles, N.; Lewis, G.; Kessler, D. (2010). "Cost-effectiveness of therapist-delivered online cognitive-behavioural therapy for depression: Randomised controlled trial". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 197 (4): 297–304. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.109.073080. PMID 20884953.
  67. ^ a b c d e f g h [unreliable medical source?] Martin, Ben. "In-Depth: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy". PsychCentral. Retrieved March 15, 2012.
  68. ^ Nordgren, L.B.; Hedman, E.; Etienne, J.; Bodin, J.; Kadowaki, A.; Eriksson, S.; Lindkvist, E.; Andersson, G.; Carlbring, P. (August 2014). "Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of individually tailored Internet-delivered cognitive behavior therapy for anxiety disorders in a primary care population: A randomized controlled trial". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 59: 1–11. Retrieved 18 August 2014.
  69. ^ a b "Depression and anxiety – computerised cognitive behavioural therapy (CCBT)". National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2012-01-12. Retrieved 2012-02-04.
  70. ^ Marks, Isaac M.; Mataix-Cols, David; Kenwright, Mark; Cameron, Rachel; Hirsch, Steven; Gega, Lina (2003). "Pragmatic evaluation of computer-aided self-help for anxiety and depression". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 183: 57–65. doi:10.1192/bjp.02-463. PMID 12835245. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |doi_brokendate= ignored (|doi-broken-date= suggested) (help)
  71. ^ a b P. Musiata1 c1 and N. Tarriera1. "Cambridge Journals Online - Psychological Medicine - Abstract - Collateral outcomes in e-mental health: a systematic review of the evidence for added benefits of computerized cognitive behavior therapy interventions for mental health". Journals.cambridge.org. Retrieved 2014-08-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  72. ^ MoodGYM was superior to informational websites in terms of psychological outcomes or service use
  73. ^ "A randomized controlled trial of the computerized CBT programme, MoodGYM, for public mental health service users waiting for interventions - Twomey - 2014 - British Journal of Clinical Psychology - Wiley Online Library". Onlinelibrary.wiley.com. doi:10.1111/bjc.12055. Retrieved 2014-08-14.
  74. ^ Spurgeon, Joyce A.; Wright, Jesse H. (2010). "Computer-Assisted Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy". Current Psychiatry Reports. 12 (6): 547–52. doi:10.1007/s11920-010-0152-4. PMID 20872100.
  75. ^ http://www.devonpartnership.nhs.uk/uploads/tx_mocarticles/CCBT_Leaflet.pdf[full citation needed]
  76. ^ "CG91 Depression with a chronic physical health problem". National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 28 October 2009.[page needed]
  77. ^ Helgadóttir, Fjóla Dögg; Menzies, Ross G; Onslow, Mark; Packman, Ann; O'Brian, Sue (2009). "Online CBT I: Bridging the Gap Between Eliza and Modern Online CBT Treatment Packages". Behaviour Change. 26 (4): 245–53. doi:10.1375/bech.26.4.245.
  78. ^ Helgadóttir, Fjóla Dögg; Menzies, Ross G; Onslow, Mark; Packman, Ann; O'Brian, Sue (2009). "Online CBT II: A Phase I Trial of a Standalone, Online CBT Treatment Program for Social Anxiety in Stuttering". Behaviour Change. 26 (4): 254–70. doi:10.1375/bech.26.4.254.
  79. ^ http://www.mindinbexley.org.uk/docs/E-self_help_guide.pdf[full citation needed]
  80. ^ Williams, Christopher; Wilson, Philip; Morrison, Jill; McMahon, Alex; Andrew, Walker; Allan, Lesley; McConnachie, Alex; McNeill, Yvonne; Tansey, Louise (2013). Andersson, Gerhard (ed.). "Guided Self-Help Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Depression in Primary Care: A Randomised Controlled Trial". PLoS ONE. 8 (1): e52735. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052735. PMC 3543408. PMID 23326352.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  81. ^ Williams, C. (2001). "Use of written cognitive-behavioural therapy self-help materials to treat depression". Advances in Psychiatric Treatment. 7 (3): 233–40. doi:10.1192/apt.7.3.233.
  82. ^ Haeffel, Gerald J. (2010). "When self-help is no help: Traditional cognitive skills training does not prevent depressive symptoms in people who ruminate". Behaviour Research and Therapy. 48 (2): 152–7. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.09.016. PMID 19875102.
  83. ^ Gellatly, Judith; Bower, Peter; Hennessy, SUE; Richards, David; Gilbody, Simon; Lovell, Karina (2007). "What makes self-help interventions effective in the management of depressive symptoms? Meta-analysis and meta-regression". Psychological Medicine. 37 (9): 1217–28. doi:10.1017/S0033291707000062. PMID 17306044.
