List of life sciences: Difference between revisions
→Biology: copy content from main article |
→Biomaterials: copy content from main article |
||
Line 64: | Line 64: | ||
===Biomaterials=== |
===Biomaterials=== |
||
{{main|Biomaterials}} |
{{main|Biomaterials}} |
||
A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of [[medicine]], [[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[tissue engineering]] and [[materials science]]. |
|||
===Biomechanics=== |
===Biomechanics=== |
||
{{main|Biomechanics}} |
{{main|Biomechanics}} |
Revision as of 09:28, 4 February 2014
This is Wikipedia's current article for improvement – and you can help edit it! You can discuss how to improve it on its talk page and ask questions at the help desk or Teahouse. See the cheatsheet, tutorial, editing help and FAQ for additional information. Editors are encouraged to create a Wikipedia account and place this article on their watchlist. |
This article is missing information about Error: you must specify what information is missing..(February 2014) |
Part of a series on |
Science |
---|
This is a subseries on philosophy. In order to explore related topics, please visit navigation. |
The life sciences comprise the fields of science that involve the scientific study of living organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, animals, and human beings – as well as related considerations like bioethics. While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields.[1]
Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, zoology is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological advances involving living things, such as bio-engineering. Another major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves understanding the mind – neuroscience.
The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life. They have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the pharmaceutical and food science industries.
The following is an incomplete list of as well as topics of study in the life sciences, in which there is considerable overlap between many entries:
Topics of study
Affective neuroscience
Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of emotion. This interdisciplinary field combines neuroscience with the psychological study of personality, emotion, and mood.[2]
Anatomy
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/MRI_brain_sagittal_section.jpg/170px-MRI_brain_sagittal_section.jpg)
Anatomy is the study of the body plan of animals. In some of its facets, anatomy is closely related to embryology, comparative anatomy and comparative embryology,[3] through common roots in evolution. Human anatomy is important in medicine.
The discipline of anatomy is subdivided into gross (or macroscopic) anatomy and microscopic anatomy. Gross anatomy is the study of structures that can, when suitably presented or dissected, be seen by unaided vision with the naked eye. Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including histology (the study of tissues) and cytology (the study of cells).
The history of anatomy is characterized by a continual development in understanding of the functions of the organs and structures of the human body. Methods have also improved dramatically, advancing from examination of animals through dissection of cadavers (dead human bodies) to 20th century techniques including X-ray, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging.
Astrobiology
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Telescope_Kepler-NASA.jpeg/170px-Telescope_Kepler-NASA.jpeg)
Astrobiology is the study of the origin, evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe: extraterrestrial life and life on Earth. This interdisciplinary field encompasses the search for habitable environments in our Solar System and habitable planets outside our Solar System, the search for evidence of prebiotic chemistry, laboratory and field research into the origins and early evolution of life on Earth, and studies of the potential for life to adapt to challenges on Earth and in outer space.[4] Astrobiology addresses the question of whether life exists beyond Earth, and how humans can detect it if it does.[5] (The term exobiology is similar but more specific — it covers the search for life beyond Earth, and the effects of extraterrestrial environments on living things.)[6]
Astrobiology makes use of physics, chemistry, astronomy, biology, molecular biology, ecology, planetary science, geography, and geology to investigate the possibility of life on other worlds and help recognize biospheres that might be different from the biosphere on Earth.[7][8] Astrobiology concerns itself with interpretation of existing scientific data; given more detailed and reliable data from other parts of the universe, the roots of astrobiology itself—physics, chemistry and biology—may have their theoretical bases challenged. Although speculation is entertained to give context, astrobiology concerns itself primarily with hypotheses that fit firmly into existing scientific theories.
Biochemistry
![](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/1GZX_Haemoglobin.png/170px-1GZX_Haemoglobin.png)
Biochemistry, sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to, living organisms.[9] By controlling information flow through biochemical signaling and the flow of chemical energy through metabolism, biochemical processes give rise to the complexity of life. Over the last 40 years, biochemistry has become so successful at explaining living processes that now almost all areas of the life sciences from botany to medicine are engaged in biochemical research.[10] Today, the main focus of pure biochemistry is in understanding how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of whole organisms.
Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms by which genetic information encoded in DNA is able to result in the processes of life. Depending on the exact definition of the terms used, molecular biology can be thought of as a branch of biochemistry, or biochemistry as a tool with which to investigate and study molecular biology.
Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry of the cell also depends on the reactions of smaller molecules and ions. These can be inorganic, for example water and metal ions, or organic, for example the amino acids which are used to synthesize proteins. The mechanisms by which cells harness energy from their environment via chemical reactions are known as metabolism. The findings of biochemistry are applied primarily in medicine, nutrition, and agriculture. In medicine, biochemists investigate the causes and cures of disease. In nutrition, they study how to maintain health and study the effects of nutritional deficiencies. In agriculture, biochemists investigate soil and fertilizers, and try to discover ways to improve crop cultivation, crop storage and pest control.
Biocomputers
Biocomputers use systems of biologically derived molecules, such as DNA and proteins, to perform computational calculations involving storing, retrieving, and processing data. The development of biocomputers has been made possible by the expanding new science of nanobiotechnology.
Biocontrol
Biological control is a bioeffector-method of controlling pests (including insects, mites, weeds and plant diseases) using other living organisms.[11]
Biodynamics
Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming originally developed by Rudolf Steiner that employs what proponents describe as "a holistic understanding of agricultural processes".[12]: 145 One of the first sustainable agriculture movements,[13][14][15]
Bioinformatics
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary scientific field that develops methods for storing, retrieving, organizing and analyzing biological data. A major activity in bioinformatics is to develop software tools to generate useful biological knowledge.
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.[16] Modern biology is a vast and eclectic field, composed of many branches and subdisciplines. However, despite the broad scope of biology, there are certain general and unifying concepts within it that govern all study and research, consolidating it into single, coherent field. In general, biology recognizes the cell as the basic unit of life, genes as the basic unit of heredity, and evolution as the engine that propels the synthesis and creation of new species. It is also understood today that all organisms survive by consuming and transforming energy and by regulating their internal environment to maintain a stable and vital condition.
Subdisciplines of biology are defined by the scale at which organisms are studied, the kinds of organisms studied, and the methods used to study them: Biochemistry examines the rudimentary chemistry of life; molecular biology studies the complex interactions among biological molecules; botany studies the biology of plants; cellular biology examines the basic building-block of all life, the cell; physiology examines the physical and chemical functions of tissues, organs, and organ systems of an organism; evolutionary biology examines the processes that produced the diversity of life; and ecology examines how organisms interact in their environment.[17]
Biomaterials
A biomaterial is any matter, surface, or construct that interacts with biological systems. As a science, biomaterials is about fifty years old. The study of biomaterials is called biomaterials science. It has experienced steady and strong growth over its history, with many companies investing large amounts of money into the development of new products. Biomaterials science encompasses elements of medicine, biology, chemistry, tissue engineering and materials science.
Biomechanics
Biomedical science
Biomedicine
Biomonitoring
Biophysics
Biopolymers
Biotechnology
Botany
Cell biology
Cognitive neuroscience
Computational neuroscience
Conservation biology
Developmental biology
Ecology
Environmental science
Ethology
Evolutionary biology
Evolutionary genetics
Food science
Genetics
Genomics
Health sciences
Immunogenetics
Immunology
Immunotherapy
Kinesiology
Marine biology
Medical devices
Medical imaging
Medical Sciences
Medical Social Work
Microbiology
Molecular biology
Neuroethology
Neuroscience
Oncology
Optogenetics
Optometry
Parasitology
Pathology
Pharmacogenomics
Pharmaceutical sciences
Pharmacology
Physiology
Population dynamics
Proteomics
Psychiatric Social Work
Psychology
Sports science
Structural biology
Systems biology
Systems biology is a biology-based inter-disciplinary field of study that focuses on complex interactions within biological systems, using a more holistic perspective (holism instead of the more traditional reductionism) approach to biological and biomedical research. Particularly from year 2000 onwards, the concept has been used widely in the biosciences in a variety of contexts. One of the outreaching aims of systems biology is to model and discover emergent properties, properties of cells, tissues and organisms functioning as a system whose theoretical description is only possible using techniques which fall under the remit of systems biology. These typically involve metabolic networks or cell signaling networks.[18]
Zoology
Zoology is the branch of biology that relates to the animal kingdom, including the structure, embryology, evolution, classification, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinct.