  84. ^ Houghton, Simon; Saxon, Dave (2007). "An evaluation of large group CBT psycho-education for anxiety disorders delivered in routine practice". Patient Education and Counseling. 68 (1): 107–10. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2007.05.010. PMID 17582724.
  85. ^ a b c Rudd, M. David (2012). "Brief cognitive behavioral therapy (BCBT) for suicidality in military populations". Military Psychology. 24 (6): 592–603. doi:10.1080/08995605.2012.736325.
  86. ^ a b Robinson, Emma; Titov, Nickolai; Andrews, Gavin; McIntyre, Karen; Schwencke, Genevieve; Solley, Karen (2010). García, Antonio Verdejo (ed.). "Internet Treatment for Generalized Anxiety Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial Comparing Clinician vs. Technician Assistance". PLoS ONE. 5 (6): e10942. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010942. PMC 2880592. PMID 20532167.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  87. ^ a b Foroushani, Pooria; Schneider, Justine; Assareh, Neda (2011). "Meta-review of the effectiveness of computerised CBT in treating depression". BMC Psychiatry. 11: 131. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-11-131. PMC 3180363. PMID 21838902.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  88. ^ a b http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/live/11786/43610/43610.pdf[full citation needed]
  89. ^ a b INSERM Collective Expertise Centre (2000). "Psychotherapy: Three approaches evaluated". PMID 21348158. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  90. ^ Tolin, David F. (2010). "Is cognitive–behavioral therapy more effective than other therapies?A meta-analytic review". Clinical Psychology Review. 30 (6): 710–20. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.05.003. PMID 20547435.
  91. ^ Cuijpers, Pim; Van Straten, Annemieke; Andersson, Gerhard; Van Oppen, Patricia (2008). "Psychotherapy for depression in adults: A meta-analysis of comparative outcome studies". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 76 (6): 909–22. doi:10.1037/a0013075. PMID 19045960.
  92. ^ Shedler, Jonathan (2010). "The efficacy of psychodynamic psychotherapy". American Psychologist. 65 (2): 98–109. doi:10.1037/a0018378. PMID 20141265.
  93. ^ http://www.ehub.anu.edu.au/assist/about/research.php[full citation needed]
  94. ^ a b c Titov, Nickolai; Andrews, Gavin; Sachdev, Perminder (2010). "Computer-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy: Effective and getting ready for dissemination". F1000 Medicine Reports. 2: 49. doi:10.3410/M2-49. PMC 2950044. PMID 20948835.
  95. ^ Williams, Alishia D; Andrews, Gavin (2013). Andersson, Gerhard (ed.). "The Effectiveness of Internet Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (iCBT) for Depression in Primary Care: A Quality Assurance Study". PLoS ONE. 8 (2): e57447. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057447. PMC 3579844. PMID 23451231.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  96. ^ "CRE Publications | CRE". Comorbidity.edu.au. Retrieved 2014-08-14.
  97. ^ http://www.seattleimplementation.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/ccp-78-5-737.pdf
  98. ^ a b Espie, Colin A.; Kyle, Simon D.; Williams, Chris; Ong, Jason C.; Douglas, Neil J.; Hames, Peter; Brown, June S.L. (2012). "A Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Trial of Online Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Insomnia Disorder Delivered via an Automated Media-Rich Web Application". Sleep. 35 (6): 769–81. doi:10.5665/sleep.1872. PMC 3353040. PMID 22654196.
  99. ^ http://www.bohrf.org.uk/downloads/Computerised_CBT-Sep2012.pdf[full citation needed]
  100. ^ http://www.thementalelf.net/mental-health-conditions/anxiety-disorders/moodgym-no-better-than-informational-websites-according-to-new-workplace-rct/[full citation needed][self-published source?]
  101. ^ Spence, Susan H.; Donovan, Caroline L.; March, Sonja; Gamble, Amanda; Anderson, Renee E.; Prosser, Samantha; Kenardy, Justin (2011). "A randomized controlled trial of online versus clinic-based CBT for adolescent anxiety". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 79 (5): 629–42. doi:10.1037/a0024512. PMID 21744945.
  102. ^ "UKCP response to Andy Burnham's speech on mental health" (Press release). UK Council for Psychotherapy. 1 February 2012. Retrieved April 26, 2013.
  103. ^ Leahy, Robert L. (November 23, 2011). "Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Proven Effectiveness". Psychology Today.
  104. ^ Kirsch, Irving; Montgomery, Guy; Sapirstein, Guy (1995). "Hypnosis as an adjunct to cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy: A meta-analysis". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 63 (2): 214–20. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.63.2.214. PMID 7751482.
  105. ^ Alladin, Assen; Alibhai, Alisha (2007). "Cognitive Hypnotherapy for Depression:An Empirical Investigation". International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis. 55 (2): 147–66. doi:10.1080/00207140601177897. PMID 17365072.
  106. ^ Elkins, Gary; Johnson, Aimee; Fisher, William (2012). "Cognitive Hypnotherapy for Pain Management". American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. 54 (4): 294–310. doi:10.1080/00029157.2011.654284. PMID 22655332.
  107. ^ a b Berger, D. Psychiatric Times, July 30, 2013. http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/cognitive-behavioral-therapy/cognitive-behavioral-therapy-escape-binds-tight-methodology/page/0/1?cid=fb#sthash.ti9rtA48.dpuf
  108. ^ Lynch D, Laws KR, McKenna PJ (2010). "Cognitive behavioral therapy for major psychiatric disorder: does it really work? A meta-analytical review of well-controlled trials". Psychol Med. 40 (1): 9–24. doi:10.1017/S003329170900590X. PMID 19476688.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  109. ^ Lincoln, TM (2010). "Letter to the editor: A comment on Lynch et al. (2009)". Psychological Medicine. 40 (5): 877–80. doi:10.1017/S0033291709991838. PMID 19917145.
  110. ^ Kingdon, D (2010). "Over-simplification and exclusion of non-conforming studies can demonstrate absence of effect: A lynching party?". Psychological Medicine. 40 (1): 25–7. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990201. PMID 19570315.
  111. ^ Wood, AM; Joseph, S (2010). "Letter to the Editor: An agenda for the next decade of psychotherapy research and practice". Psychological Medicine. 40 (6): 1055–6. doi:10.1017/S0033291710000243. PMID 20158935.
  112. ^ Sathyanarayana R, Andrade C (2013). "Screening for disease, psychologic testing, and psychotherapy: Looking behind the mirror". Indian J Psychiatry. 55 (2): 103–105. doi:10.4103/0019-5545.111446. PMC 3696229. PMID 23825840.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  113. ^ Seligman, Martin E. P.; Schulman, Peter; Derubeis, Robert J.; Hollon, Steven D. (1999). "The prevention of depression and anxiety". Prevention & Treatment. 2 (1). doi:10.1037/1522-3736.2.1.28a.
  114. ^ Schmidt, Norman B.; Eggleston, A. Meade; Woolaway-Bickel, Kelly; Fitzpatrick, Kathleen Kara; Vasey, Michael W.; Richey, J. Anthony (2007). "Anxiety Sensitivity Amelioration Training (ASAT): A longitudinal primary prevention program targeting cognitive vulnerability". Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 21 (3): 302–19. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.06.002. PMID 16889931.
  115. ^ Higgins, Diana M.; Hacker, Jeffrey E. (2008). "A Randomized Trial of Brief Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Prevention of Generalized Anxiety Disorder". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 69 (8): 1336. doi:10.4088/JCP.v69n0819a. PMID 18816156.
  116. ^ Meulenbeek, P.; Willemse, G.; Smit, F.; Van Balkom, A.; Spinhoven, P.; Cuijpers, P. (2010). "Early intervention in panic: Pragmatic randomised controlled trial". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 196 (4): 326–31. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.109.072504. PMID 20357312.
  117. ^ Gardenswartz, Cara Ann; Craske, Michelle G. (2001). "Prevention of panic disorder". Behavior Therapy. 32 (4): 725–37. doi:10.1016/S0005-7894(01)80017-4.
  118. ^ Aune, Tore; Stiles, Tore C. (2009). "Universal-based prevention of syndromal and subsyndromal social anxiety: A randomized controlled study". Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. 77 (5): 867–79. doi:10.1037/a0015813. PMID 19803567.
  119. ^ van't Veer-Tazelaar, Petronella J.; Van Marwijk, HW; Van Oppen, P; Van Hout, HP; Van Der Horst, HE; Cuijpers, P; Smit, F; Beekman, AT (2009). "Stepped-Care Prevention of Anxiety and Depression in Late Life: A Randomized Controlled Trial". Archives of General Psychiatry. 66 (3): 297–304. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.555. PMID 19255379.
  120. ^ Stallard, P.; Sayal, K.; Phillips, R.; Taylor, J. A.; Spears, M.; Anderson, R.; Araya, R.; Lewis, G.; Millings, A.; Montgomery, A. A. (2012). "Classroom based cognitive behavioural therapy in reducing symptoms of depression in high risk adolescents: Pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial". BMJ. 345: e6058. doi:10.1136/bmj.e6058. PMC 3465253. PMID 23043090.
  121. ^ Clarke, G. N.; Hawkins, W.; Murphy, M.; Sheeber, L. (1993). "School-Based Primary Prevention of Depressive Symptomatology in Adolescents: Findings from Two Studies". Journal of Adolescent Research. 8 (2): 183. doi:10.1177/074355489382004.