Although the study of animal life is ancient, its scientific incarnation is relatively modern. This mirrors the transition from natural history to biology at the start of the nineteenth century.
Zoology has expanded to include various sub-disciplines:
- Zoography, also known as descriptive zoology, describes animals and their habitats
- Comparative anatomy studies the structure of animals.
- Animal physiology
- Behavioral ecology
- Ethology studies animal behavior.
- Invertebrate Zoology.
- Vertebrate Zoology.
- Comparative Zoology.
- The various taxonomically oriented disciplines such as mammalogy, herpetology, ornithology and entomology identify and classify species and study the structures and mechanisms specific to those groups.
Scientific societies
- Federation of European Biochemical Societies (FEBS)
- European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO)
- International Union of Biological Sciences (IUBS)
- Life Sciences Switzerland
See also
References
- ^ "Life Sciences". Empire State Development Corporation. Government of New York. Retrieved 3 February 2014.
- ^ Panksepp J (1992). "A role for "affective neuroscience" in understanding stress: the case of separation distress circuitry". In Puglisi-Allegra S, Oliverio A (ed.). Psychobiology of Stress. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic. pp. 41–58. ISBN 0-7923-0682-1.
- ^ "Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918". Archived from the original on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March 2007.
- ^ "How the search for aliens can help sustain life on Earth". CNN News. 4 October 2012. Retrieved 2012-10-08.
{{cite news}}
:|first=
missing|last=
(help); Check|first=
value (help) - ^ "About Astrobiology". NASA Astrobiology Institute. NASA. 21 January 2008. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008. Retrieved 2008-10-20.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|deadurl=
ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - ^ Mirriam Webster Dictionary entry "Exobiology" (accessed 11 April 2013)
- ^ iTWire - Scientists will look for alien life, but Where and How?
- ^ Ward, P. D. (2004). The life and death of planet Earth. New York: Owl Books. ISBN 0-8050-7512-7.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|coauthors=
ignored (|author=
suggested) (help) - ^ http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1188&content_id=CTP_003379&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=aa3f2aa3-8047-4fa2-88b8-32ffcad3a93e
- ^ "scientific term 'biochemistry'".
- ^ Clark, Jack K., ed. (1998). Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520218017.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|authors=
ignored (help) - ^ Florian Leiber, Nikolai Fuchs and Hartmut Spieß, "Biodynamic agriculture today", in Paul Kristiansen, Acram Taji, and John Reganold (2006), Organic Agriculture: A global perspective, Collingwood, AU: CSIRO Publishing
- ^ Paull, John (2011). "Attending the First Organic Agriculture Course: Rudolf Steiner's Agriculture Course at Koberwitz, 1924" (PDF). European Journal of Social Sciences'. 21 (1): 64–70.
- ^ Lotter, D.W. 2003."Organic agriculture" J. Sustainable Agriculture 21(4)
- ^ Richard Harwood, former C.S. Mott Chair for Sustainable Agriculture at Michigan State University, calls the biodynamic movement the "first organized and well-defined movement of growers and philosophies [in sustainable agriculture] (Harwood 1990; p.6).
- ^ Based on definition from: "Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms". Texas State University at San Marcos. Archived from the original on 2004-06-08.
- ^ "Life Science, Weber State Museum of Natural Science". Community.weber.edu. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
- ^ Bu Z, Callaway DJ (2011). "Proteins MOVE! Protein dynamics and long-range allostery in cell signaling". Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology. Advances in Protein Chemistry and Structural Biology. 83: 163–221. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-381262-9.00005-7. ISBN 978-0-123-81262-9. PMID 21570668.
Further reading
- Magner, Lois N. (2002). A history of the life sciences (3rd ed., rev. and expanded. ed.). New York: M. Dekker. ISBN 0824708245.