  122. ^ Cuijpers, Pim; Muñoz, Ricardo F.; Clarke, Gregory N.; Lewinsohn, Peter M. (2009). "Psychoeducational treatment and prevention of depression: The 'coping with depression' course thirty years later". Clinical Psychology Review. 29 (5): 449–58. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.04.005. PMID 19450912.
  123. ^ Stafford, M. R.; Jackson, H.; Mayo-Wilson, E.; Morrison, A. P.; Kendall, T. (2013). "Early interventions to prevent psychosis: Systematic review and meta-analysis". BMJ. 346: f185. doi:10.1136/bmj.f185. PMC 3548617. PMID 23335473.
  124. ^ McGorry, Patrick D.; Nelson, Barnaby; Phillips, Lisa J.; Yuen, Hok Pan; Francey, Shona M.; Thampi, Annette; Berger, Gregor E.; Amminger, G. Paul; Simmons, Magenta B.; Kelly, Daniel; Dip, Andrew D.; Thompson, Alison R.; Yung, AR (2013). "Randomized Controlled Trial of Interventions for Young People at Ultra-High Risk of Psychosis". The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 74 (4): 349–56. doi:10.4088/JCP.12m07785. PMID 23218022.
  125. ^ Donald Robertson (2010). The Philosophy of Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: Stoicism as Rational and Cognitive Psychotherapy. London: Karnac. p. xix. ISBN 978-1-85575-756-1.
  126. ^ Beck AT, Rush AJ, Shaw BF, Emery G (1979). Cognitive Therapy of Depression. New York: Guilford Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-89862-000-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  127. ^ Jones, M. C. (1924). "The Elimination of Children's Fears". Journal of Experimental Psychology. 7 (5): 382. doi:10.1037/h0072283.
  128. ^ Murray, P (1996). "Recovery, Inc., as an adjunct to treatment in an era of managed care". Psychiatric services. 47 (12): 1378–81. PMID 9117478.
  129. ^ Kurtz, Linda, Farris (1997). "Chapter 2: Help Characteristics and Change Mechanisms in Self-Help and Support Groups: Change Mechanisms in Self-Help Groups". Self-help and support groups: a handbook for practitioners. SAGE. pp. 24–29. ISBN 0-8039-7099-4. OCLC 35558964.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  130. ^ Low, Abraham A. (1945). "The Combined System of Group Psychotherapy and Self-Help as Practiced by Recovery, Inc". Sociometry. 8 (3/4): 94–9. doi:10.2307/2785030. JSTOR 2785030.
  131. ^ Wechsler, Henry (1960). "The Self-Help Organization in the Mental Health Field". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 130 (4): 297–314. doi:10.1097/00005053-196004000-00004. PMID 13843358.
  132. ^ Wolpe J (1958). Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0509-7.[page needed]
  133. ^ Eysenck, H (1960). Behavior therapy and the neuroses. Pergamon, Oxford.[page needed]
  134. ^ Eysenck, H. J. (1952). "The effects of psychotherapy: An evaluation". Journal of Consulting Psychology. 16 (5): 319–24. doi:10.1037/h0063633. PMID 13000035.
  135. ^ Ayllon T, Azrin N (1968). The token economy. Wiley.[page needed]
  136. ^ Lovaas, OI (1961). "Interaction between verbal and nonverbal behavior". Child Development. 32: 329–36. doi:10.2307/1125947. PMID 13763751.
  137. ^ Ellis A (1975). A New Guide to Rational Living. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-370650-8.[page needed]
  138. ^ Beck, Aaron T., Prisoners of Hate: The Cognitive Basis of Anger, Hostility, and Violence, Harper Collins, 1999, Introduction.[page needed]
  139. ^ a b c Laurance J (December 16, 2008). "The big question: can cognitive behavioural gherapy help people with eating disorders?". The Independent. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
  140. ^ Leader D (September 8, 2008). "A quick fix for the soul". The Guardian. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
  141. ^ "CBT superiority questioned at conference". University of East Anglia. July 7, 2008. Retrieved April 22, 2012.
  142. ^ a b "UKCP response to Andy Burnham's speech on mental health" (Press release). UK Council for Psychotherapy. February 1, 2012. Retrieved April 22, 2012.

Further reading

  • Aaron T. Beck (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. Plume. ISBN 978-0-45200-928-8
  • Butler G, Fennell M, and Hackmann A. (2008). Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety Disorders. New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-869-1
  • Dattilio FM, Freeman A. (Eds.) (2007). Cognitive-Behavioral Strategies in Crisis Intervention (3rd ed.). New York: The Guilford Press. ISBN 978-1-60623-648-2
  • Hofmann, SG. (2011). An Introduction to Modern CBT. Psychological Solutions to Mental Health Problems. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-470-97175-4.
  • Willson R, Branch R. (2006). Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Dummies. ISBN 978-0-470-01838-5
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_behavioral_therapy&oldid=621795581"